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Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278-

2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 1, February 2013.

INDEX

Sl. No. Paper Title Author Page No.

1. IMPACT OF INTERNET TECHNOLOGY

ON CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING OF

PROFESSIONAL STUDENTS

Salma Naseem & Dr.

Beermati Singh

2-11

2. PROFILE OF PROSPECTIVE TEACHER

EDUCATORS ON SELECTED

PARAMETERS

Prof. Chhaya Goel &

Prof. D.R. Goel

12-22

3. ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS

AMONG STUDENTS OF SENIOR

SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Dr. Sunita Singh & Dr.

V.K. Singh

23-33

4. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: AN

OVERVIEW

Dr. Vijay Jaiswal 34-71

5. MATHEMATICS “CONTENT

KNOWLEDGE” AND “PEDAGOGICAL

CONTENT KNOWLEDGE”

Dr. Ritu Bala 72-79

6. DEVELOPMENT-INDUCED

DISPLACEMENT, DEPRIVATION AND

PEOPLE’S MOVEMENT IN ASSAM

Pallavi Hazarika 80-86

7. ROLE OF TEACHER EDUCATORS/ K-12

EDUCATORS: PREPARATION &

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Sarmila Banerjee 87-97

8. CONSTRUCTIVISM IN SCHOOLS:

IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHER

EDUCATION PROGRAMMES

Ms Sonal Chabra, Ms

Chetna & Dr. Manorama

Mathur

98-110

9. MOVEMENT FOR GLOBALIZING NEXT

GENERATION EDUCATION @ ICT

Dr. Asheesh Srivastava 111-117

10. A CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING OF

CONSTRUCTIVIST PEDAGOGY

Dr. Deepa Mehta 118-128



IMPACT OF INTERNET TECHNOLOGY ON CREATIVE PROBLEM

SOLVING OF PROFESSIONAL STUDENTS

Salma Naseem1

Beermati Singh2

Abstract

Creative Problem Solving is a method of finding innovative approaches for resolution of a

problem. Instead of just relying on traditional ideas to resolve a problem, the creative

approach encourages people to participate in a dynamic setting, which encourages new ideas

and new approaches. New and creative ideas improve the organizational success and provide

an edge over the competitive world, Not all the persons possess creative ability to equal

degree. Personality, intelligence, motivation and cognitive style positively affect creative

problem solving. Since problem solving requires huge fund of information, internet use may

also be one of the factors of creative problem solving. The present study explores the role of

internet use in creative problem solving of professional students. Four hundred students of

six management and four engineering colleges constitute the sample of the study. Data were

collected through systematic random sampling technique. Tools, Sarjanatmak Samadhan

Yogyta and Internet Use Questionnaire, developed by the investigator, were used for data

collection. Results revealed significant differences in Creative Problem Solving of more and

less internet user professional students, of more and less internet user professional boys as

well as more and less internet user girls. More opportunity of internet use to practice,

explore and seek new information for developing better creative problem solving ability is

suggested.

Key Words: Creative Problem Solving, Internet Use, Professional students

1 Dr. Salma Naseem, Lecturer,Karamat Hussain Muslim Girls PG College, Lucknow

2 Dr. Beermati Singh, Director Amity Institute of Education, Amity University Uttar Pradesh

, Lucknow Campus, Gomti Nagar Extension Lucknow



Creative problem solving is a powerful tool to help individuals, groups and

organizations to manage change. It provides a broad framework and tools for identifying

and defining problems and opportunities, generating high quality solutions resulting into

effective implementation. Creative problem solving (CPS) helps in changing the system

and the demand for novelty. It is powerful and flexible process for transforming ideas into

action.

Since creative problem solving is based on natural creative processes it can be easily

learned and quickly applied. It can be used directly in the classrooms where special units and

courses related to creative problem solving are directly taught to students and learning

objectives attained. It can be used indirectly where students encounter practical problems and

challenges and they are encouraged to generate ideas and find solutions. It can also be used

for professional development of employees where through brain storming new ideas are

generated. Through CPS solutions for institutions, region or state can be found. It is useful to

manage variety of organizational changes such as building continuous improvement

programmes developing a new shared vision and helping the implementation of quality

programmes.

Seeing its utility in institutions and organizations researchers have taken keen

interest in exploring the factors that affect creative problem solving . Efforts have also been

made in knowing the ways through which it can be developed. Intelligence, motivation,

personality, cognitive style, positive affect (Isen, Daubman and Nowicki, 1987) are closely

associated to creative problem solving. Belief and confidence in intelligence (Cho &Lin

,2010) also affect it positively. Since understanding and seeing its various links to different

solutions need huge find of information, it is quite possible that technology, especially

internet which provides lot of a information in shortest span of time ,may be an important

source of generating solutions to the problem being undertaken. Present study seeks to

explore the role of internet technology in creative problem solving of professional students.

Statement of the Problem :

The problem of the study has been specifically stated as under:

“Impact of Internet Technology on Creative Problem Solving of Students of

Professional Students .”



Definition of the terms :

Internet Technology :

Internet Technology refers to that worldwide computer communication which is used by

students for educational purposes.

Creative Problem Solving :

Creative Problem Solving refers to that mental process which is related to creation of original

solution of a problem. It functions through various stages like mess finding, data finding,

problem finding, idea finding, solution finding and acceptance finding.

Professinal Students:

Professional students refer to the undergraduate and post graduate students of Engineering

and Management of various institutions of Lucknow city.

Objectives :

1. To find out the difference in creative problem solving of engineering and management

students

2. To study the difference in creative problem solving of high and low internet user

professional students.

3. To find out the difference in creative problem solving of high and low internet user

male students.

4. To find out the difference in creative problem solving of high & low internet user

female students.

Hypotheses :

1. There will be significant difference in creative problem solving of professional

students of Engineering and Management streams

2. There will be significant difference in creative problem solving of high and low

internet user professional students.


internet user professional male students.




internet user professional female students.

Methodology

The design of the study is ex post facto, where the impact of internet technology on

creative problem solving has been studied. Independent variables of the study are1. Internet

use 2.gender and 3. academic stream. Dependent variable is creative problem solving.

Four hundred students of six management institutes and four engineering colleges

constitute the sample for the study. Sample has been selected through systematic random

sampling technique. Two tools ,namely Sarjanatmak Samasya Samaadhan Mapni, and

Internet use Questionnaire , developed by the researchers have been used for data collection.

Validity of the Creative Problem Solving scale is very high. All the items which have been

found significant at .01 level during item total and item dimension correlation have been

retained. Reliability by Rulan Flanagan was .89, which was very high. Similarly, items of

Internet Use Questionnaire were found highly reliable at .01 level in item total and item

dimension correlation. Rulan Flanagan revealed coefficient 0.95, which was very high. Data

were organized variable were and t-less was applied to test the significance of the difference

between means .

Results:

Table 1

Significance of difference in the internet use of Engineering and Management students

S.

No.

Groups N Mean SD t Significance

1 Management

Students

200 129.06 19.87

0.21

P>0.05

2. Engineering

Students

200 129.45 17.51

Table 2



Significance of difference in creative problem solving of High and Low Internet user

Professional students

S.

No.

Group N Mean SD t Significance

1 High Internet

user students

195 132.93 19.27

3.86

P<0.05

2. Low internet

user students

205 125.78 17.62

Table 3

Significance of difference in creative problem solving in creative problem solving of high

and low internet user professional male students

S.

No.

Group N Mean SD t Significance

1 High Internet

user male

138 130.75 19.54

2.43

P<0.05

2. Low internet

user male

142 125.25 18.16

Table 4

Significance of difference in creative problem solving of high and low internet user

professional female students

S. Group N Mean SD t Significance



No.

1 High Internet

user female

57 138.12 17.50

3.59

P<0.05

2. Low internet

user male

63 126.97 16.41

Table 1 reveals the significance difference is creative problem solving of engineering and

management students. It can be seen from the table that mean creative problem solving scores

of both the groups are 129.06 and 129.45 and SD for both the groups are 19.87 and 17.51

respectively .The ‘t’ value for significance of difference of both the groups is 0.21, which is

not significant at 0.05 level. The null hypothesis stating there is no significant difference in

creative problem solving of professional students of engineering and management students

is retained and it can be said that engineering and management students do not differ in their

creative problem solving ability.

It can be seen from Table 2 that mean and S D of high and low internet user

professional students are 132.93 and 125.78 and 19.27 and 17.62 respectively. The obtained

‘t’ value for the significance of the difference between two groups is 3.86 which is significant

at .05 level. Hence, the null hypotheses stating that there is no significant difference in the

creative problem solving of high and low internet user professional students is rejected and it

can be said that there exists a significant difference in creative problem solving of both the

groups.

Table 3 reveals the significant difference in creative problem solving of high and low

internet user male students. The mean of high and low internet user male students are 130.75,

125.25 and S D are 19.54, 18.16 respectively. The ‘t’ value for the significant of the

difference between two means is 2.43, which is significant at .05 level. The null hypothesis

stating that there is no significant difference in creative problem solving of high and low

internet user boys is ,therefore, rejected and it can be said that creative problem solving

ability of high and low internet user professional boys is significantly different.



Mean difference in creative problem solving of high and low internet user

professional female students have been presented in table 4. It can be seen from the table that

the mean and S D of high and low internet user girls are 138.12, 126.97 and 17.50 and 16.41

respectively. The ‘t’ value for the significance of the difference between two means is 3.59

which is significant at .05 levels. The null hypothesis stating there is no significant difference

in creative problem solving of high and low internet user professional girls is rejected and it

can be said that high and low internet user professional girls differ significantly or their

creative problem solving ability. .

Discussion :

Table 1 reveals similar level of creative problem solving of engineering and management

students. Perhaps, students of both the streams have same level of general information,

intelligence and maturity, which might have helped them in creative problem

solving.Intelligence,cognitive ability and creative thinking and problem solving ability are

positively related.(Ajwani,1979,Verma,1986,Dutt,1989, and Kumari,1991)Perhaps, similar

intellectual level and cognitive ability of stuents have resulted in similar level of creative

problem solving.Further ,as students of both the streams enter these programmes through

extensive preparation, they acquire similar kind of general information and may have been

similarly cognitive equipped through which they have tried to get the solution in a novel

manner. Despite disciplinary diversity they may not have gathered any specific information

in the different academic streams which may not have helped them solving problem in a

different manner.

Similar environment and instructional strategies of the institute may have been

another reason, where students may have been involved in similar kind of academic and co-

curricular activities. They may have participated in more interactive techniques or training as

brainstorming ,group discussion and shared decision making which might have affected their

creative problem solving ability.

Results of Table 2 have indicated that high internet users are significantly different

from their low internet user counter parts, As mentioned earlier data finding is one of the

major steps of creative problem solving. The students who use internet acquire more

information. This accumulated knowledge may have helped them in finding novel solution to

the encountered problem. Moreover , high internet use may have helped them in global



interaction, which might have also helped them securing vast information from various

sources and helped them in generating novel solution to the encountered problem.

Table 3 revealed that high internet user professional boys are different in creative

problem solving than low internet user boys, where high internet user boys are better in their

creative problem solving ability as competed to their low internet user counterparts. The

reason for the significant difference may be the same,i.e. accumulation of knowledge and

information gathered while surfing internet .If used judiciously internet usage provides lot of

information at a click, which forms the basis of emergence of creative solution to the

problems .Professional boys devote lot of time in using internet for their assignments,

projects and other academic tasks. During their search they get lot of general information as

well. Since all the students do not have equal aptitude and opportunity , all may not have

accumulated similar level of information. As a result, those of higher usage are better in

gathering information and gelling novel solution to their problems. Cheung (2008) has

reported positive correlation between knowledge and creativity. Like boys professional girls,

who are high internet user, are better in creative problem solving ability. It is evident that

internet use does play significant role in helping individuals to find a creative solution to a

problem. This is true for all irrespective of gender. Since nature and demand of courses of the

boys and girls is the same, both of them need internet similarly to enrich and update their

course material. Like boys girls also, who have better internet facilities at home or in the

hostels make comparatively more extensive use, are more equipped with the wide range of

information. Consequently, they become superior in creative problem solving ability as

compared to their less user counterparts.

Conclusions :

1. There is no difference in creative problem solving of engineering and management

students. Students of both the streams have been found similar in their creative

problem solving ability. Academic stream does not play any role in determining

creative problem solving ability of professional students.

2. There is significant difference in creative problem solving of high and low internet

user professional students. Students, who use internet more are better in creative

problem solving than those making less use.



3. High and low internet professional boys differ significantly in their creative problem

solving ability. Those making more use are better in ceative problem solving than

their less internet user counter parts.

4. High and low internet user girls also differ significantly in creative problem solving

ability. Girls who devote more time in using internet are better in creative problem

solving than those making less internet use.

Implications & Suggestions :

Since creative problem solving of professional students of engineering and

management streams has been found similar, this indicates that there are equal

opportunities of internet use and equal encouragement for new and bold solutions to

the challenges and problems encountered by students in their academic tasks. It is

suggested, therefore, that the institutes should continue encouraging students and

giving them freedom to work independently and welcome innovative thoughts and

ideas.

Results revealed that high internet professional students are better in creative problem

solving as compared to their less user counterparts. It is, therefore, recommended that

the students who lack internet facilities at home should be provided in the school.

Faculty should motivate such students to make maximum internet use for their

projects and assignments, in addition to the text and references books consulted by

them. This will help them securing boundless information, which well form the basis

of creative ideas. Moreover, adequate number of computer should be available in the

labs and each student should be provided with the laptops, if not provided in some

institutions so far. Wi-Fi facility is essential for easy access of internet, the speed and

regularity of that should be ensured. Less user students should be identified, and they

should be given extra time in net labs in addition to their class schedule.

Similar results have been found with high and low internet user boys and high and

low internet user girls. Present findings have special implications for girls, where less

internet user girls are not as good in creative problem solving as high user girls. Again

there is heed to identify such girls and know the reason of their low usage.

Restrictions of availing internet facilities outside home resulting in less usage may



be compensated by giving them additional time in the net labs. There they can

practice, explore, seek new information and can become more aware and recipient of

huge information, which will help them in becoming at per with those counterparts

who are extensively using internet.

References :

Ajwani, J.K. (1979) Problem solving behavior in relation to personality, intelligence

and age. In M.B. Buch (Ed.) 1986 Third Survey of Research in Education, New Delhi

: NCERT, 320-321

Cheung, P.K. (2008). Can creativity be learned : A knowledge management approach

to creativity support. Dissertation Abstract International, 68 (7), 3018 A .

Cho,S. Lin, C. (2010). Influence of family processes, motivation and beliefs about

intelligence on creative problem scientifically talented individuals. Roeper Review

33(1).

Dutt, Sunil (1989) The effect of problem-solving ability in science of high school

students In relation to anxiety level cognitive style and intelligence. In J.P. Snarma

(Ed.) 2000 Fifth Survey of Educational Research, 2, New Delhi: NCERT, 143.

Isen, A.M., Daubman K.A. Nowicki, GP, (1987) Positive affect facilitates creative

problem solving. Journal of Personality and Psychology 52 (6) 1122-31

Kumari V.M.P. (1991). Problem solving strategies and cognitive capabilities of

children of age group 10-12. In J.P. Sharma (Ed.) (2000). Fifth Survey of Educational

Research 2 New Delhi : NCERT, 992

Verma, S. (1986). Problem solving as related to intelligence and personality in

socially deprived and non-deprived children. In M.B. Buch (Ed.). (1991). Fourth

Survey of Research in Education, New Delhi : NCERT 213-214

**************************************************************************



PROFILE OF PROSPECTIVE TEACHER EDUCATORS ON SELECTED

PARAMETERS

Chhaya Goel3

D.R. Goel4

Teaching Aptitude (TA) is the potentiality in the areas of teaching interest, teaching

value, teaching attitude, teaching skill, generating, accessing, acquiring, analyzing, applying,

disseminating information, social sensitivity & sensibility, management ability and teaching

behavioural patterns. It is an innate capability-aptness, bent, faculty, flair, genius, gift,

instinct, knack, talent & inclination for teaching.

Emotional Quotient (EQ) describes an ability, capacity, or skill to perceive, assess, and

manage the emotions of one's self, of others, and of groups. It is a relatively new area of

psychological research. It is the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and

emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's thinking and

actions.

Environmental Awareness (EA) is the sensitivity towards environment, understanding of the

environment and capability to sustain & better the environment. With the advent of 21st

Century, the environmental degeneration and decay are evident through endangered species,

air, water & soil pollution, non-bio-degradable massive waste, global warming, de-

forestation, green-washing, Employment of BT Technology, changes in architectural styles of

buildings, contamination due to micro-waves and industrial effluents.

Research Aptitude (RA) is the curiosity, unending quest to explore, to know, to establish

cause & effect relationship to reach the truth, to revisit the already established theories. The

search is not only to find, uncover and discover, but, also to construct & control.

The present study attempts to study the Teaching Aptitude, Emotional Quotient,

Environmental Awareness & Research Aptitude of the prospective Teacher Educators,

particularly, M.Ed. Scholars and explore the correlation amongst these factors.

Objectives of the Study:

3 Professor, CASE, The M S University of Baroda, Vadodara-390002

4 Professor, CASE, The M S University of Baroda, Vadodara- 390002



1. To study the profile of M.Ed. Scholars on Teaching Aptitude, Emotional Quotient,

Environmental Awareness and Research Aptitude.

2. To study the correlation between Teaching Aptitude, Emotional Quotient,

Environmental Awareness and Research Aptitude.

Nature of the Study:

It is a descriptive study attempting to study the profile of prospective Teacher Educators.

Sample for the Study:

Sample for the study is constituted of all the M.Ed. (2012-2013) Scholars of the Department

of Education, Faculty of Education and Psychology, The M.S. University of Baroda,

Vadodara.

Tools for the Study:

The following tools were employed for the Study:

1. Teaching Aptitude Test (Mishra Renu, DAVV,1993)

2. Emotional Quotient Scale (Rambir, KUK, 2007)

3. Environmental Awareness Test (Self Constructed)

4. Research Aptitude Test (Self Constructed)

Data Analysis:

The data were analyzed through Mean, Median, Mode, SD, Maximum Score, Minimum

Score and Correlation. The data analysis is presented as follows:

A. Status on Teaching Aptitude:



The Mean, Median and Mode were found to be 42.42, 43, and 43, respectively out of the

maximum score of 50. The SD was 3.455. The maximum and minimum scores obtained by

the students were 48 & 30.

B. Status on Emotional Quotient

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33

Sco

res

Students

Teaching Aptitude

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33

Sco

res

Students

Emotional Quotient



The Mean, Median and Mode were found to be 163.9, 164,164 respectively out of the

maximum score of 220. The SD was 9.568. The maximum and minimum scores obtained by

the students were 180 & 145.

C. Status on Environmental Awareness

The Mean, Median and Mode were found to be 16.97, 17, 16 respectively out of the

maximum score of 28. The SD was 2.97. The maximum and minimum scores obtained by the

students were 25 & 11.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33

Sco

res

Students

Environmental Awareness



D. Status on Research Aptitude

The Mean, Median and Mode were found to be 13.61, 14, 11 respectively out of the

maximum score of 26. The SD was 3.34. The maximum and minimum scores obtained by the

students were 21 and 7.

E. Correlation between Teaching Aptitude & Emotional Quotient

The correlation between Teaching Aptitude and Emotional quotient was found to be 0.3203.

The value has not been found to be significant at .05 level against 32 degrees of freedom.

0

5

10

15

20

25

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33

Sco

res

Students

Research Aptitude

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33

Sco

res

Students

TA & EQ

TA Marks

EQ Marks



Though the Teaching Aptitude & Emotional Quotient have been found to be positively

correlated, but the correlation has not been found to be significant.

F. Correlation between Teaching Aptitude & Environmental Awareness

The correlation between Teaching Aptitude and Environmental Awareness was found to be

0.3045. The value has not been found to be significant at .05 level against 31 degrees of

freedom. Though the Teaching Aptitude & Environmental Awareness have been found to be

positively correlated, but the correlation has not been found to be significant.

G. Correlation between Teaching Aptitude & Research Aptitude

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33

Sco

res

Students

TA & EA

TA Marks

EA Marks

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33

Sco

res

Students

TA & RA

TA Marks

RA Marks



The correlation between Teaching Aptitude and Research Aptitude was found to be 0.3598.

The value has been found to be significant at .05 level against 31 degrees of freedom. The

Teaching Aptitude & Research Aptitude have been found to have significant +ve correlation.

H. Correlation between Emotional Quotient & Environmental Awareness

The correlation between Emotional quotient and Environmental Awareness was found to be


freedom. Though the Emotional Quotient & Environmental Awareness have been found to

be positively correlated, but the correlation has not been found to be significant.

I. Correlation between Emotional Quotient & Research Aptitude

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33

Sco

res

Students

EQ & EA

EQ Marks

EA Marks



The correlation between Emotional quotient and Research Aptitude was found to be -.0622.

The value has not been found to be significant at .05 level against 31 degrees of freedom.

Though the Emotional Quotient & Research Aptitude have been found to be negatively

correlated, but the correlation has not been found to be significant. It seems higher is the

emotional quotient lower is the Research Aptitude. Research goes more with rational thinking

than emotional.

J. Correlation between Environmental Awareness and Research Aptitude

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33

Sco

res

Students

EQ & RA

EQ Marks

RA Marks

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33

Sco

res

Students

EA & RA

EA Marks

RA Marks



The correlation between Environmental Awareness & Research Aptitude was found to be


freedom. Though the Environmental Awareness & Research Aptitude have been found to be

positively correlated, but the correlation has not been found to be significant.

K. Correlation amongst TA, EQ, EA & RA

Teaching Aptitude & Research Aptitude have been found to be significantly Positively

correlated, whereas, Emotional Quotient & Research Aptitude have been found to be

insignificantly negatively correlated. All the other factors have been found to be

insignificantly positively correlated.

Emerging Theses:

The profiles of M.Ed. Scholars have been found to be wanting in the areas of Environmental

Awareness. A large majority of them have not been in a position to respond correctly on

areas, namely, whether landfills are designed to help biodegradable waste decompose

quickly, whether green washing is an alternative to white washing, whether Expanded Poly

Styrene & Poly Propylene are recyclable, whether more than 50 million of Bangladeshis are

exposed to excessive Arsenic in their drinking water, which are the green House gases,

whether it takes more than 1 million years for a plastic plate to decompose, whether acid

rains cause most problems in Australia & California, which is the most beautiful,cleanest,

greenest planned city in India & which one is the most polluted, how the once common

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33

Sco

res

Students

TA, EQ, EA & RA

TA Marks

EQ Marks

EA Marks

RA Marks



sparrows are now harder to see, how the honey bees are disappearning globe over, how the

fast food contributes to health, which are the endangered species, which substances are more

eco friendly, What is global warming due to. It seems insipite of Environmental education as

a Special area in Teacher Education, it has neither been in a position to develop

environmental awareness, nor environmental ethics. Even in the 21st century the Post

Graduate Students with Science background do not know the strutures of many a polymers,

such as, Expanded Polystyrene, PolyPropylene, Poly-Ethylene, Poly Vinayl Chloride.

a. Expanded Polystyrene

b. Polypropylene

Similar has been the status on Research Aptitude. The M.Ed. Scholars have been founding

wanting understanding of objectives of research, scales of measurement, relative weight &

density, phenomenology, data interpretation, contingent truths, info-savvy skills, and

constructivist approach.



Teaching Aptitude & Research Aptitude have been found to be significantly positively

correlated, whereas, Emotional Quotient & Research Aptitude have been found to be

insignificantly negatively correlated. All the other factors have been found to be

insignificantly positively correlated. Looking into the magnitudes of correlation it seems that

Teaching Aptitude & Research Aptitude, as well as, Teaching Aptitude & Emotional

Quotient have togetherness, whereas, Emotional Quotient & Research Aptitude do not have

togetherness. It seems that the Research goes more with IQ than EQ.

Looking into the profiles of the M.Ed. Scholars on the factors considered, namely, Teaching

Aptitude, Emotional quotient, Environmental Awareness & Research Aptitude, it is evident

that a large majority of them are wanting in the areas of Environmental Awareness &

Research Aptitude.

**************************************************************************



ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AMONG STUDENTS OF SENIOR

SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Dr. Sunita Singh5

Dr. Vinod Kumar Singh6

ABSTRACT

Environment is the sum total of conditions in which organisms live and carry on the

various life functions. In the recent world history of about 200 years rapid changes have

occurred in the environment throughout the globe. These changes have resulted into global

warming because of greenhouse gas emission, acidification of soil and water, drastic decline

in the quality of air, soil and water, reckless exploitation of natural resources stored in the

soil through mining activities, drastic changes in land use and land cover through over-

exploitation of natural resources leading to desertification of landscapes, associated rapid

depletion of biodiversity etc. Environmental Education is an integral part of the education

process. The objectives of environmental education include awareness, attitude, skills and

participation.

Environmental crisis or maladies are the foremost and the most persistently changing

problems, which are ready to devour the glories of human existence and are ready to wipe

out the human civilization from this earth. The present century is witnessing such problems of

environmental crisis which are nothing but the creation of a greedy human society which

wants to exploit nature beyond any reasonable limit.

Therefore, the present study deals with the environmental awareness among the

students of senior secondary schools on the basis of gender, board of study and course of

study. For achieve the objectives an adapted tool (constructed by Anita Anand nee Anita

Bharti, 2001-2002) was used. The results show that there is no significant difference in the

level of environmental awareness on the foresaid bases.

5 Assistant Professor, Faculty of Education, BHU, Varanasi.

6 Assistant Professor, Faculty of Education, BHU, Varanasi.



INTRODUCTION

Etymologically the term ‘environment’ means ‘surroundings’. It is the sum total of

conditions in which organisms live and carry on the various life functions. In other words,

surroundings of an organism consist of sum total of all living and non-living constituents of

conditions around them. Organism and environment both are subjected to change with time.

If these changes are within the adjustment capacity of the environment or organism they do

not leave any derogatory effect on them. Such changes have been happening since thousands

of years of known human history. But in the recent world history of about 200 years rapid

changes have occurred in the environment throughout the globe. These changes have resulted

into global warming because of greenhouse gas emission, acidification of soil and water,

drastic decline in the quality of air, soil and water, reckless exploitation of natural resources

stored in the soil through mining activities, drastic changes in land use and land cover

through over-exploitation of natural resources leading to desertification of landscapes,

associated rapid depletion of biodiversity etc. Remarkrishnan (2001) has categorized and

these changes under ‘Global Change’.

This global change has triggered variety of changes in natural environment which are

further leading to scarcity of pure air to inhale, pure water to drink, pure soil for cropping etc.

Therefore top priority should be given to overcome environment problems. Education in

various forms and at various levels has the potential to solve environmental problems.

Therefore, education in its various forms has been used to create, conserve and transfer

knowledge from time to time. At the same time education has been used to develop human

potential for his/her ‘self-development’ and also for making him her useful for the society. It

has been rightly said in National Policy on Education, 1986 that “Education is an investment

in present and future”. So, for betterment of present environment and to handover better

environment to future generations environmental concerns must be incorporated at all levels

of education i.e. (i) Pre-primary, (ii) Primary, (iii) Secondary and (iv) Tertiary level of

education. Steps in this direction have been initiated in form of Environmental Education

worldwide since 1970’s.

“Environmental Education is an integral part of the education process. It should be

centered on practical problems and be of an inter-disciplinary character. It should aim at

building up a sense of values, contribute to public well-being and concern itself with the



survival of the human species. Its force should reside mainly in the initiative of the learners

and their involvement in action and it should be guided by both immediate and future subject

of concern.”

The goals of Environmental Education as accepted in the inter-governmental

conference organized by UNESCO/UNEP in Tbilisi, USSR in October, 1997 are as follows:

To foster clear awareness of a concern about, economic, social, political and

ecological interdependence in urban and rural areas.

to provide every person with opportunities to acquires knowledge, values, attitudes,

commitment and skills needed to protect and improve the environment, and

to create new patterns of behaviour of individuals, groups and society as a whole

towards the environment.

Further, the Tbilisi Conference (1977) also extended it and developed the objectives

of Environmental Education. They are follows:

Awareness to help individuals and social groups gain a variety of experience with the

total environment to acquire a basic understanding critical responsible presence and role in it;

Attitude to help individuals and social groups acquire social values for working

towards the solution of environment problems and to foster a dialogue between these groups;

Skills to help individuals and social groups the skills for working towards the solution

of environment problems and to foster a dialogue between these groups; and

Participation to help individuals and social groups develop a sense of responsibility

and urgency regarding environmental problems to ensure appropriate action to help solve

these problems.

NEED OF THE STUDY

Man is a part of nature and hence cannot control and direct nature on the basis of his

free will. Nature provides a limited freedom to man for conducting his exploitation activities.

But, when he tries to break the natural laws of nature, he is bound to face the serious

consequences. Sir Edmund Hillary comments on the environment: “It is people who created

bad environment and a bad environment brings out the worst in people. Man and nature need

eah other, and by hunting one, we would the other. There is so much that needs to be done to



halt the destruction of our world environments so many prejudices and so much self-interest

to be overcome.”

Environmental crisis or maladies are the foremost and the most persistently changing

problems, which are ready to devour the glories of human existence and are ready to wipe out

the human civilization from this earth. The present century is witnessing such problems of

environmental crisis which are nothing but the creation of a greedy human society which

wants to exploit nature beyond any reasonable limit. Never before has the future of life on

earth rested so much in human hands as in the recent decades with scientific technological

and ecological advancement.

The ministry (2000-01) interacted actively with the UGC, NCERT and the Ministry of

Human Resource & Development (MHRD) for introducing and expanding environmental

concept, themes, issues, etc. in the curriculum of schools and colleges.

The problem can be best tackled if proper awareness and attitude towards

environment is developed in the society and man both. Systematized, organized and

awakened social mind can be developed only through right type of education and it is through

right type of education that appropriate awareness can be created to make life and its

environment creative, constructive and progressive. To bring such state of mind fostering of

scientific attitude among individuals for the growth and the development of environmental

awareness is essential.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Gaylen, N. Irwin (1990) studied parental attitude towards environmental education.

Mike (1996) studied the effectiveness of environmental policy making and implementation in

Japan- the issue of wild life conservation. Lowia (1997) studied the impact of environmental

education on environmental awareness programme among the Ugandan population. Read and

Pongracz (2000) studied public education and awareness rising in U.K.

Kamalanabhan and Vijaya (1996) compared environmental concerns of technology

and non-technology students. Rana and Singh (1997) studied environmental conservation

through educational institutions. Dey and Saxena (2004) studied the level of consciousness

about pollution and environmental protection among teacher trainees of Udaipur region of



Rajasthan. Singh, Sunita (2005) studied the environmental awareness among different

educational groups. Yadav, Sanjay Singh (2008) studied the environmental attitudes of higher

secondary students on the basis of subject group and gender. Ananda, Kalpana (2008) studied

environmental awareness among primary teachers in Varanasi city. Tripathi, K.K., (2008)

studied environmental awareness among prospective teachers of Banaras Hindu University.

OBJECTIVES

The main objectives of the present study are:

1. To study the extent of awareness of senior secondary school students regarding

environment.

2. To compare the environmental awareness among senior secondary school students on

the basis of gender.

3. To compare the environmental awareness among senior secondary school students on

the basis of discipline.

4. To find out the environmental awareness among senior secondary school students in

relation to different examining board.

HYPOTHESES

The research hypotheses are as follow:

1. There is no significant difference in the environmental awareness of male and female

students of senior secondary schools.

2. There is no significant difference in the environmental awareness of science and arts

students.

3. There is no significant difference in the environmental awareness of CBSE AND UP

Board students.

METHODOLOGY

Population and Sample: In the present study, students of class XI and XII of different

schools of Varanasi city were taken as population. The students of class XI and XII

were selected for the study. For this, four (2 CBSE and 2 UP Board) schools were

selected purposively. The students were selected through random sampling technique.



The description of sample according to variables under investigation areas is

mentioned in the following:

Board

Gender

Total Male Female

Science Arts Science Arts

CBSE 25 25 25 25 100

UP 25 25 25 25 100

Total 50 50 50 50 200

Tool used: The researcher used an adapted tool (constructed by Anita Anand nee

Anita Bharti, 2001-2002) consisting of 65 items, which cover different aspects of

environmental awareness. It was a summated rating scale. Each item has five response

category viz. strongly agreed, agree undecided, disagree, and strongly disagree. For

favorable and unfavorable items 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 scores were given,

respectively. The reliability of the test was found to be 0.91 by split-half method. The

content, construct and intrinsic validity of the test were also established.

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

The data collected was subjected to‘t’ test.

Table 1: Gender difference related to the Environmental Awareness

Gender N Mean S.D. df t-value

Male 100 196.27 22.98

198

0.9329 Female 100 200.12 27.12

The calculated‘t’ value is smaller than table value (1.98) at 0.05 level of significance.

Hence, there is no significant difference between the environmental awareness of male and

female students. Therefore, the research hypothesis is rejected. Probable reason may be that

boys and girls both are provided equal facilities now-a-days. The qualification of the parents

also affects their children’s awareness towards environment. Therefore, there is no significant



difference between the environmental awareness of male and female senior secondary

students.

Table 2: Environmental Awareness among Students of CBSE and UP Board

Board N Mean S.D. df t-value

CBSE 100 193.09 24.09

198

0.077 UP 100 199.18 24.29

Entering the probability table of t-ratio at df=198, we find that our obtained value of

‘t’ is smaller than the value of ‘t’ (198) at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null

hypothesis is accepted and it is concluded that the board of study does not produce significant

effect on the awareness of environment of CBSE and UP board students. Probable reason

may be that both CBSE and UP boards provided more or less equal syllable and give more

emphasis on the environmental field. Therefore, there is no significant difference between the

environmental awareness of CBSE and UP board students of senior secondary schools.

Table 3: Environmental Awareness among Students of Science and Arts

Discipline N Mean S.D. df t-value

Science 100 198.44 22.51

198

0.178 Arts 100 193.81 25.85

The calculated‘t’ value is smaller than table value (1.98) at 0.05 level of significance.

Hence, there is no significant difference between the environmental awareness of the students

of science and arts groups of senior secondary schools. Therefore, null hypothesis is

accepted. The probable reason may be that both groups are taught and facilitated equally.

Other than school students get knowledge about environment through media, newspaper,

NGOs etc., they also play very effective role in exceeding awareness towards environment.



FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

The main findings are:

1. At 0.05 level of significance, there is no significant difference between the

environmental awareness of male and female students.


environmental awareness of CBSE and UP board students.


environmental awareness of science and arts group students.

The above findings show that all the students included in the sample manifest some

environmental awareness. The effect of general factor such as gender, board of study and

course of the study are reflected in the study. By this, it can be concluded that the general

factors affect the awareness towards environment. It may be due to many reasons as in case

of male and female students. We know that generally they get common exposure in their

family, community and also in their schools. Both the boards (CBSE and UP) included all the

necessary information about environment in their syllabus but in government schools some

extra facilities provided by government like Mid-day meal, extra health services. That is why

there was no significant difference found is awareness regarding environment of them. The

slight difference in the mean scores of the students belonging to science and arts streams is

due to some ignorance. But there was no significant difference found in the environmental

awareness of the senior secondary school students belonging to science and arts.

Thus, overall, board of study, course of study and gender difference does not affect the

environmental awareness of an individual.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION OF THE STUDY

On the basis of the findings of the study, a few educational implications of the study may

be indicated as follow-

1. The findings of the present study will be helpful to educationists, teachers, and

educational administrators must acquaint their pupil about pros and cons of

environmental pollution.



2. This study will also be helpful to parent. They will be able to understand their wards

and through this they will provide more attention for inculcating their knowledge.

3. Formal systems of education should also incorporate in its curriculum, some elements

of environmental awareness programmes. This should be a compulsory part of the

curriculum.

4. With the help of various mass media and modern means of communication, the

concept of environment and its protection should be published and popularized viz.

news paper, radio, TV, film, etc.

5. It would be more beneficial and effective if special programmes are launched to

develop environmental awareness among the students. It is possible only through

inclusion of special course on environmental education in the schools.

6. Value oriented education in the light of environmental pollution and environmental

awareness should be provided.

7. Environmental awareness should be inculcated at an early stage and in amanner which

includes more practical and less text book instruction.

REFERENCES

Ambasht, R.S. (1990). “Environment and Pollution: An Ecological Approach”,

Varanasi, Students Friends & Co., 1st edition

Bharti, A. Nee Avita (2002). “A study of relationship between environmental

awareness and scientific attitudes among Higher secondary students of Varanasi city”

An unpublished thesis. B.H.U. Varanasi

Bhattacharya, G.C. (1997). “Environmental awareness among Higher secondary

students of science and non-science stream”, School Science, 35 CU

Dey, B. Gihar, S. and Saxena, M.K. (2004). “Environmental consciousness among

prospective teachers”, Gyan, Journal of Education: V-I No. 1, July-December



Kumar, Ram (2001). Encyclopedia of environmental science and technology, Vol.-I

Ivy Publishing House

Mishra, S.N. (1998). :Study of environmental awareness of secondary school (UP &

CBSE Board) students”, An unpublished thesis. B.H.U. Varanasi

Neelam (2007). “Study of environmental awareness among students of graduation 3rd

year studying in educational institutions of Varanasi city.” An unpublished

dissertation, Faculty of Education, B.H.U., Varanasi

Ramakrishnan, P.S. (2001). Ecology and Sustainable Development, N.B.T., New

Delhi.

Rebello, D.M. (1994). “Integration of Environmental Education in Elementary School

Curriculum Approaches, context and curricula: in Environmental Education for

Elementary Teacher Education, NIEPA (now NUEPA), New Delhi

Sharma, R.C. and Mahajan, B. (1994). Source Book on Environmental Education for

Elementary Teacher Education, NIEPA (now NUEPA), New Delhi

Singh, Sunil Kumat (2010). Fundamentals of Environmental Education, 1st Edition.

Sharda Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad

Singh, Sunita (2005). “A study of environmental awareness of different educated

class”, Indian Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 23, No. 2, Lucknow

Sinha, G.N. (1997). “Attitude of teachers and parents of secondary school students

towards environmental education” An unpublished thesis. B.H.U. Varanasi

Tripathi, K.K., (2008). “Environmental awareness among prospective teachers of

Banaras Hindu University”. An unpublished thesis. B.H.U. Varanasi

Yadav, Sanjay Singh (2008). “Environmental attitudes of higher secondary students

on the basis of subject group and gender”, An unpublished thesis. B.H.U. Varanasi.

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: AN OVERVIEW

Vijay Jaiswal7

In qualitative research, a researcher takes into account the phenomenon as a whole

and describes it as it exists. In some situation, it is difficult to analyse a phenomenon into

various components or variables which can be measured in quantified terms. In such cases,

the researcher takes into consideration the phenomenon as a whole and assumes that there is

some quality in the phenomenon in its entirety. When the- researcher attempts to retain the

significant totality of a phenomenon while verifying propositions regarding it, he/she adopts

qualitative research methods. This method of research describes the experiences of people in

depth and permits the researcher to study and understand people in depth in their own

perceptions.

According to Denzin and Lincoln (1994), qualitative research focuses on interpretation of

phenomena in their natural settings to make sense in terms of the meanings people bring to

these settings. Qualitative research involves collecting information about personal

experiences, introspection, life story, interviews, observations, historical, interactions and

visual text which are significant moments and meaningful in peoples' lives.

Qualitative studies are most often exploratory in nature; exploratory in the sense of

studying an altogether new population, a new problem, finding out new concepts, new

meaning, new variables, local vocabulary and classifications. Hence, one may not start a

qualitative study with explicitly stated conceptualization.

A qualitative approach is one in which the inquirer often makes knowledge claims based

primarily on constructivist perspectives (i.e. the multiple meanings of individual experiences,

meanings socially and historically constructed, with an intent of developing a theory or

pattern) or advocacy/participatory perspectives (i.e. political, issue-oriented, collaborative or

change oriented) or both. In qualitative study inquirers state research questions, not objectives

(i.e. specific goals for the research) or hypotheses (i.e. predictions that involve variables and

statistical tests), in effect, however, most qualitative approaches have: 7 Assistant Professor (Sr.), Department of Education, C. S. J.M. University, Kanpur-208024



feelings and impressions, rather than numbers;

a focus on natural settings;

an interest in meanings, perspectives and understandings;

an emphasis on process;

a concern with inductive analysis and grounded theory.

multi-method in focus, involving an interpretative, naturalistic approach to its subject

matter; hoping always to get a better fix on the subject matter at hand.

Qualitative research follows an altogether distinct conceptual framework which takes into

account the following factors:

i) Multiple Realities: First, naturalists assume that there exist multiple realities in social

situations which can be observed and researched.

ii) Meanings and Interpretations: Naturalists emphasise study of meanings given to or

interpretations made about objects, events and processes concerning social situations.

iii) Generation of Knowledge: Qualitative inquiry insists on generation of knowledge

resulting from the interaction between the researcher and the respondents.

iv) Generalisation: As stated above, naturalists do not believe in the process of

generalization as propounded by scientists. Naturalist argue that in the process of making

generalization, a lot of meaningful information existing in individual units is undermined,

hence, generalised knowledge does not represent real or complete knowledge.

v) Human Relations: In the case of human relations several intrinsic factors, events and

processes keep on influencing each other constantly.

vi) Value Systems: Naturalists do not believe in value-free inquiry. They assume the

influence of value systems in the identification of problems, selection of samples, use of

tools for data collection, conditions in which data are gathered, and the possible interaction



that take place between the researcher and the respondents. That is why naturalists stress

that the researcher's bias cannot be ignored and it must be mentioned in research reports.

Qualitative research adopts the inductive approach (Fig.1). Such research is conducted

because of a lack of theory or existing theories are unable to explain phenomenon

convincingly. Because of this no hypotheses are put forward to guide research. The

qualitative researcher begins by observing phenomena and continues of find patterns in the

form of themes, categories, concepts and typologies that emerge. Tentative hypothesis are

introduced and additional information are collected to explain the phenomenon.

Fig. 1 The Inductive Approach in Research

Procedural Uniqueness of Qualitative Research

(i) Holistic approach

Naturalists intend to develop a deeper understanding of a given situation in a holistic

fashion. In other words, all possible information concerning all the significant dimensions

of the situation under study is gathered with a view to portray the- situations in their

Patterns

Tentative

Hypothesis

Observation

Theory



totality! For example, role of voluntary actions in social work cannot be studied in a

partial fashion. It has to be studied in a holistic manner taking into account the composite

influence of all the socio-economic and cultural factors.

(ii) Insightful inquiry

Naturalists emphasise insightful inquiry, where humans are treated as the sole means of

data collection, Qualitative methods like participant observation, informal interviews and

discussions, reading of relevant literature, and daily observation notes and diary writing

are very often used for fieldwork.

(iii) No a priori theory

A researcher goes to the field for data collection without having any a priori (pre-specific)

theory in mind. Naturalists apprehend that an a priori assumption restricts the inquiry to

those elements which may have been significant prior to developing an understanding of

the situation.

(iv) No pre-specific design of study

Prior to fieldwork, naturalists do not make explicit statements on the hypotheses and the

conditions in which data are to be collected, analysed and interpreted.

Nature of Qualitative Research Methods

(1) Naturalist Approach

Qualitative research aims to reach as close to the reality/field situation as possible, through

scrupulous description of the reality. Such a meticulous capturing of the reality is one of

the primary aims of the qualitative research.

(2) Importance of Context

Qualitative research gives importance to the context in which an action takes place.

Meaning of any action or phenomenon and the intentions of behaviours are derived from

the context in which they occur. To understand the phenomena one has to understand the

context.



(3) Emphasis on Holism

In qualitative research, an action or phenomenon is not broken into narrow variables, but

is seen as embedded in a context and as being complexly and inextricably related with a

number of other process and factors.

(4) Intensive/In-depth

Qualitative studied are mere of them intensive and in-depth in nature. They choose to

study smaller communities hence these studies can be intensive and in-depth. Since the

studies are usually of small communities they are able to be holistic and naturalist in

perspective and they can focus a great deal on the context.

(5) Long Period of Data Collection

- Mere interaction with field and participants.

- Reflective and interactive method continues changes of idea design.

- Not pre-determined sets of questions.

(6) Understanding Meaning and Process

- New meaning

- New context

- Capturing process

Three Types of Researcher’s Roles

(i) Total Researcher

(ii) Researcher Participant

(iii)Total Participant

(i) Total Researcher

As a total researcher I observed events in which I participated minimally or not at all. For

example – as a silent audience member at public meeting.



(ii) Researcher Participant

I participant in an event but as a researcher rather than a resident. For example – as met in

social gathering.

(iii) Total Participant

I actual spontaneously as a friend or neighbour and subsequently analyzed the activities in

which I had so participated.

Qualitative Data Collection Methods

The three most common qualitative data collection methods are participant observation,

in-depth interviews, and focus groups. Each method is particularly suited for obtaining a

specific type of data.

• Participant observation is appropriate for collecting data on naturally occurring behaviors

in their usual contexts.

• In-depth interviews are optimal for collecting data on individuals’ personal histories,

perspectives, and experiences, particularly when sensitive topics are being explored.

• Focus groups are effective in eliciting data on the cultural norms of a group and in

generating broad overviews of issues of concern to the cultural groups or subgroups

represented.

Qualitative Research vs Quantitative Research

The table-1 given below depicts the differences between qualitative and quantitative

researches.



Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

_____________________________________________________________________

1. Philosophy: Phenomenology, Symbolic Positivism, Logical

interactionism empiricism

2. Goal: Understanding, meaning Prediction, testing

hypothesis

3. Approach: Broad focus, process-oriented Narrow focus, product-

& context-bound oriented & context-free

4. Focus: Quality (features) Quantity (how much,

numbers)

5. Method: Ethnography/Action research Experiments/Corr.

6. Data collection: In-depth interviews, observation Questionnaire, scales,

documents, artefacts tests, inventories,

standardized interview

7. Research Design: Flexible, emerging Structured, predetermined

8. Sample: Small, purposeful Large, random,

representation

9. Generalisation: Unique case selection Generalisation

10. Analysis: Inductive (by the researcher) Deductive (by statistical

methods)

11. Outcome: A story, an ethnography Measurable results

or a theory

12. Role of Researcher: Immersed Detached

13. Rigour: Trustworthiness, authenticity, Internal/external validity,

Typicality and transferability Reliability, Generalisability

Table -1 Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Research [adaptation

from Merriam, 1998; Firestone, 1987 & Patton, 1996]

Qualitative Research Methods

There are following some major qualitative research methods:

(i) Phenomenology

(ii) Ethnomethodology

(iii)Symbolic Interactionism

(iv) Interpretivism



(v) Feminism and Gender Studies

(vi) Grounded Theory

(vii) Ethnography

(viii) Hermeneutics

(ix) Content Analysis

(x) Case Study

(i) Phenomenology

Phenomenology is a philosophical method developed in the early years of the twentieth

century by Edmund Husserl and a circle of followers at the universities of are the structures

of consciousness. A basic definition describes meaning for several individuals of their lived

experiences of a concept or phenomenon (Cresswell, 2002). Phenomenology is not interested

in modern science’s focus on simplification and reducing phenomena to abstract laws, but

examines how people describe things and experiences through their senses.

Phenomenology is the descriptive study of how individuals experience a phenomenon-

socially constructed realities and no objective experience. The foundational question in

phenomenology is: What are the meaning, structure, and essence of the lived experience of

this phenomenon by an individual or by many individuals? The researcher tries to gain access

to individuals' life-worlds, which is their world of experience; it is where consciousness

exists. Conducting in-depth interviews is a common method for gaining access to individuals'

life- worlds. The researcher, next, searches for the invariant structures of individuals'

experiences (also called the essences of their experience). Phenomenological researchers

often search for commonalities across individuals (rather than only focusing on what is

unique to a single individual).

Focus of Phenomenology

Phenomenology focuses on a concept or phenomenon.



Love, anger, betrayal, happiness, caring, undergoing coronary bypass surgery, what it

means to be/experience being underweight, and so on.

To reduce individual experience with a phenomenon to a description of the universal

essence.

To derive inner meaning Essence: core meanings, mutually understood through a

commonly experienced phenomenon.

For example, “What are the essences of peoples' experiences of an un/caring nurse?”

Types of Phenomenology

There are seven types of phenomenology. The major two are as follows:

Hermeneutical Phenomenology reflecting on lived experiences with interpretation

by the researcher.

Transcendental Phenomenology focusing less on the researcher’s interpretation and

more on the describing experiences of participants.

Primarily unit of analysis are people, but also, art, literature, poetry, biographies, novels,

diaries, journals, music, and so on.

Phenomenology Processes/Methods

Bracket researcher’s assumptions regarding phenomenon.

Bracketing is the process of setting aside the researcher’s experiences with the

phenomenon to better examine the consciousness itself setting aside one’s own

understanding of the phenomenon to look at how other people experience the

phenomenon. By detailing the researcher’s experiences with the phenomenon, they

highlight their bias(es).

Collect data about experiences with phenomenon.

Develop a composite description of experiences.

What and how experienced.



Sampling and Data Collection

An important criterion of sample is that the individuals must have experienced the

phenomenon. Usually interviews with 5 to 25 people, the more diverse the people, the

harder it is to find common experiences.

Write: Individuals write-up their own experiences.

Interviewing: Gather narrative data from conversation

Observation: Gather data by observing

Studying art, literature, diaries, journals, music, and so on.

Two broad questions are the focus of the interview: What have you experienced in

terms of this phenomenon? What contexts or situations have typically influenced or

affected your experiences of the phenomenon?

Data Analysis

Horizontalization: Laying out all the data to examine it as equals.

Highlight significant statements that provide understanding of participants’

experiences.

Organize the data into clusters and themes.

Phenomenological Reduction Process of continually returning to the essence of the

experience to derive inner meaning.

Textual description of participants’ experiences.

Imaginative Variation: Description of the context and how participants experienced

the phenomenon.

Description of the researcher’s experiences.

Write a composite description of the phenomenon.

Focus on common experiences of participants.



(ii) Ethnomethodology

The word ‘ethno’ means ‘relevant to your culture’, and ‘method’ means ‘how you use this

knowledge’. Thus ethnomethdology means “the study of everyday methods that people use to

live their daily lives”. In other words ethnomethodology is concerned with the organization of

everyday, ordinary life. Wallace and Wolf stated, “If we translate the “ethno” part of the term

as “member” or “folk” or “people” then ethnomethodology can be defined as members'

methods of making sense of their social world.

Main exponent of Ethnomethodology was Garfinkel, the U.S. sociologist.

Ethnomethodology is influenced by phenomenology, linguistics, anthropology, symbolic

interactionism, and other mainstream concepts found in sociology. In Studies in

Ethnomethodology (1967) Garfinkel wrote that his work had been particularly influenced by

Emile Durkheim (social facts), Talcott Parsons (idea of social trust), Alfred Schutz

(phenomenology), Aron Gurwitsch, and Edmund Husserl. As Ritzer (2000) stated, “While

Parsons stressed the importance of abstract categories and generalizations, Garfinkel was

interested in detailed description.”

Garfinkel’s Ideas

Garfinkel believed that life consists of many ordered things and activities. He studied

jurors and common sense knowledge. Ethnomethdology placed primary importance on

meanings that people give to everyday situations and how define their own situations.

Ethnomethodology is an approach to understanding social interaction and is “based on the

assumption that social reality is the result of our agreement to agree with one another.

Ethnomethodology attempts to reveal the subjective nature of human interaction. It has a

microfocus on daily life and on the thoughts and actions of human behavior.

Ethnomethodology is concerned with an interruption of daily life in order to reveal standard

rules. In order to reveal rules that are a natural part of society, Garfinkel believes that we

must disrupt the natural process of reality construction in order to reveal deep set rules.

Accounting



Accounting is the process by which people offer accounts in order to make sense of the

world. Ethnomethodologists devote a lot of attention to analyzing people’s accounts, as well

as to the ways in which accounts are offered and accepted (or rejected) by others. Garfinkel

(1967) stated that “sociologists distinguish the “product” from the “process” meanings of a

common understanding. As “product, a common understanding is thought to consist of a

shared agreement on a substantive matters; as “process” it consists of various methods

whereby something that a person says or does is recognized to accord with a rule.

(iii) Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interaction theories focus on the interpretation (social meaning) that is given to

behaviour, and on the way such interpretation helps to construct the social world, the

identities of people, and, ultimately how they behave. All interaction theories are concerned

with the way in which meaning is constructed. Its basic principles are:

1. Humans have capacity for thought.

2. Thought is shaped by social interaction.

3. Through interaction, people learn symbols and meanings that allow them to think.

4. Meanings and symbols allow for human action.

5. People can interpret a situation and modify their action or interaction.

6. People can create own meanings.

7. Groups and societies are made up of patterns of action and interaction.

According to Herbert Blumer (1969), symbolic interactionism “is based on the idea that

social reality is constructed in each human interaction through the use of symbols, such as,

words or gestures.” Studying symbolic interaction assists us in understanding human

behavior. There are three premises to symbolic interactionism:

1. Human beings act toward things on the basis of the meanings that the things have for

them. Things include everything that the person has in their world.



2. The meaning of things that is derived from the social interaction that you have with

someone.

3. These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretative process used by

the person in dealing with the things he/she encounters.

The following are the importance of symbolic interactionism:

Adds micro-level perspective to mainstream sociology.

Adds potential to bridge gap between macro and micro-levels.

Advances our understanding of sociological processes.

(iv) Interpretivism

Interpretivism (also known as antipositivism) is the view in social science that the social

realm may not be subject to the same methods of investigation as the natural world; that

academics must reject empiricism and the scientific method in the conduct of social research.

Antipositivists hold that researchers should focus on understanding the interpretations that

social actions have for the people being studied. Interpretivism is critical of the positivism

because it seeks to collect and analyze data from parts of a phenomena and, in so doing,

positivism can miss important aspects of a comprehensive understanding of the whole.

The underlying assumption of interpretivism is that the whole needs to be examined in

order to understand phenomena. Interpretivism proposes that there are multiple realities, not

single realities of phenomena, and that these realities can differ across time and place. It

refers to approaches emphasizing the meaningful nature of people's participation in social and

cultural life. The methods of natural science are seen as inappropriate for such investigation.

Researchers working within this tradition analyse the meanings people confer upon their own

and others' actions. It rejects scientific sociology. It interprets human behaviour from within

the phenomena. The general question of this qualitative approach is “Can we understand

other people’s motives/actions?” Max Weber (1991) believed that before the cause of a social

action could be found, it was necessary to understand the meaning attached to it by the actor.

(v) Feminism and Gender Studies



More than a research perspective, feminist research began as a fundamental critique of

social science and research in general. This research focussed on the ignorance of women’s

life situation and of male dominance. Feminist research was often characterised by using

qualitative research due to the methods opening up more to women’s voices and needs in

general (Flick, 1998).

According to Ussher (1999), feminist research is focussed on a “critical analysis of gender

relationships in research and theory.... an appreciation of the moral and political dimensions

of the research........and the recognition of the need for social change to improve the lives of

women.”

This leads not only to defining an issue of research (e.g. gender inequalities) but to

challenging the way research is done on different levels. Feminist researchers may adopt

multiple tools to gain access and understanding into the world around them, and may in fact

use multiple methods within the same study (Tolman and Szalacha, 1999). Feminist

researchers often bring a unique epistemological and methodological lens to the question of

how to do the research. Within the research process, regardless of the method they have

chosen, feminists are attuned to the way they frame their research questions.

Research conducted from the feminist perspective often promotes new areas of knowledge

building and can lead to the implementation of the innovative methods. A feminist approach

to epistemology seeks to establish knowledge production from a woman's perspective. It

theorizes that from personal experience comes knowledge which helps each individual look

at things from a different insight. Epistemology, methodology and methods are not de-linked

from each other but interact in dynamic ways to produce new knowledge, and this openness

itself is also characteristics of how feminist researchers approach their work.

Feminist researchers embrace two key tenets: (1) their research should focus on the

condition of women in society, and (2) their research must be grounded in the assumption

that women generally experience subordination. Thus, feminist research rejects Weber's

value-free orientation in favour of being overtly political-doing research in pursuit of gender



equality. Themes explored in feminism include discrimination, objectification

(especially sexual objectification), oppression, patriarchy, stereotyping, art

history and contemporary art, and aesthetics.

(vi) Grounded Theory

Grounded theory (GT) is a systematic methodology in the social sciences involving the

generation of theory from data (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). ‘The methodological thrust of

grounded theory is toward the development of theory, without any particular commitment to

specific kinds of data, lines of research, or theoretical interests . . . Rather it is a style of doing

qualitative analysis that includes a number of distinct features . . . and the use of a coding

paradigm to ensure conceptual development and density’ (Strauss, 1987).

It is mainly used in qualitative research, but is also applicable to quantitative data.

Grounded theory is a research method that seeks to develop theory that is grounded in data

systematically gathered and analysed. There is a continuous interplay between data collection

and analysis. The method is extremely useful in developing context that surrounds a language

unit and helps to determine its interpretation-based, process-oriented descriptions and

explanations of the phenomenon.

The three basic elements of grounded theory are:

Concepts

Categories

Propositions

The Concepts

Concepts are the basic units of analysis since it is from conceptualization of data, not the

actual data per se, that theory is developed. Theories can't be built with actual incidents or

activities as observed or reported; that is, from "raw data”. The incidents, events, happenings

are taken as, or analyzed as, potential indicators of phenomena, which are thereby given

conceptual labels. If a respondent says to the researcher, "Each day I spread my activities



over the morning, resting between shaving and bathing," then the researcher might label this

phenomenon as “pacing”. As the researcher encounters other incidents, and when after

comparison to the first, they appear to resemble the same phenomena, then these, too, can be

labeled as “pacing” only by comparing incidents and naming like phenomena with the same

term can the theorist accumulate the basic units for theory.

The Categories

Categories are higher in level and more abstract than the concepts they represent. They are

generated through the same analytic process of making comparisons to highlight similarities

and differences that is used to produce lower level concepts. Categories are the

"cornerstones" of developing theory. They provide the means by which the theory can be

integrated.

The Propositions

Which indicate generalized relationships between a category and its concepts and between

discrete categories. This third element was originally termed 'hypotheses’. It is felt that the

term 'propositions' is more appropriate since, as Whetten (1989) correctly points out,

propositions involve conceptual relationships whereas hypotheses require measured

relationships.

Grounded theory is a research method that operates almost in a reverse fashion from

traditional research and at first may appear to be in contradiction to the scientific method

(fig.1). Rather than beginning with a hypothesis, the first step is data collection, through a

variety of methods. From the data collected, the key points are marked with a series of codes,

which are



Fig.1

extracted from the text. The codes are grouped into similar concepts in order to make them

more workable. From these concepts, categories are formed, which are the basis for the

creation of a theory, or a reverse engineered hypothesis. This contradicts the traditional

model of research, where the researcher chooses a theoretical framework, and only then

applies this model to the phenomenon to be studied.

Grounded theory begins with a research situation. Within that situation, researcher

understands what is happening there (data gathering), and how the players manage their roles,

most done through observation, conversation and interview. After each bout of data

collection "note-taking“ on key issues is important. It is inductively derived from the study of

the phenomenon it represents. That is, discovered, developed, and provisionally verified

through systematic data collection and analysis of data pertaining to that phenomenon.

Therefore, data collection, analysis, and theory should stand in reciprocal relationship with

each other. One does not begin with a theory, then prove it. Rather, one begins with an area

of study and what is relevant to that area is allowed to emerge (Straus & Corbin, 1990).

Interviews are frequently the main source of the information the researcher will develop

theory from. But any data collection methods can be used. So is informal conversation, group

feedback analysis, or any other individual or group activity which yields data. The main

Written Record

Data Analysis Approach

Data Collection Technique Research Method

Philosophical Assumptions



methods employed in qualitative research are observation, interviews, and documentary

analysis. The following type of questions the grounded theorists use while coding data:

What is happening? (Glaser, 1978)

“What is this data a study of?” (Glaser, 1978, p. 57; Glaser and Strauss, 1967)

What theoretical category does this datum indicate? (Glaser, 1978)

What does the data suggest? Pronounce?

From whose point of view?

Process of Grounded Theory

Five analytic phases of grounded theory building are identified:

Research design

Data collection

Data ordering

Data analysis

Literature comparison

There are several key analytic strategies:

Coding is a process for both categorizing qualitative data and for describing the

implications and details of these categories. Initially one does open coding, considering

the data in minute detail while developing some initial categories. Later, one moves to

more selective coding where one systematically codes with respect to a core concept.

Memoing is a process for recording the thoughts and ideas of the researcher as they

evolve throughout the study. You might think of memoing as extensive marginal notes

and comments. Again, early in the process these memos tend to be very open while

later on they tend to increasingly focus in on the core concept.

Integrative diagrams and sessions are used to pull all of the detail together, to help

make sense of the data with respect to the emerging theory. The diagrams can be any



form of graphic that is useful at that point in theory development. They might be

concept maps or directed graphs or even simple cartoons that can act as summarizing

devices (Fig.2). This integrative work is best done in group sessions where different

members of the research team are able to interact and share ideas to increase insight.

Fig.2

(vii) Ethnography

"Ethnography," also known as "Naturalistic Observation," is a qualitative research method

involving the study of a group of people in their natural setting. The researcher tries to study

the people without affecting their behavior. One way to do this is to participate as a member

of the group. When this is done, it is called "Participant-observation." As a "Participant-

observer," the researcher studies the group from the inside as a member. “Naturalistic

Observation” yields rich information about how a society lives.



Ethnography emerged as a research strategy in societies with greater cultural uniformity

and less social differentiation than are found in large, modern, industrial nations.

Ethnography provides a foundation for generalizations about human behavior and social life.

Ethnographers have tried to understand the whole of a particular culture. They adopt a free-

ranging strategy for gathering information. Ethnographers draw on varied techniques to piece

together a picture of cultures. During fieldwork ethnographer moves from setting to setting,

place to place and subject to subject to discover the totality and interconnectedness of social

life.

The central aim of ethnography is to provide rich, holistic insights into people’s views and

actions, as well as the nature (that is, sights, sounds) of the location they inhabit, through the

collection of detailed observations and interviews. As Hammersley states, “The task [of

ethnographers] is to document the culture, the perspectives and practices, of the people in

these settings. The aim is to ‘get inside’ the way each group of people sees the world.”

Methods of Field Work

Direct, firsthand observation of behavior, including participant observation.

Conversation with varying degrees of formality, from the daily chitchat that helps

maintain rapport and prolonged interviews, which can be unstructured or structured.

The genealogical method for collecting data on family and kinship.

Detailed fieldwork with key consultant, or informants, about particular areas of

community life.

In-depth interviewing, for the collection of life histories.

Discovery of local (native) emic beliefs and perceptions, which may be compared

with the ethnographer’s own observations and conclusions.

Ethnographers record their impressions in a personal diary, which is kept separate

from more formal field notes.

Ethnographers strive to establish rapport, a good, friendly working relationship based

on personal contact, with their hosts.

Interview Schedule



With the interview schedule, the ethnographer talks face-to-face with people, asks the

questions and write down the answers.

Genealogical method is a well-established ethnographic technique.

Genealogy is prominent building block in the social organization of industrial and

non-industrial society.

Key cultural consultant – expert on a particular aspect of local life. The key consultant

by accident, experience, talent or training can provide the most complete or useful

information about particular aspects of life.

Life History

Life history – of a key consultant; a personal portrait of someone’s life in a culture.

Life histories which may be recorded on videotaped for review and analysis.

One goal of ethnography is to discover local (native) views, beliefs and perceptions.

Emic approach allows focus on local explanations and meanings.

On the other hand, etic research approach emphases the universal or ethnographer’s

explanations and categories.

Other kinds of Ethnography

Problem-oriented research or evaluation studies are carried out to investigate specific

problem.

Longitudinal research is the long term study of a community, region, society, culture

or other unit, usually based on repeated visits.

Team research is a longitudinal research coordinated by multiple ethnographers.

(viii) Hermeneutics

Hermeneutics, broadly, is the art and science of text interpretation. Traditional

hermeneutics is the study of the interpretation of written texts, especially texts in the areas of

literature, religion and law. A type of traditional hermeneutic is biblical hermeneutics which



concerns the study of the interpretation of the Bible. In religious studies and social

philosophy, hermeneutics is the study of the theory and practice of interpretation. Modern

hermeneutics encompasses everything in the interpretative process including verbal and

nonverbal forms of communication as well as prior aspects that affect communication, such

as presuppositions, pre-understandings, the meaning and philosophy of language,

and semiotics (Ferguson & David F Wright, 1988).

The terms exegesis and hermeneutics have been used interchangeably. However,

hermeneutics is a more widely defined discipline of interpretation theory, because it includes

the entire framework of the interpretive process, encompassing written, verbal, and nonverbal

communication. Exegesis, on the other hand, focuses primarily on written text.

Philosophical hermeneutics refers primarily to the theory of knowledge initiated by Martin

Heidegger and developed by Hans-Georg Gadamer in Truth and Method, and sometimes to

the theories of Paul Ricoeur (Grondin, 1994). Hermeneutic consistency refers to analysis of

texts for coherent explanation. A hermeneutic (singular) refers to one particular method or

strand of interpretation.

(ix) Content Analysis

Harold Lasswell formulated the core questions of content analysis: "Who says what, to

whom, why, to what extent and with what effect?." Ole Holsti (1969) offers a broad

definition of content analysis as "any technique for making inferences by objectively and

systematically identifying specified characteristics of messages." Kimberly A.

Neuendorf (2002) offers a six-part definition of content analysis:

"Content analysis is a summarising, quantitative analysis of messages that relies on the

scientific method (including attention to objectivity, intersubjectivity, a priori design,

reliability, validity, generalisability, replicability, and hypothesis testing) and is not limited as

to the types of variables that may be measured or the context in which the messages are

created or presented."



Content analysis of documents is another qualitative research method that can potentially

provide a holistic picture of an organization, event, or issue. When using this non-intrusive

research method, information is extracted from documents, such as those found in archives or

administrative data. This method can provide a detailed historical account of the subject(s) of

study. Data found in documents such as letters, memos and books are often coded and

statistically analyzed. This form of research is a valuable alternative when people are not

available to give needed information.

According to Krippendorff (2004), six questions must be addressed in every content

analysis:

1. Which data are analysed?

2. How are they defined?

3. What is the population from which they are drawn?

4. What is the context relative to which the data are analysed?

5. What are the boundaries of the analysis?

6. What is the target of the inferences?

Ole Holsti (1969) groups 15 uses of content analysis into three basic categories:

make inferences about the antecedents of a communication

describe and make inferences about characteristics of a communication

make inferences about the effects of a communication.

He also places these uses into the context of the basic communication paradigm. The

following table-2 given below shows fifteen uses of content analysis in terms of their general

purpose, element of the communication paradigm to which they apply, and the general

question they are intended to answer.

(x) Case Study

A case study is an intensive analysis of an individual unit (e.g., a person, group, or event)

stressing developmental factors in relation to context (Flyvbjerg, 2011). The case study is



common in social sciences and life sciences. Case studies may be descriptive or explanatory.

The latter type is used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles (Shepard &

Greene, 2003) They may be prospective (in which criteria are established and cases fitting the

criteria are included as they become available) or retrospective (in which criteria are

established for selecting cases from historical records for inclusion in the study).

Thomas (2011) offers the following definition of case study: "Case studies are analyses of

persons, events, decisions, periods, projects, policies, institutions, or other systems that are

studied holistically by one or more methods. The case that is the subject of the inquiry will be

an instance of a class of phenomena that provides an analytical frame — an object — within

which the study is conducted and which the case illuminates and explicates."



Table-2 Uses of Content Analysis by Purpose, Communication Element, and Question

Purpose Element Question Uses

Make inferences about the

antecedents of communications

Source Who?

• Answer questions of disputed

authorship (authorship

analysis)

Encoding

process Why?

• Secure political & military

intelligence

• Analyse traits of individuals

• Infer cultural aspects &

change

• Provide legal & evaluative

evidence

Describe & make inferences

about the characteristics of

communications

Channel How?

• Analyse techniques of

persuasion

• Analyse style

Message What?

• Describe trends in

communication content

• Relate known characteristics

of sources to messages they

produce

• Compare communication

content to standards

Recipient To whom?

• Relate known characteristics

of audiences to messages

produced for them

• Describe patterns of

communication



Rather than using samples and following a rigid protocol (strict set of rules) to examine

limited number of variables, case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal (over a

long period of time) examination of a single instance or event: a case. They provide a

systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the

results. As a result the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance

happened as it did, and what might become important to look at more extensively in future

research. Case studies lend themselves to both generating and testing hypotheses (Flyvbjerg,

2006).

Another suggestion is that case study should be defined as a research strategy, an

empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context. Case study

research can mean single and multiple case studies, can include quantitative evidence, relies

on multiple sources of

evidence, and benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions. Case studies

should not be confused with qualitative research and they can be based on any mix of

quantitative and qualitative evidence. Single-subject research provides the statistical

framework for making inferences from quantitative case-study data (Yin, 2003) (Source:

www.wikipedia.org).

As a research design, the case study claims to offer a richness and depth of information not

usually offered by other methods. By attempting to capture as many variables as possible,

case studies can identify how a complex set of circumstances come together to produce a

particular manifestation. It is a highly versatile research method and employs any and all

Make inferences about the

consequences of

communications

Decoding

process

With what

effect?

• Measure readability

• Analyse the flow of

information

• Assess responses to

communications

Note. Purpose, communication element, & question from Holsti (1969). Uses primarily from

Berelson (1952) as adapted by Holsti (1969).(Source:www.wikipedia.org)



methods of data collection from testing to interviewing. One of the criticisms aimed at case

study research is that the case under study is not necessarily representative of similar cases

and therefore the results of the research are not generalisable. This is a misunderstanding of

the purpose of case study research which is to describe that particular case in detail. It is

particularistic and contextual. Generalisability is not normally as issue for the researcher who

is involved in studying a specific situation.

Criteria for Judging Qualitative Research

Guba and Lincoln(1985) proposed four criteria for judging the soundness of qualitative

research and explicitly offered these as an alternative to more traditional quantitatively-

oriented criteria. They felt that their four criteria better reflected the underlying assumptions

involved in much qualitative research.

Credibility

The credibility criteria involves establishing that the results of qualitative research are

credible or believable from the perspective of the participant in the research. Since from this

perspective, the purpose of qualitative research is to describe or understand the phenomena of

interest from the participant's eyes, the participants are the only ones who can legitimately

judge the credibility of the results.

Transferability

Transferability refers to the degree to which the results of qualitative research can be

generalized or transferred to other contexts or settings. From a qualitative perspective

transferability is primarily the responsibility of the one doing the generalizing. The

qualitative researcher can enhance transferability by doing a thorough job of describing the

research context and the assumptions that were central to the research. The person who

wishes to "transfer" the results to a different context is then responsible for making the

judgment of how sensible the transfer is.



Dependability

The traditional quantitative view of reliability is based on the assumption of replicability

or repeatability. Essentially it is concerned with whether we would obtain the same results if

we could observe the same thing twice. But we can't actually measure the same thing twice --

by definition if we are measuring twice, we are measuring two different things. In order to

estimate reliability, quantitative researchers construct various hypothetical notions (e.g., true

score theory) to try to get around this fact. The idea of dependability, on the other hand,

emphasizes the need for the researcher to account for the ever-changing context within which

research occurs. The research is responsible for describing the changes that occur in the

setting and how these changes affected the way the research approached the study.

Confirmability

Qualitative research tends to assume that each researcher brings a unique perspective to

the study. Confirmability refers to the degree to which the results could be confirmed or

corroborated by others. There are a number of strategies for enhancing confirmability. The

researcher can document the procedures for checking and rechecking the data throughout the

study. Another researcher can take a "devil's advocate" role with respect to the results, and

this process can be documented. The researcher can actively search for and describe and

negative instances that contradict prior observations. And, after he study, one can conduct a

data audit that examines the data collection and analysis procedures and makes judgements

about the potential for bias or distortion.

Trustworthiness of Qualitative Research Methods

Establishing trustworthiness ensures the quality of the findings. It increases the confidence

of the reader that the findings are worthy of attention. Many different strategies (Table-3) are

employed in qualitative research to establish trustworthiness (Krefting, 1991) and the

researchers should report on the methods they employed.

Table-3 Strategies to establish trustworthiness



Strategy Criteria

Credibility Prolonged and varied field experience

Time sampling

Reflexivity (field journal)

Triangulation

Member checking

Peer examination

Interview technique

Establishing authority of researcher

Structural coherence

Referential adequacy

Transferability Nominated sample

Comparison of sample to demographic data

Time sample

Dense description

Dependability Dependability audit

Dense description of research methods

Stepwise replication

Triangulation



Peer examination

Code-recode procedure

Confirmability Confirmability audit

Triangulation

Reflexivity

A critical group of strategies used to enhance trustworthiness is triangulation. It involves

using multiple sources and perspectives to reduce the chance of systematic bias. There are

four main types of triangulation:

• By source - data is collected from different sources, e.g., different people, resources;

• By methods - different data collection strategies are used such as individual interviews,

focus groups and participant observation;

• By researcher - which involves the use of more than one researcher to analyze the data,

develop and test the coding scheme; and

• By theories - multiple theories and perspectives are considered during data analysis and

interpretation.

Key Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research

Informed Consent

• First mentioned in Nuremberg Code, Voluntary nature of research participation

without any force, fraud, pressure or coercion. Inform the participant about research,

its purpose and various features. Positional risk and benefits if any, freedom to

withdraw and not to answer any specific sensitive question. Consent can be obtained

in writing, verbally, audio or video taped. IRB/IEC main requirement.



• Practical difficulties at the field level, cultural context examples and strategies to

overcome them. Qualitative research is informal, informed consent is formal – need

for a middle way. Gatekeeper consent is NOT participant consent.

Confidentiality

• Assuring respondents that their names and other indentifying details will not be

shared with anyone, names will be changed (pseudo names) where used. This is

required and will also lead to free expression on various interview questions

• Especially important in studies with sensitive variables like personal medical

information, sexual behaviour, mental health addiction, employer abuse, police abuse

etc. which can lead to stigma, discrimination, violence etc.

• Sensitive variables are generally explored in details in qualitative studies and

therefore it is all the more important. Care is also to be taken while transcribing

sometimes even without name it can be easily identified. Requires skills

• However, also respect the desire or wish to be identified sometimes.

Reciprocity/Compensation

• A dicey issue: On one hand respondents are giving us their time which has strong

opportunity cost (including leisure/rest) for the poor and study is not possible without

their cooperation, therefore, should be compensated. On the other hand, compensation

can induce specific answers. Some prefer token of appreciation than cash, some

believe in help at the community level (school or health centre gift etc.) Check with

the IRB.

• Sharing results with study participants is also expected, a presentation can be made

with gratitude and recognition.

When to Use Qualitative Research Methods?

Hartley & Muhit (2003) have given the following criteria of using qualitative research

methods.



I- Exclusively

(i) When little is known

Qualitative research methods are known to be appropriate and effective when little or

nothing is known about the situation, as they do not require a predictive statement and

therefore seek the answers to open questions (Stone, 1999). In such a situation, predictive, or

closed quantitative questions are inevitably based on culturally different norms, imported

from other settings.

This creates a situation, where, however rigorously the research is conducted, the outcome

is likely to be inappropriate in that particular setting, and irrelevant to the problems the local

people are facing. In such situations, there is a need to base service development on cultural

realities and develop new innovative services, training and policy based on the complex and

dynamic actualities. Muecke (1997) argues that qualitative research has the capacity to do

this and that it has a vital role to play, in putting people and culture back into development by

documenting ignored social realities.

(ii) When target populations are vulnerable

Qualitative methods are also an effective tool when the target group are vulnerable, as is

inevitably so, when focusing on people with disabilities. Other common vulnerable groups

are women, illiterate groups and people with HIV. Use of qualitative research methods

provided the opportunity to listen and include the voices of the vulnerable population, in

programme planning.

(iii) When policy information is required

Quantitative studies have given decades of comparative data that have been used to inform

policy and planning of health and education services at all levels, but what this data does not

do, is provide information about the variations within the target population and the extremes



that are likely to exist. Such studies tend to ignore the socio-cultural context as determinants

of health and educational status and the fact that political problems are socially constructed

(Carey, 1997).

II- Together with Quantitative Research

Qualitative data can be a prerequisite for good quantitative research in a number of ways,

for example, increasing the validity of measuring tools by providing culturally relevant

information about the issues that require to be measured. Black (1994) says 'It is better to

measure what is relevant inaccurately than to measure accurately what is irrelevant', but it is

even better to measure accurately what is relevant. Qualitative research can also be used for

providing possible explanations for quantitative survey results, which would be otherwise un-

explicable.

Qualitative research is useful in relationship to quantitative research if:

The topic has been researched for a long time in the same way.

The topic is new to research.

You would like in-depth information that may be difficult to convey quantitatively.

Conclusion

All research ultimately has a qualitative grounding (Campbell, 1974). Scattered

inconsistent researches take us nowhere. There should be continuity of research area.

Research culminating into mathematical equations to the reality is the climax. But social

reality is too complex to be represented through mathematical equations. All forms and all

types of researches together are too limited to understand the social reality (Goel & Goel,

2006). A major strength of the qualitative approach is the depth to which explorations are

conducted and descriptions are written, usually resulting in sufficient details for the reader to

grasp the idiosyncracies of the situation. The ultimate aim of qualitative research is to offer a

perspective of a situation and provide well-written research reports that reflect the



researcher's ability to illustrate or describe the corresponding phenomenon. One of the

greatest strengths of the qualitative approach is the richness and depth of explorations and

descriptions." (Myers, 2002)

As qualitative studies rely on collecting data from participants in their natural settings and

most of the data are usually non-numeric, unstructured textual data, a high level of linguistic

skills are required. Quality and relevance of interview and focus group data largely depends

on the linguistic skill of the researcher. Excellent verbal and written communication skill are

required to collect qualitative data and to analyse and disseminate the results of qualitative

study.

Other important skills required by a good qualitative researcher are: the ability of

formulating open-ended questions and facilitating discussions in a non-directional manner;

empathy, commitment and involvement of the researcher, the ability to listen carefully to

better understand other people's views etc. Qualitative researchers need to learn not to judge

people as that can create a communication barrier between researcher and the participants.

Facilitating skills are required particularly to conduct focus group discussions. It is important

to consider the skills that are required when recruiting interviewers for a qualitative study and

also to provide training in interview techniques and facilitating skills. Most of the skills can

be developed and enhanced through active training, regular practice and sharing the

experience with other researchers.

All research requires excellent planning and management skills but in qualitative research

changes to the research structure can be made in response to new data at any stage in the

process in an iterative way (Hartley & Muhit, 2003). Qualitative researches demand

competent, faithful, ethical, integrated, open, empathizing, dedicated and interdisciplinary

personalities.

References

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Carey, M. A. (1997). Qualitative Research in Policy Development. In Morse, K. (ed)

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Charmaz, K., (1994). Grounded Theory: Objectivist and Constructivist Methods. In

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CA: Sage.

Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among

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**************************************************************************



MATHEMATICS “CONTENT KNOWLEDGE” AND “PEDAGOGICAL

CONTENT KNOWLEDGE”

Dr. Ritu Bala8

Abstract

Teachers’ knowledge is a key factor to students’ achievement. One could question what this

teachers’ knowledge comprises of content knowledge or pedagogical content knowledge or

both. Whether acquiring Mathematics content knowledge alone adequately prepares

prospective Mathematics teachers for teaching mathematics. Specifically, does the mastery in

arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, calculus etc. prepare future teachers to be

highly competent to teach students or just acquiring pedagogical knowledge alone

adequately prepares prospective Mathematics teachers for teaching mathematic. In the

1980’s, Lee Shulman and his colleagues coined a new term “pedagogical content

knowledge” to answer these questions and categorized teacher’s knowledge in seven

categories and this give a start to the new debate which one is more better content knowledge

or pedagogical content knowledge. This paper is an attempt to define and elaborate the

difference and relationship between these two terms Mathematics content knowledge or

Mathematics pedagogical content knowledge to make them more understandable to the

Mathematics teachers.

Teachers’ knowledge is a key factor to students’ academic success in today’s

classrooms. There have been many debates on the underlying interpretation of what

Mathematics teacher’s knowledge includes Mathematics content knowledge or Mathematics

pedagogical content knowledge or both. What is the difference or relation between these two?

8 Dr. Ritu Bala, Email: [email protected]



In the 1980’s, Lee Shulman and his colleagues popularized the concept of

“pedagogical content knowledge” and introduced a new way of thinking about the nature and

role of the teacher’s knowledge needed for high academic success of students Shulman

(1986). In 1987, Shulman distinguished teacher’s knowledge in seven categories: content

knowledge; curricular knowledge; pedagogical content knowledge; general pedagogical

knowledge; knowledge of learners and their characteristics; knowledge of educational

contexts and knowledge of educational ends, purposes and values. Ever since Shulman

established these categories, many researchers have come to believe that pedagogical content

knowledge is an important topic in Mathematics education and that high levels of

pedagogical content knowledge will predict high levels of student achievement and this

believe has further grounded the platform for discussion to which one is most important

content knowledge or pedagogical content knowledge.

Figure1

Shulman’s Seven Categories of Teacher’s Knowledge



Ball’s studies (1990) showed that effective Mathematics teaching is linked to both

teachers’ subject matter content knowledge as well as their pedagogical content knowledge.

Heid et al. (1999) showed that secondary Mathematics’ teachers content knowledge

influences their instructional planning and classroom practice. Heather et al. (2005) found

that teachers’ mathematical knowledge was significantly related to student achievement.

Waller (2012) found positive relationship of Mathematics intervention teachers’ pedagogical

content knowledge and students’ math achievement gains in primary math interventions.

The above-mentioned studies show a significant relation between Mathematics

content knowledge, Mathematics pedagogical content knowledge, effective Mathematics

teaching and students’ math achievement. Before reaching to any conclusion, one must have

a deeper insight to both of these terms Mathematics content knowledge, Mathematics

pedagogical content knowledge. Mathematics content knowledge is common knowledge of

mathematical content. It is the subject matter knowledge and refers to general Mathematics

ability. It includes knowledge about axioms, postulates, theorems, rules, principles, formulae,

language, concepts, sub-concepts etc. of Mathematics, depth, breadth, accuracy and

application of content knowledge; connections within and between topics and the branches

of Mathematics and fluency with multiple modes of examples of a topic and getting solution

to a particular mathematical problems. On the other hand, Mathematics pedagogical content

knowledge is defined as the specialized content knowledge required for teaching

Mathematics. It includes, “the most useful forms of representation …, the most powerful

analogies, illustrations, examples, explanations, and demonstrations - in a word, the most

useful ways of representing and formulating the subject that make it comprehensible to

others…. Pedagogical content knowledge also includes an understanding of what makes the

learning of specific topics easy or difficult” (Shulman, 1986).

Pedagogical content knowledge is the knowledge of how to transform formal content

knowledge into meaningful learning outcomes for students and it involves an understanding

of a particular topic and the ways a teacher explains the topic or concepts to make sense to

the students in the classroom. Teachers are always expected to exhibit a basic set of

pedagogical knowledge and skills in the classroom, which involves a good knowledge of

Mathematics, teaching methods, skills and knowledge of child development etc. This is

emphasized by (Hill et al 2004) that “In performing the process of teaching and learning,



teachers bring alone with them the knowledge components, contents knowledge, good

knowledge about the students and the various ways of using content knowledge in a

classroom’s teaching and learning process indeed play a role”. Moreover, the integration of

all these knowledge is recognized as pedagogical content knowledge.

For an example, teachers of Mathematics need a special type of understanding of

mathematical content itself. “A powerful characteristic of Mathematics is its capacity to

compress information into abstract and highly usable forms. . . . Mathematicians rely on this

compression in their work. However, teachers work with Mathematics as it is being learned,

which requires a kind of decompression, or ‘unpacking’ of ideas” (Ball and Bass, 2003). This

“unpacked” knowledge may provide the foundation for knowing how to represent the subject

to students or how to understand the mathematical features of student work. Most adults, for

example, know that one can “invert and multiply” to get the correct answer to the problem:

3/4 divided by 1/2. However, Mathematics teachers must know why such rules work and how

to represent the Mathematics to facilitate student understanding. Is a student mathematically

correct in saying that this problem can be illustrated by splitting 3/4 pies evenly between two

families or in saying that this can be illustrated by calculating how much money you would

have if you doubled Rs.0.75? If not correct, then what is a good story problem that illustrates

3/4 divided by 1/2? Good Mathematics teachers know how to address such questions and

how to unpack and represent fractions in ways that are useful in teaching the subject.

Pedagogical content knowledge includes “…understanding of how particular topics,

problems, or issues are organized, presented, and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities

of learners” and the “…most useful forms of representation of these ideas, most powerful

analogies, illustrations, examples, explanations, and demonstrations” and “…the ways of

representing and formulating the subject that make it comprehensible to others” (Shulman,

1987). The relation and difference between the Mathematics content knowledge and

pedagogical content knowledge can be better understood from the following table:

Table: Mathematics content knowledge vs. Mathematics pedagogical content

knowledge



Dimensions of

Knowledge Mathematics Content Knowledge

Mathematics Pedagogical

Content Knowledge

Field of

Knowledge Mathematics Mathematics Education

Output of

Knowledge

Enables to be skilled and competent

Mathematics student/s

Enables to be skilled and

competent Mathematics teacher/s

Knowledge is

Mastered by The learner/student The teacher

Objective of

Getting

Knowledge

To master the rules, principles,

formulae etc. of Mathematics to

solve the problems based on them

To transform mathematical

knowledge into meaningful

learning outcomes for students to

make them understand the rules,

principles, formulae etc. of

Mathematics

Basic

Requirements for

Knowledge

The will to learn Mathematics

Attitude towards learning

Mathematics

The will to teach Mathematics

Aptitude for teaching

Mathematics

Areas of Study of

Knowledge

The concepts and sub-concepts

of Mathematics

The relation within and

between the branches of

Mathematics

Solution of Mathematical

problems related to the

concepts of arithmetic, algebra,

geometry, statistics,

trigonometry etc.

Teaching of Mathematics

The content knowledge

Content analysis

Pedagogical analysis

Psychology of teaching and

learning

Learner and her/his

characteristics

Methods of evaluation etc.

Knowledge is

Mastered

Through

Drill work techniques and practice

while learning

Training and practice during

teaching

Basis for Pure Mathematics and Sciences Behavioural Sciences



Knowledge

Relation

Without pedagogical content

knowledge a teacher will not be

teach effectively in the class. less

effective teaching results in less

effective content knowledge

Without mastery of content

knowledge, teacher cannot master

the pedagogical content

knowledge.

From the above table it is clear that there is difference between to master the concept

her/himself and to make others master the content. The first one refers to the content

knowledge and the second one refers to the pedagogical content knowledge. To make

students master the Mathematics content knowledge the teacher her/himself has to master the

Mathematics content knowledge along with Mathematics pedagogical knowledge and

contextual knowledge. Mathematics pedagogical knowledge is “the knowledge or the study

of science of teaching mathematical concepts and sub-concepts that influences the

Mathematics learning in students”. Therefore we can conclude that Mathematics pedagogical

content knowledge includes three sub-components: Mathematics content knowledge –

Knowledge of the contents of Mathematics, pedagogical knowledge - knowledge of science

of teaching, content analysis, pedagogical analysis, methods and techniques of presentation

and contextual knowledge - the level, characteristics and needs of the students as well as the

subject, teaching-learning environment.

Figure 2

Mathematics Pedagogical Content Knowledge



A teacher with good mathematical pedagogical content knowledge can break down

mathematical content knowledge into less polished and abstract forms, thus making it

accessible to students who are at different cognitive levels. S/he can unpack the Mathematics

into its discrete elements and can explain a concept or procedure at a level that includes the

steps necessary for the students to make sense of the reasoning. S/he can understand where

students may have trouble learning the subject and will be able to represent mathematical

concepts in a way that their students can comprehend its structure and avoid these difficulties.

In order to prepare effective Mathematics teachers, a teacher-training program must focus on

Mathematics pedagogical content knowledge.

References:

Ball, D. L. (1990). The mathematical understandings that prospective teachers bring

to teacher education, Elementary School Journal, 90(4).

Ball, D. L. and Bass, H. (2003). Toward a practice-based theory of mathematical

knowledge for teaching. In Phelps, G. and Schilling, S. (2004). Developing measures

of content knowledge for teaching reading, Elementary School Journal. Online

sii.soe.umich.edu/.../ESJ_CKT%20reading_Final_Reformated. pdf

Heather C. Hill, Brian Rowan, and Deborah Loewenberg Ball (2005) Effects of

Teachers’ Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching on Student Achievement American,

Educational Research Journal, 42(2).



Heid, M. K., Blume, G. W., Zbiek, R. M., & Edwards, B. S. (1999). Factors that

influence teachers learning to do interviews to understand students’ mathematical

understandings, Educational Studies in Mathematics, 37.

Hill, H.C., Ball, D. L. & Schilling, S. G. (2004). Developing measures of teachers’

mathematics knowledge for teaching, Elementary School Journal, 105.

Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching,

Educational Researcher, 15(2).

Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform.

Harvard Educational Review, 57(1).

Waller, Lisa Ivey (2012) Math intervention teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge

and student achievement, Eastern Kentucky University Richmond, Kentucky. Online

http://encompass.eku.edu/etd/57.

**************************************************************************



DEVELOPMENT-INDUCED DISPLACEMENT, DEPRIVATION AND PEOPLE’S

MOVEMENT IN ASSAM

Pallavi Hazarika9

Introduction

The traditional concept of development as increasing wealth and income, a higher standard

of living, improved technology and industrial progress has undergone a change with the

emergence of concepts like human security, human development, human rights etc. The

traditional concept of development relies heavily on capital investment and advanced

technology to harness existing natural and human resources.10

But such kind of development

can go against their right to life enshrined in Article 21 of Indian constitution as the

development projects require a huge land area and the governments acquire both public and

private land by forcing the poor, marginalised people to move out from their private ancestral

land for the overall development of the society. Studies show that many of these areas are

inhabited by the tribal and other poor rural people whom the projects force to sacrifice their

sustenance in the name of national development. But its benefit does not reach them; some

sections pay the price of benefits that other sections get.

Displacement is caused by various factors such as natural disasters, ethnic, religious

and political conflicts and development projects. In development projects some persons are

physically displaced and others deprived of livelihood without being displaced. Development

projects are crucial for economic growth, but results in a change in land use. Therefore

development induced displacement is planned; the state acquires private land through a

Gazette Notification and compensates them for it. Land is people’s livelihood but projects

treat it only as a commodity. On the other hand, most families specially the poor tribals

sustain themselves on the Common Property Resources (CPRs). But when the projects

acquire CPRs, they are not considered as land losers because they do not have an individual

9 Research Scholar, Department of Political Science, North Eastern Hill University, Shillong,

Meghalaya

10

Walter Fernandes and Gita Bharali, Uprooted for whose Benefit? Development-induced Displacement in Assam 1947-2000, North Eastern Social Research Centre, Guwahati,2011



title to it according to the present legal system. Its dependants are, therefore, unable to sustain

themselves on it and are forced to move out. They are not displaced persons (DPs) and are

not counted among the DPs and Project Affected Parsons (PAPs) because they legally leave

their homes of their own accord. Loss of both private land and CPRs cause DPs and PAPs,

but most projects count only individual land losers among them and exclude most families

sustaining themselves on CPRs according to their customary law. Most of these families

have inhabited in CPRs for centuries but the individual based laws of the country do not

recognize their rights over them. They are thus excluded from benefits like compensation

when the projects alienate their sustenance.11

With the emergence of people oriented concept of developmental activities, human

rights protection and promotion of the displaced people has become a global phenomenon.

And it is the prime responsibility of the state to provide pre and post rehabilitation measures

to the displaced and project affected people as displacement, resettlement and rehabilitation

have been considered as important issues of human rights debate. In this paper an attempt has

been made to analyse the problems of internal displacement caused by mega dams in Assam

and thereby tries to focus on the issues raised by the movements led by various civil society

organizations against the on-going Lower Subansiri Hydro Electric Project and the responses

of the Assam Government to address the same.

The Lower Subansiri Hydro Electric Project (LSHEP) and People’s movement

The LSHEP is the first hydro-electric project to be located in two states- Assam and

Arunachal Pradesh. The project was launched in the year 2000. The proposed dam site is 23

km upstream of the Gerukamukh village in the Dhemaji district of Assam. 90% of the project

area falls within the territory of Arunachal Pradesh and the remaining 10% falls under

Assam. The total requirement of the forest land is 4039.3 hectares, out of which 3183

hectares are in Arunachal Pradesh and 856.3 hectares are in Assam. The 116 meter high dam

will submerge 3436 hectares of land.12

Local citizens and other civil society groups in Assam

repeatedly raised concerns about the faulty clearances to the project without comprehensive

downstream studies. The area in which the dam is located has been very vulnerable to flood

11

Ibid,pp-1-11 12

Monirul Hussain, Interrogating Development: State, Development and Popular Resistance in North East India, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 2008 pp.116, 119.



and earthquake. Landslide is also common in the area. The project is also located in an

important bio-diversity hotspot.13

In this paper an empirical study has been made to analyse the problems of the project

affected people.While talking about the problem of internal displacement, this paper tries to

focus on the issues of livelihood or indirect displacement faced by the people of the

downstream of the LSHEP in the form of livelihood disruption, social and cultural

disintegration, breakdown of traditional way of life and community networks etc. From the

field survey of the Gerukamukh village conducted for this purpose it is revealed that most of

the people are tribals, specially Mishings of Assam and Adi people from Arunachal Pradesh

and the rest are tea tribes, Koch-kalita, ahom, sunuwal kachries, koibatra, Nepali etc.

Majority of them are poor marginalized farmers, carpenters and daily wage earners. Again,

no physical displacement has taken place because of the LSHEP so far. But the acquisition of

Common Property Resources for the installation of the project caused livelihood

displacement to a large extent as most of the people are dependent on agriculture and allied

activities for their very existence. People are indirectly displaced from access to natural

resources and environmental inputs for their livelihood. The project was set up in a reserve

forest area known as subansiri reserve forest. Before the installation of the project, the local

people used to collect fire-woods, medicinal herbs and even used the forest land for the

production of seasonal vegetables and as gazing fields. But now the NHPC authority declared

the area as prohibited area and hence the local people are deprived from their access to the

forest.

Though the project authorities promised to provide them livelihood and employment

opportunities along with other services like education, health care, drinking water,

Communication services etc containing expenses of 1% of the total cost of the project for the

overall development of the local people, but only a few of the local youth manage to get jobs

only on contractual basis under contractors about whom the project authorities have no

official records either.

13

Manju Menon and Kanchi Kohli, Large Dams for Hydro Power in North East India, Kalpavrikh , South Asian Network on Dams Rivers and People, 2005, p. 43.



Majority of the local people are against the dam only because of the psychological

trauma related to the breakdown of the dam due to natural calamities like Earthquake,

Landslide etc as it will create devastating impact on the downstream area as most of the

important districts of Upper Assam including the river island Majuli will be submerged by

water unleashed by the dam. Hence, the project violates the basic human rights like right to

life, right to property and right to human security and the fundamental rights of the

constitution of India, specially the article 21 which deals with the right to life of every Indian

citizen.

The impact of the LSHEP on the ecology, bio-diversity and wildlife is immense. The

local people informed the decrease of important wild animals like elephant, bear, langur etc

in the nearby forests because of the noise produced by the dam. Thus, the LSHEP has

violated the provisions of the basic forest and environmental protection acts related to the

protection and preservation of wildlife and wildlife habitats.

It may be noted that the Lower Subansiri Project is facing resistance from the people

of both Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. The people are resisting under the banner of various

organizations like the People’s movement for Subansiri Valley, the Subansiri Bachao

Committee, the Krishak Mukti Sangram Samiti, North East Dialogue Forum, Brahmaputra

Valley Gana Sangram Samiti etc. Various civil society and student organizations like the All

Assam Students’ Union (AASU), the All Dhemaji District Student Union (ADDSU), the

Takam Mising Parim Kaubang (TMPK) etc are also active in raising the voices in certain

core areas of displacement, resettlement and rehabilitation and also on the problem of

artificial flood and environmental degradation unleashed by the dam. The main issues raised

by these organisations are- execution of the report of the expert committee, fresh

environmental clearance to the LSHEP and suspension of its work till the project got fresh

environmental clearance, safety and security of the people of the downstream, infrastructure

development such as establishment of schools, health centres, parks etc, providing sufficient

electricity, better livelihood, job opportunity etc. The protesters alleged that though the expert

committee had confirmed that the subansiri dam would cause devastation to the people of the

downstream, the centre as well as the state governments had not taken any step to stop the

dam. All the organisations also protested against the carrying of the turbines to the

Gerukamukh site of the LSHEP. But it is important to mention here that the till date 5 out of



8 turbines have been installed and the power cable towers have already been set up for

transmission of electricity from the LSHEP.

Responses of State Government

Faced with protests in Assam against big dams in the upper reaches of the

Brahmaputra, the Ministry of Power has commissioned a number of studies. Along with that

the Ministry of Environment and Forest has made assessment of downstream impact

mandatory.14

The union Ministry of Environment and Forest on September 10, 2010

announced that no hydro electric power project would get clearance from Ministry of

Environment and Forest without a comprehensive bio-diversity and culminative impact

study.15

The Indian Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh also assured the people that a

technical committee would study the under constructed LSHEP and if any flaws are detected,

the committee would try to rectify them.16

The State Power Minister of Assam said that the

Assam Government wanted adequate safeguards against any possible adverse impact the

proposed mega dam might have on the downstream areas. And the safeguards should be

taken on the basis of comprehensive scientific studies to be conducted by government

Agencies like the Power Ministry, the Central Water Commission, the Central Electricity

Authority, and the Ministry of Environment and Forest.17

The rulling congress pasrty is for an

in-depth assessment of the impact of the mega dams including LSHEP for mitigating the

adverse effects and compensating the people. The Chief Minister of Assam also suggested the

Union Power Minister to appoint a multi-disciplinary expert committee to study the impact of

the LHSEP and also to initiate scientific studies for removing all the doubts on the safety and

the adverse impacts of the LSHEP and other such hydel projects proposed in the NE region.

Conclusion

The Lower subansiri Basin in Assam supports an ethnically diverse population that

sustains itself primarily on traditional agriculture, fishery and allied activities. The on-going

14

“Mega Dams in North East India: Downstream Impact Study made mandatory”, The Assam Tribune, 26 november,2009 15

The Assam Tribune, September 11,2010, Guwahati. 16

The Assam Tribune, October 31,2010, Guwahati. 17

The Telegraph, July 24, 2010, Guwahati.



LSHEP is likely to have a cumulative impact of different dimensions right from the

immediate downstream impact to the confluence with the Brahmaputra. The LSHEP has the

potential to jeopardize the lives and livelihood of a large number of people in the downstream

areas besides impacting the environment. On the other hand, the State Government and the

concerned authorities fail to win the confidence of the affected people regarding their safety

and security issues as the LSHEP is situated in an earthquake prone area. Moreover the

Central Government is not interested to halt the work of the LSHEP as it has already spent

hundreds of thousands on the construction and it is not possible to bring any structural

changes at this stage. Except the Dibang Multipurpose project, none of the 167 projects have

any provision for flood water storage. The release of water for the operation of the project

can create dam-induced flood in the downstream areas. India does not have any clear cut

resettlement and rehabilitation policy and the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 is also a

controversial one. Now, it is the time to place the issue of development with the issue of

livelihood, rights, dignity and security of the people in the popular politics of New Social

Movements and it is equally important to include the international guidelines on dam-induced

displacement to the policies that Central or State Government is going to adopt to deal with

the problems of resettlement and rehabilitation of the development- induced displaced people.

It is also hoped that the proposed Land Acquisition, Resettlement and Rehabilitation Bill,

2011 will give weightage to humanitarian issues over state-centred developmental policy for

the overall development of the society.

References

Bharali, Gita. “Development –induced Displacement and Human Security in Assam”

in Akhil Ranjan Dutta’s (ed). Human Security in North East India, Anwesha,

Guwahati

Das, Samir Kumar (ed). Blisters on their Feet: Tales of the Internally Displaced

People of India’s North East, Sage Studies on India’s North East, New Delhi, 2008

Fernandez, Walter and Sanjoy Borbora.“Development, Displacement and Right to

Life” in Samir Kumar Das (ed). Blisters on their Feet: Tales of the Internally

Displaced People of India’s North East, Sage Studies on India’s North East, New

Delhi, 2008.



Fernandez,Walter and Gita Bharali. Development-Induced Displacement and

Deprivation in Assam 1947-2000: A Quantitative and Qualitative Study of Its Extent

and Nature, North East Social Research Centre, Guwahati, 2006.

Gohain, Hiren. Brihat Nadibandh aru Axomar Biparjay, Bhabani Print and

Publications, Guwahati, December,2010

Hussain,Monirul. Interrogating Development: State, Displacement and Popular

Resistance in North East India, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 2008

Menon, Manju and Kanchi Kohli. Large Dams for Hydro Power in North East India,

Kalpavrikh, South Asian Network on Dams Rivers and People, 2005.

Riba, Timo. “Proposed Subansiri Hydel Project: A Case Study of Potential

Displacement” in Samir Kumar Das(ed). Blisters on their Feet: Tales of the Internally

Displaced People of India’s North East, Sage Studies on India’s North East, New

Delhi, 2008.

Talukdar, Mrinal and Kishor Kumar Kalita (eds). Brihat Bandh and Assam, Bhabani

Print and Publications, Guwahati, December,2010

Thomas C. Joshua (ed). Dimensions of Displaced People in North East India,

Regency Publications, New Delhi, 2002.

*********************************************************************

*



ROLE OF TEACHER EDUCATORS/ K-12 EDUCATORS: PREPARATION &

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Sarmila Banerjee18

Abstract:

The role of teacher educators today is to mend the existing system with vision to help teacher

education grow as a profession and produce quality teachers for schools. This article

discusses the role and examines the consequences of modeling by teacher educators as a

means of changing the views and practices of future teachers. Teacher educators are

responsible for producing quality teachers. As pointed by Harvey (1993) and Atwood (2007)

that Quality processes tend to focus on ‘core’ aspects of education such as learning-teaching

and course organization. In other words teacher educators’ way of organizing theoretical

framework, practical sessions and skills development programme affect the future teachers.

The activities suggested during training are carried to the classroom teaching in the schools.

Researchers like McAffrey et.al. (2003), Rivkin et.al. (2005) and Rockoff (2004) found that

teachers have a significant impact on the achievement of the students. However, research

studies are genuine to provide answer to the question if the teacher educators directly affect

the teachers’ classrooms behavior or management of activities in the schools. There could be

many reasons for this.

Teacher Educator are “All those who actively facilitate the (formal) learning of student

teachers and teachers”. This includes those, involved in the continuing professional

development of teachers as well as those involved in Initial Teacher Education.

PREPARING TEACHER EDUCATORS

Teacher educators who are competent and professionally equipped for the job will

obviously produce prospective and effective teachers through proper education and training.

The professional competence of teacher educators predicts the quality of pedagogical inputs

in teacher education programmes and the manner in which they are transacted to realize their

intended objectives are also determined by them. The need and importance of professionally

18 Ph.D Scholar (Dept. of Edu. V.B.) & Lecturer (S.B.B.Ed. Tr. Inst.), Santineketan, e-mail-

[email protected], Mob. +91 9474410600

mailto:[email protected]



trained teacher educators has been emphasized in statements on educational policy many

times, but the situation on the ground remains poor; there is severe shortage of properly

qualified and professionally trained teacher educators at all stages of education and especially

at the elementary stage. The shortage refers to both inadequacies of required numbers as well

as to mismatch in the qualifications of teacher educators and their job requirements.

Existing Arrangements for Training of Teacher Educators – Status and Critique

Teacher education programmes in ECE(Early Childhood Education) should develop

in the trainee concepts, competencies, attitudes and skills related to implementation of

developmentally appropriate curriculum based on child-centred and play and activitybased

approach: cognitive and language development, health and nutrition, social –emotional

development, physical and psychomotor development, aesthetic development, creativity and

play, programme planning and school organization, community mobilization and

participation. Teacher educator who has a sound educational philosophy of ECE besides

specialized content and methodology skills pertaining to the above areas are required.

Available Institutional arrangements for preschool teacher education are grossly inadequate

considering the expected expansion of pre-school education sector in the coming years. Also

there is need to evolve specially designed programmes at the degree and post-degree levels

for the training of teacher educators. One possibility is to develop the M.Ed as a teacher

educator training programme with specialization in pre-school / elementary / secondary

teacher education.

NCTE was established in 1993 by the Act of parliament to give the tinge of

professionalism to teacher preparation programme. Instead of mending the system it caused

some damage to the programme of teacher education because of the lack of insight on the

part of teacher educators to provide a good model of teacher education. Teacher educators

instead of taking the aspect of professionalism seriously, have been criticizing the process of

teacher education rather than providing answer to problem faced by them. A good model of

teacher education programme has not been produced till now. Existing teacher education

problems were further increased by the privatization of teacher education institutions. Private

enterprises in teacher education programme were never accepted by them, though they had

been party in recognizing the private teacher education institutions (through NCTE) for the

sake of fringe benefits bestowed by the private players. The situation deteriorated to such an



extent that at particular time a committee was constituted by the Ministry of Human resource

Development to scrap the regulatory body of teacher education (NCTE). The situation was

saved by some right thinking teacher educators to reverse the decision after a great hue and

cry. The teacher educators gave a little thinking to their role in the changed set up under

Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization after developments like this happened.

CONTRIBUTION OF TEACHER EDUCATORS

The teacher educators have much to contribute to the development of quality amongst

the teachers. Simply criticizing the system in the name of NCTE should be stopped and their

role should be emphasized. If they do not contribute, they will move from the current

marginalized status to the one of irrelevance. According to Liston et. al. (2008) they will have

to respond at both conceptual/empirical and pedagogical levels.

The first and foremost thing is to accept the existing realities of the world, i.e., Privatization

of the educational system and it cannot be denied at any cost. The existing teacher education

colleges or the University departments of education cannot accommodate all the aspirants.

Thus the nation at such a juncture will have to depend on private participation in education

system of the country. This Mass Education does not Necessarily Mean the End of Quality.

In India Teacher education programme has never been based on demand and supply

phenomenon. So in such a situation there is a need to draft teacher education courses that

have totally specialized knowledge, specialized skills and inherent code of ethics. There

should be good theoretical base. Depending only on Philosophy, psychology or such other

subjects they should bring up a body of knowledge that the future teachers start

philosophizing or thinking psychologically to find solution to their classroom problems. They

should start devising the knowledge akin to the discipline of education, i.e., like learning

styles, thinking skills etc.

Secondly, the teacher educators will have to develop specialized skills that add quality to the

professional functioning. Skills of quality teaching and quality assessment are most desired.

Quality teaching skills involve the process of making students work hard and become

independent learner. Similarly the teacher trainees have to be trained in quality assessment

procedure which requires the trainees to assess the students with respect to their thinking

process and learning styles. The skills related to feed back have to be developed amongst

future teachers so that the feedback is accepted openly in the same manner.



Thirdly teacher educators should develop functions other than teaching by making teacher

education degree/ diploma broad based with respect to changing times. Many dimensions

with specializations will have to be added since the future teaching will not be limited to

classroom teaching alone. Students will not depend upon teachers to seek knowledge about

subject matter but find better transmitter of knowledge in media. But they will not be able to

negate the teachers as they will require help of the teachers to solve their day-to-day learning

or behavioral problems. Even the parents of the students will seek indulgence of teachers in

achieving their aspired goals. The future schools will be having trauma centre’s on their

campus and will depend upon teachers’ skills to solve various issues related to behavioral

problems of students. So the teacher educators will have to design course curricula to

accommodate such functions of the teachers. Specializations like Public Relationing, Parent

Counseling, Behavioral Therapy, Developing e-learning material etc. will have to be included

in the course curricula of teacher education. All such dimensions have to be added to the

teacher education courses if these courses have to exist in the future.

Fourthly, the whole nature and process of teacher education will have to be worked out

differently, as the existing teacher education programme is divided in to different academic

papers and sections. The academic papers are Principles of Education and Educational

Psychology etc and while teaching these courses, the teacher educators emphasize

information aspect only (having no relevance to classroom teaching or school problems). The

student teachers are never taught ‘how to use the information for solving problems related to

school education in general and teaching in particular’. Keeping in view the limitations of

discipline oriented approach the teacher educators should visualize Problem oriented

approach. A comprehensive list of various problems faced by various functionaries be

developed through field based working and the student teachers should be asked to find out

workable solutions to the problems. This is possible by having flexible, experience based,

process oriented teacher education programme; wherein the student teachers are trained in

analyzing the problem, developing hypotheses, collecting relevant data and drawing

conclusions. Later the student teachers discuss these conclusions with large group to work on

the solutions in simulated set up. Such a Project based teacher education programme will help

in establishing credibility of teacher education programme. The apex institution like NCTE

should work with a vision to metamorphose the existing teacher education programme.



Fifthly, the teacher educators will have to organize their research as per the needs of

the society and the market forces. Liston et.al. (2008) in his editorial pointed out that

“Teacher quality research emerges from different conceptual lenses, some less familiar to

educators (e.g., labour economies). It is important to grasp varied theories of action implied

and to analyze assumptions and values in different research designs.” To put it in simpler

words, it connotes that research process and research problems in education should be such

that these solve societal problems from different angles. For example the society in India at

present is being faced with problems like violence by schools students, sex linked problems

at primary stage, aspiration of parents that their child should lead the class in every activity,

going for tuitions even at pre-primary level, etc. The answer to such problems is not simple.

It involves knowledge of sociology, psychology as well as economics. The teacher educators

need to get all essential knowledge to take up the issue and find workable solutions. After all

it is the teacher educators who teach about the nature of the child and work directly in the

field.

Identity and commitment of Teacher Educator

It can be concluded, therefore, that there is many different kinds of people who share

responsibility for educating teachers, but they do not share the same levels of commitment to

Teacher Education, the same ideas about quality in teaching, or a common system of

professional values. Different Teacher Educators adopt very different – and often multiple -

professional identities according to research evidence which has only started to emerge.

According to Swennen et al (2010), four sub-identities of teacher educators in the literature

are found: teacher educators as school teachers, teacher educators as teachers in higher

education, teacher educators as researchers and teacher educators as teachers of teachers (or

second-order teachers). Professional identity is in part linked to the professional competences

deployed. Although some phases of Teacher Education are located within Higher Education,

it is important to recognize that, to be effective, Teacher Educators are required to deploy

specific competences in addition to those required of other university or school teachers; in

particular, as second order teachers, they require competence in:

• reflecting upon how they teach,



• communicating about how they teach, and

• modeling good teaching practice to student-teachers.

Teacher Educators have a dual role: to be producers of knowledge about education, learning

and teaching, and to be educators of teachers. But many Teacher Educators do not undertake

research into teaching. Teacher Educators are key actors for quality in education, as Snoek et

al (2010) have pointed out: “When the general consensus is that teachers are the most

important in-school factor influencing the quality of their pupils’ learning, it seems

appropriate to assume that teacher educators are an important factor influencing the quality of

the learning of student teachers. The issue of the quality of the teacher educator then becomes

an issue of paramount importance.” In Europe to be little explicit policy either to define what

quality means in Teacher Education or to define the formal education or professional

development requirements of teacher educators. Based upon information about the countries

few States have set standards for Teacher Education or defined the competences required to

be allowed to work as a Teacher Educator. Some examples do exist, in Portugal, for

example, Teacher Educator competences are specified in law; in Austria, a list of Teacher

Educator competences is currently being prepared, and in the Netherlands, the relevant

professional body has devised a set of professional standards for teacher educators. A

question for further discussion is whether different competence profiles are justified for

Teacher Educators working in different contexts (e.g. Higher Education, school …).

Because of the wide range of competences required by Teacher Educators, a team approach is

desirable, such that the Teacher Educator team as a whole possesses the full range, with

individual members of the team bringing different areas of knowledge and expertise. This

approach requires effective management. The areas of expertise or knowledge required by

Teacher Educators (many of which are distinct from those required by other teachers in

Higher Education, or by teachers at other levels of education) include:

• the pedagogy of educating teachers

• educational studies

• (practice-based) research

• schools as institutions



• professionalism

• the discipline

• the discipline as school subject

• the discipline didactics

• general didactics

• school-based education

• new skills (e.g. transversal Key Competences, digital competences …) (based upon

Jónasson, 2010) . Thus it was concluded that the competences required by Teacher Educators

include:

• first order teacher competences (competence in teaching learners)

• second order teacher competences (competence in teaching about teaching)

• knowledge development (research)

• system competences

• transversal competences

• leadership competences • competences in collaborating and making connecting

school leaders to use the same frame of reference for teacher quality and professional

development. To define competences required, professional standards and ‘quality’ for

Teacher Educators; a starting point the existing national competence profiles or standards can

be taken. One aim could be to devise on a European level an illustrative Frame of Reference

for the professional development and assessment of Teacher Educators that can inspire and

support the development of profiles or standards on the national level.

Lifelong Learning for Teacher Educators

Lifelong Learning is as important for Teacher Educators as it is for teachers and others, and

provision should be structured as a coherent continuum. The form that the Initial Education



of Teacher Educators should take requires further discussion. Teachers have to prepare young

people with the competences they need to enter a world that is in rapid evolution; this means

that school curricula, and approaches to the organization of education and to teaching need to

adapt very rapidly to the changing needs of society and of the economy. As the people

responsible for making sure that teachers’ knowledge, skills and attitudes are kept up to date,

Teacher Educators must themselves be open to constant evolution in their own professional

body of knowledge, skills and attitudes, and must be able to adapt rapidly to changing needs.

All Teacher Educators, whatever their point of departure, need to take part in a suitable

programme of induction into the profession of Teacher Educator as well as into their new

employer institution. Thereafter, they need access to continuing professional development

opportunities of the highest quality, throughout their careers; these might be course-based or

tailor-made, formal or non-formal, individual or collective. The possibility of developing a

common frame of reference for the induction of Teacher Educators was suggested.An issue

requiring careful consideration is whether all Teacher Educators should possess a teaching

qualification. Another question is about the level of Teacher Educators' qualifications and

competences; one view is that a Teacher Educator should always have, or be working

towards, a qualification higher than the qualification of those s/he is teaching.All types of

Teacher Educator, at all levels need to have access to an adequate supply of suitable

educational and professional development opportunities. In this regard, it should be borne in

mind that ‘qualification’ can mean more than BA, MA, or PhD. It may be that other courses

leading to other qualifications need to be developed to cater for the varied needs of different

kinds of Teacher Educator. The potential offered by Professional or Educational Doctorates

should be further explored. The stakeholders who need to be involved in decisions about the

profession of Teacher Educator include:

• Government / educational authorities

• Employers of Teacher Educators

• Teacher Educators themselves

• Employers of teachers

• Teachers



• Professional Associations of Teacher Educators

• External quality agencies

• Unions

For the work of Teacher Educators to be fully effective, a number of conditions need to

be met. These include, for example: • creating the necessary conditions / legislative

framework in which the Teacher Educator profession can be most effective;

• safeguarding the coherence of the Teacher Educator system;

• providing a framework for quality within the Teacher Educator profession and in Teacher

Education generally;

• setting quality criteria for the (initial and continuing) education and development of

Teacher Educators

• setting competence criteria for the selection of Teacher Educators;

• regularly assessing the quality of Teacher Educators;

• providing adequate Initial Education, induction and opportunities for Teacher

Educators. Whilst the mechanisms for undertaking these responsibilities, and the stakeholders

involved may, of course, vary according to different national contexts, it would appear

that in many countries some of these key conditions are not being met, often because it

is unclear who is responsible for them, with the negative consequences for the

profession that have been highlighted above.

Conclusion: Teacher Educators are the key players in the endeavor to improve the quality of

teacher education; they should therefore be supported to be the kingpins in innovation both

within teacher education and in schools .Furthermore, Teacher Educators are role models.



From them, many teachers acquire the competences (knowledge, skills and values) that they

deploy in the classroom. By modeling effective teaching strategies, Teacher Educators

potentially play a key role both in maintaining and in improving the quality of the education

system (through their impact on student teachers and serving teachers) and in developing it

(through their role as developers and mediators of knowledge about education, and as

educational innovators).Against the background of recent developments, teacher education,

which for a long time in many countries was outside, and cut off from, mainstream Higher

Education, is now gradually finding a new place in Higher Education systems. This has not

been without significant challenges for the profession, and its consequences are still

unfolding. However, it is still premature in many states to refer to ‘a Teacher Education

system’, as if there were a single, coordinated and coherent continuum encompassing Initial

Teacher Education, Induction and continuing professional. Current policy discourse in

Europe and in other parts of the world emphasizes the crucial role played by the teaching

profession in helping young people to acquire the competences they need to develop their full

potential and to be active members of society and of the workforce. For this reason, the

development of policies to help raise the quality of the teaching profession is high on the

agenda in many countries .The publication of the European Commission’s Communication

‘Improving the Quality of Teacher Education ’in 2007, teacher education has moved higher

up the political agenda in

Europe. It is agreed that improving the quality of education requires improving quality of

teaching, and therefore of Teacher Education. Until recently, little attention has been paid to

the profession that plays the central role in this endeavor: the profession of Teacher Educator

sometimes called 'the hidden profession'. However, it is agreed, amongst other things, that

Teacher Educators should have ‘solid practical teaching’.

References:

1.Malhotra S.P. Teacher Educators’ Role in Enhancing Teacher Quality www.aiaer. Net/

ejournal/ vol 2010 8/2.htm

2. The Professional development of Teacher Educators.ec. europaeu/ education/ school-

education/ doc. Prof-en.pdf.’ The profession of Teacher Educators in Europe’( Education and

http://www.aiaer/



Training 2010 programme. Cluster ‘Teachers and Trainers’. Report of a Peer Learning

Activity in Reykjavik, Iceland, 21-24 June2010.

3.Snoek M, Swennen A, van der Klink M: ‘The quality of teacher educators in the European

policy debate, Actions and measures to improve professionalism of teacher educators’. Paper

presented at the ATEE Conference 2009, Palma de Mallorca.

4.Swennen A, Jones K, Volman M: ‘Teacher educators: their identities, sub-identities and

implications for professional development’, Professional Development in Education Vol. 36,

Nos. 1–2, March–June 2010, pp. 131–148

5.Swennen A, van der Klink M (Eds.): ‘Becoming a Teacher Educator: theory and practice

for

Teacher Educators’, Springer, 2009.

**********************************************************************



CONSTRUCTIVISM IN SCHOOLS:

IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMMES

Ms Sonal Chabra*, Ms Chetna* & Dr. Manorama Mathur**19

Education bears the impact of the newer developments in allied fields like

psychology, cognitive learning, philosophy and others. Constructivism is undoubtedly a main

theoretical influence in contemporary teaching-learning practices. Some would say it is the

major influence. Constructivism seemingly fits in with, and supports, a range of multicultural,

and broadly reformist programmes in education. Although constructivism began as a theory

of learning, it has progressively expanded its dominion, becoming a theory of teaching, a

theory of education, a theory of the origin of ideas, and a theory of both personal knowledge

and scientific knowledge. Indeed constructivism has become education’s version of the

‘grand unified theory’.

Historical figures like Immanuel Kant, John Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner and

others have influenced the premise of constructivism. Various notions of constructivism have

been prevalent in the academic circle. In simple words, constructivism is a theory of

knowledge which argues that humans generate knowledge and meaning from their

experiences. Scholars view constructivist learning as an active process where learners should

learn to discover principles, concepts and facts for themselves. Knowledge is thus a product

of humans and is socially and culturally constructed. Learning is not a process that only takes

place inside our minds, nor is it a passive development of our behaviours that is shaped by

external forces and that meaningful learning occurs when individuals are engaged in social

19

* Assistant Professor, Rawal College of Education, Faridabad ** Principal, Aravali College of Advanced Studies in Education, Faridabad

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey



activities. This means that the learning experience is both subjective and objective and

requires that the culture, values and background become an essential part in the shaping of

meaning. Constructivism advocates learner-centred, activity-centred interactive pedagogical

approach. Constructivism thus emphasizes the importance of the learner being actively

involved in the learning process, unlike previous educational viewpoints where the

responsibility rested with the instructor to teach and where the learner played a passive,

receptive role.

In past centuries, constructivist ideas were not widely valued due to the perception

that children's play was aimless and of little importance. However, Jean Piaget differed from

these traditional views. He saw play as an important and necessary part of the student's

cognitive development and provided scientific evidence for his views. Hence, formalization

of the theory of constructivism is generally attributed to him, who articulated mechanisms by

which knowledge is internalized by learners. He suggested that through processes of

accommodation and assimilation, individuals construct new knowledge from their

experiences. It is important to appreciate that constructivism is not a particular pedagogy. In

fact, constructivism is a theory describing how learning happens, regardless of whether

learners are using their experiences to understand a lecture or following the instructions.

Brooks and Brooks (1993) clearly state that "in order for learning to take place in

schools, teachers must become constructivist, that is, in the classroom, they must provide a

learning environment where students search for meaning, appreciate uncertainty, and inquire

responsibly." The NCF (National Curriculum Framework) 2000 and 2005 by NCERT

strongly support the constructivist and learner-centred approach in school education. The

premise of constructivism is not just an ideal or purely normative theory: it purports to give

scientific guidance about human learning and the process of knowledge production; and

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_learning

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_development

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogy



philosophical guidance about the epistemological status of what is being learned. With

constructivism in classrooms at school level, it leaves a lot of changes in the role the teacher

has to play in such a setting.

CHANGING ROLE OF TEACHER IN THE CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING PROCESS

It has been well accepted that the role of teacher changes in the constructivist

classrooms. The teacher would move from the role of instructor to the role of facilitator on

the continuum of teaching. Where the instructor gives a didactic lecture which covers the

subject matter, a facilitator helps the learner to get to his or her own understanding of the

content. In the former scenario the learner plays a passive role and in the latter scenario the

learner plays an active role in the learning process. The emphasis thus turns away from the

instructor and the content, and towards the learner (Gamoran, Secada, & Marrett, 1998). This

dramatic change of role implies that a facilitator needs to display a totally different set of

skills than a teacher (Brownstein 2001). A teacher tells, a facilitator asks; a teacher lectures

from the front, a facilitator supports from the back; a teacher gives answers according to a set

curriculum, a facilitator provides guidelines and creates the environment for the learner to

arrive at his or her own conclusions; a teacher mostly gives a monologue, a facilitator is in

continuous dialogue with the learners (Rhodes and Bellamy, 1999). A facilitator should also

be able to adapt the learning experience ‘in mid-air’ by using his or her own initiative in

order to steer the learning experience to where the learners want to create value. A further

characteristic of the role of the facilitator in the social constructivist viewpoint, is that the

instructor and the learners are equally involved in learning from each other as well (Holt and

Willard-Holt 2000). Learners compare their version of the truth with that of the instructor and

fellow learners in order to get to a new, socially tested version of truth. The task or problem is

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didacticism



thus the interface between the instructor and the learner. This creates a dynamic interaction

between task, instructor and learner. This entails that learners and instructors should develop

an awareness of each other's viewpoints and then look to their own beliefs, standards and

values, thus being both subjective and objective at the same time. The teachers have to

sometimes assume the role of a escort keeping in mind the importance of mentoring in the

process of learning. David Jonassen identified three major roles for facilitators to support

students in constructivist learning environments: Modeling, Coaching and Scaffolding. The

role of the teacher is to organise information around conceptual framework of problems,

questions, and discrepant situations. The most essential and indispensable role of the teacher

is to try to understand his students and to help each one in his growth and development.

SKILLS EXPECTED FROM A CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHER

In light of the changing role of the teacher in the constructivist classroom, it would be

wise to pen down at one place, the skills and qualities expected from such a teacher. Teaching

based on constructivist principles is demanding and requires a great deal of expertise. It

opens new approaches as well as challenges for teachers trying to implement it. The learner

centred approach does not reduce the importance of teachers. On the other hand, their role

becomes more complex, difficult and pivotal. The superlative quality for a constructivist

teacher to have is the ‘instantaneous and intuitive vision of the pupils’ mind as it goes gropes

and fumbles to grasp a new idea’ (Brooks and Brooks, 1993). They have to get prepared for

this new responsibility by creating insights, outlooks and competencies. Teachers have to

play a catalytic role.

In most pedagogies based on constructivism, the teacher's role is not only to observe

and assess but to also engage with the students while they are completing activities,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coaching



wondering aloud and posing questions to the students for promotion of reasoning (DeVries et

al., 2002). The teacher should thus have the corresponding skills. Putting it all together,

different constructivist approaches recommend that educators:

♦ Embed learning in complex, realistic and relevant learning environments.

♦ Provide for social negotiation and shared responsibility as a part of learning.

♦ Support multiple perspectives and use multiple representations of content.

♦ Nurture self-awareness and an understanding that knowledge is constructed and

♦ Encourage ownership in learning (Driscoll, 2000).

The teachers should have a whole bunch of skills to encourage students to take

initiative for their own learning. To sum it up, the qualities, capacities and skills that should

be exhibited by a constructivist teacher are:

(a) A spontaneous but well-cultivated interest in observing students with deep insight and

sympathy;

(b) Psychological tact to deal with collective and individual needs of growth of students;

(c) Capacity to lead students to the art of self- learning;

(d) A cheerful and enthusiastic disposition capable of inspiring students to pursue their work

with sincerity and dedication;

(e) Capacity of guiding and counselling, more by suggesting and by uplifting example rather

than by lecturing;

(g) Capacity to handle self-learning equipment, audio- visual instruments and various kinds

of new learning materials including work sheets, workbooks, programmed books, test

papers with auto-correcting components and other materials required, for vocational

guiadnce;

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasoning



(h) Knowledge of art and science of educating the personality in all its aspects with a special

emphasis on integration, harmony and excellence.

(i) The teachers should be well versed with instructional methods like problem-solving,

inquiry training, discovery method and other teaching schemes.

HOW WOULD TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS ADAPT TO CONSTRUCTIVIST

EXPECTATIONS?

While it may inform and influence practice, constructivism is a theory of learning, not

a theory of teaching (Wolffe & McMullen, 1996), and translating theory to practice is both

difficult and imprecise (MacKinnon & Scarf-Seatter, 1997). However, education literature

documents several large- and small-scale efforts to do so. These efforts need to be organized

so that consequential steps can be taken in the direction. The first target group which needs to

be focused is the teachers. It is a topic of discussion at different platforms that teachers

should adapt to this changing expectations. It is the teacher education programs which hold

the responsibility of preparing teachers, hence it becomes the accountability of teacher

education programs to instill these skills in our teachers both through pre-service and in-

service education. Consequently, a constructivist approach to teacher education is needed so

that students in schools can develop problem-solving and critical-thinking skills. To promote

constructivism in schools, pre-service teachers must engage in constructivist processes

throughout their education. Following paragraphs highlight the adaptations in the teacher

education programmes that can be made to arrange constructivist teachers for our children in

their classrooms.

Constructivism and objectives: The focus of the teacher education programmes should be to

make the p teachers ready to rethink and change the criteria and basic situation of the



teaching profession, in which the job of educating and stimulating students is steadily

superseding that of simply giving instructions. The teacher trainees should be taught to take

responsibility of their own learning. Another key to a successful transition to a constructivist

classroom involves helping teachers trainees rethink the source and role of authority within a

class structure. The objective should be to make the prospective teachers realize that teachers

and learners are partners in the process and teaching cannot be viewed as the transmission of

knowledge from enlightened to unenlightened. Efforts should be made in these programs to

help teacher education students deconstruct their own prior knowledge and attitudes,

comprehend how these understandings evolved, explore the effects they have on actions and

behavior, and consider alternate conceptions and premises that may be more serviceable in

teaching.

Constructivism and program design: The first realization in designing a constructivist

program is that it takes time for students to actually address their beliefs and construct new

insights. For many teacher preparation programs, the first move should be to increase the

course time and spacing of program components. Far too often teacher preparation methods

courses take place for a few weeks, and the students are moved immediately into teaching

practice. Different practicals should be given due attention because their absence leaves

students with an information base without context. The whole program should be based on

situated learning. Situated learning is where the student takes part in activities which are

directly relevant to the application of learning and which take place within a culture similar to

the applied setting. The knowledge given should not be decontextualised because of it

obvious limitations.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situated_learning



Constructivism and teaching methods: Teacher education programs should teach

prospective teachers how to teach in a constructivist, generally Piagetian, manner. They

should be characterized by substantial direct instruction in theory and practice, and

complementary opportunities for inquiry, discovery, or self-examination. This approach

should not become overly prescriptive. If this occurs, the teacher educator models an

approach to teaching that is essentially antithetical to the approach student teachers are

intended to employ in their future classrooms. Teacher educators' should model constructivist

approaches and should combine lectures with seminars, tutorials, demonstrations, exhibitions

and individualised guidance so as to make the process of training as effective as possible. The

different methods involved should entail dynamic interaction between task, instructor and

learner. These could be in the form of reciprocal teaching (two learners teach each other),

critical explorations, tutoring, cognitively guided instruction, anchored instruction, cognitive

apprenticeship, problem-based instruction, web quests, and similar approaches that involve

learning with others. Constructivist approaches can also be used in online learning. For

example, tools such as discussion forums, wikis and blogs can enable learners to actively

construct knowledge.

Constructivism and learning environment: It has been recommended that the conditions in

which teachers are trained should be profoundly changed so that, essentially, they become

educators rather then mere specialists in transmitting pre-established curricula. It has been

underlined that the teaching profession will not be in a position to fulfill its role in the future

unless it is given, and develops itself, a structure better adapted to modern educational

systems. The learning environment should be so designed so as to support and challenge the

learner's thinking. While it is advocated to give the learner ownership of the problem and

solution process, it is not the case that any activity or any solution is adequate. The critical



goal is to support the learner in becoming an effective thinker. This can be achieved by

providing a stimulating learning environment. Highlighting the importance of the learning

environment Albert Einstein said “ I never teach my pupils; I only attempt to provide the

conditions in which they can learn.”

Constructivism and the role of practicum: Early and frequent practicum experiences are

crucial to a constructivist teacher preparation program. More and more, programs are

recognizing the tremendous and essential value of these experiences as they see the results of

constructed understanding in context. This contextual understanding can only develop when

pre-service teachers re-enter this familiar world, no longer as a student but as a prospective

teacher. The process of revisiting challenges many of their pre-conceived ideas and adds real-

world experience, through practicum, to aid in constructing new understandings of teaching

and learning.

Constructivism and methods classes: The methods classes are an essential part of the teacher

training programmes. These must encourage student-to-student interaction, initiating lessons

that foster cooperative learning, and provide opportunities for students to be exposed to

interdisciplinary curriculum. May be the biggest shift is for students to understand that they

are ultimately responsible for their own learning and that this constructivist climate has been

established to facilitate their growth. Teachers as facilitators and guides cannot solve

problems with mechanistic ‘cook book’ recipes. Therefore a constructivist teacher

preparation program, must work at the interface of curriculum and student to bring them

together in a way that is meaningful to the learner. The methods instructor must model the

process of effective questioning and reflection. Only when the teacher exposes their personal



search for hidden biases and models these internal struggles can students begin their own

personal questioning of deeply held teaching beliefs.

Constructivism and assessment: The pattern of assessment should be seen as a continuous

and interactive process that measures the achievement of the learner, the quality of the

learning experience and courseware. The feedback created by the assessment process should

serve as a direct foundation for further development.. Critical analysis and structured

reflection on formal course knowledge and everyday practical experience should be

incorporated in the learning and evaluated in some form.

CHALLENGES FOR TEACHER EDUCATORS

The overarching challenge constructivism presents to teachers and teacher educators

is the formidable task of translating a learning theory into a theory of teaching (MacKinnon

& Scarff-Seatter, 1997). For teacher educators, among other tasks, this involves balancing the

need to acknowledge the different discipline-specific requirements of teaching with the need

to model constructivist methods in teacher education courses and practicum. Next is the shift

from single perspective mindedness to a multi-perspective teaching that values students'

understandings at the expense of "right" answers, required from the teacher educators. At

times it may become difficult for them to accept idiosyncratic student knowledge; 30

different students may arrive at 30 different understandings or interpretations of a concept.

Thirdly, the teacher educators need to become constructivist themselves. To become a

constructivist is to use constructivism as a referent for thoughts and actions. For a variety of

reasons this process is not easy. Besides, the constructivist teaching methods need to be aptly

used. Inappropriately applied, constructivist approaches may lead to the "abandonment" style



of teaching (MacKinnon & Scarff-Seatter, 1997). Constructivist teaching methods should not

become unguided methods of instruction. The concern would be how a teacher applies

constructivist teaching techniques. Martin (1994) and Vadeboncoeur (1997) urge teacher

educators to deconstruct and scrutinize cultural assumptions that underlie various

interpretations of constructivism to expose how social beliefs have influenced the

development of theory and practices. A final challenge faced by educators is the pitfall of

regarding constructivism as the only viable theoretical framework for teaching and learning.

It is one way of thinking about how knowledge and understanding are formed, but it is not the

only way. There are various interpretations of constructivism but these are not necessarily

incompatible with one another.

CONCLUSION

Constructivism has been welcomed as a theory of knowing that fully explains the

dynamics of teaching-learning process. Adopting constructivism accentuates the need to

redefine the role of teacher in the classroom. It has, therefore, been recommended that teacher

training programmes should be so modified that teachers are equipped for the different roles

and functions imposed by new constructs and technologies. A training programme is needed

for both pre-service and in-service teachers on theoretical and practical knowledge about this

approach. The process of learning and constructing knowledge does not end with the “bell

rings” or the end of the course, but rather is an ongoing process throughout the teachers’

candidates career. Constructivist teacher preparation programs are intentionally designed to

be transformational, not just informational. Students are constantly given opportunities to

make new connections in a setting focusing on personal empowerment and critical reflection.

The program challenges both students and teachers to move toward self-directed life-long



learning. Most educators would agree that the basic tenets of constructivism describe the way

we have "always known that people learn." Still some teachers resist constructivist pedagogy

Brooks and Brooks (1993) suggest that resistance to constructivism is due to one of the three

factors: teachers are committed to their present instructional approach, convinced that

students will not learn, or they are uncomfortable giving up control.

In closing, it must be appreciated that at times, different things tried in this course

ultimately will not work and there will be failures. But please remember that if we intend to

increase our successes, we must create a climate where failure is not only okay, but expected

from time to time.

REFERENCES

Brooks, J.G. and Brooks, M.G. (1993). In search of understanding: The case

constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and

Development.

Bigge, M.L. (1982). Learning theories for teachers. New York, Harper and Row.

DeVries et al. (2002) Developing constructivist early childhood curriculum: Practical

principles and activities. Teachers College Press: New York.

Driscoll, M.P. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction (2nd

Ed). Boston: Allyn

and Bacon.

Gamoran, A, Secada, W.G., Marrett, C.A (1998) The organizational context of

teaching and learning: changing theoretical perspectives, in Hallinan, M.T (Eds),

Handbook of sociology of education.

Holt, D. G.; Willard-Holt, C. (2000). "Lets get real – students solving authentic

corporate problems". Phi Delta Kappan, 82 (3).



Kasinath, H.M. (2009). Nature of knowledge in constructivism: Implications for

education, Journal of community guidance and research, Vol.26 No.3pp.259-266.

Koalchick, A & Dawsan, K. (2005). Encyclopedia of education and technology, New

Delhi: Pentagon Press.

MacKinnon, A., & Scarff-Seatter, C. (1997). Constructivism: Contradictions and

confusion in teacher education. In V. Richardson (Ed.), Constructivist teacher

education: Building new understandings (pp.38-55). Washington, DC: Falmer Press.

Martin, R. J. (1994). Multicultural social reconstructionist education: Design for

diversity in teacher education. Teacher education quarterly 21(3), 77-89. EJ 492 141

Vadeboncoeur, J. (1997). Child development and the purpose of education: A

historical context for constructivism in teacher education. In V. Richardson (Ed.),

Constructivist teacher education: Building new understandings (pp. 15-37).

Washington, DC: Falmer Press.

Wolffe, R. J., & McMullen, D. W. (1996). The constructivist connection: Linking

theory, best practice, and technology. Journal of computing in teacher education,

12(2), 25-28. EJ 526 775.

Woolfolk, A.E (1993). Educational psychology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

************************************************************************



MOVEMENT FOR GLOBALIZING NEXT GENERATION

EDUCATION @ ICT

Dr. Asheesh Srivastava20

India has embarked upon a process of economic reforms

since 1991 and as a result it affected almost every sector in which major

is “Education”. National policy on Education, 1986 and process of

major economic reforms started since 1991 created the way for several

new opportunities and challenges. Liberalization, Privatization and

Globalization (LPG) have been the pillars of all changes during reforms.

In this context, the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS),

which was signed under purview of WTO in 1995 and came into force

from 1996 was the step in right direction. The then government

recognized that, “Globalization is a reality which cannot be denied and

should not be avoided. However it needs to be managed. To do this, it is

necessary to continue the process of opening up of the economy to

international competition which was initiated in the VIII five year plan

period, while making parallel efforts to strengthen the potential of Indian

industry to compete effectively in world markets....” (IX plan). Since then

due to globalization India’s socio-economic system has changed

significantly and particularly it has made significant impact on

education.

Introduction:

Schools and universities now have a remarkable opportunity to transform education for a

new generation. Integrated digital learning resources and professional learning services make

it easy to tailor curriculums and monitor progress to help students shine. Educational

institutions are at an important juncture. By collaborating to define a vision for Next

20

Assistant Professor, Department of Education, Vinaya-Bhavana, Visva-Bharati: A Central University & An Institution of National Importance, Santiniketan. Email: [email protected]



Generation Learning and delivering on that vision through a highly integrated digital learning

platform, educators, administrators, and IT decision makers can accelerate the journey. At the

outset, educators are facing some complex questions. What is the best way to blend online

and offline content and integrate formal and informal learning? How can university support

an anytime, anywhere learning experience? How can teachers and instructors incorporate

and encourage social and collaborative experiences within the learning environment? And

what can schools and universities do to harness the power of learning analytics and become

more proficient at fostering successful student outcomes? As educators begin exploring these

issues, common goals paint the picture of a highly integrated educational landscape, rooted in

a unified digital learning platform with an intuitive interface tailored specifically for

educators, students, parents, and administrators. The industry leading Next Generation

Learning platform, based on digital technology, helps schools and universities streamline

access to core educational applications—both new and existing—as well as rich media

resources, education and operational data, and curriculum management tools. Integrating

student information and teaching and learning data with predictive analytics also enables

educators to monitor progress and tailor course content to meet individual student needs.

Professional learning is a key enabler for Next Generation Learning initiatives, helping

educators to transition effectively from print to digital learning environments and to

personalize the educational experience for individual students. It can include targeted training

to incorporate digital collaboration tools, student engagement techniques, and teaching and

learning data into daily teaching practices. An Efficient IT framework plays a pivotal role in

helping educational institutions support these initiatives. Next Generation Learning

environments heighten demands on network bandwidth, IT security, system availability, and

storage. To meet these demands, schools and universities are exploring innovative ways to

drive productivity and enhance accountability. They are finding that a focused vision for

learning coupled with an Efficient IT strategy is fundamental to the undertaking. Rather than

attempting to solve complex problems with short-term, ad hoc fixes, schools and universities

need to take a comprehensive approach. By leveraging their existing technology investments,

institutions can map out a clear, customized path of transformation to achieve their

educational goals. These challenges can be addressed by encompassing three principal areas:

Embracing technology to inspire student success and academic excellence



Providing accurate, actionable education data to make proactive teaching and learning

decisions

Building an Efficient IT infrastructure to support Next Generation Learning initiatives

Building an Efficient IT infrastructure

An Efficient IT approach helps educational institutions optimize services for students,

educators, and administrators by making accurate, comprehensive, and consistent information

available across all district and campus systems. This approach also helps schools and

universities scale effectively to meet growing demands despite limited resources and budgets.

By using analytics to enhance success in communications and interactions with stakeholders,

higher education providers can improve response rates throughout the admissions and fund-

raising processes. Streamlined data handling helps eliminate manual processing of duplicate

or overlapping records and supports security and regulatory compliance by feeding clean,

consolidated, constituent data to identity management systems. Potential advantages of

leveraging cloud computing in educational institutions include the following:

Cost: Schools and universities can opt for a subscription or, in some cases, a pay-as-

you-grow plan—as suits the institution’s model.

Flexibility: Cloud computing allows schools to scale their infrastructure dynamically

as demand fluctuates.

Accessibility: Cloud computing provides options to help shift workloads to hosted

environments and reduce costs through services without jeopardizing the security of

sensitive information.

Information technology in education in general:

It is a commonly acknowledged fact that for last one decade there is a new thrust in

education in general in the form of ICT. Following are the diagrammatic summary of IT’s

effectives uses in education in general-

1. Role of I.C.T. in enhancing Co-operative learning:



2. Role of ICT in globalising higher education:

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is dynamic in nature. It has a lot

of potentiality to improve, manage and globalize different aspects of higher

education-

Group documents creation facilitated by computer ability to shared display and edit data in a group environment.

The computer can manage complex group projects.

Multi media presntation provide an

arena for all students to pool their strength in different skill areas

Telecommunication provide students with

a ability to work together



Extending learning beyond the classroom:

Information technology is playing crucial role in developing and shaping 21st century.

Technology is a tool, which should become part of our educational and research processes

irrespective of region, language, setting etc. But it is necessary to ensure that all hard and

software is available to all. ICT in the global context would demand that the educational

planet look beyond the urban classrooms. We have to devise plans of education in electronic

environment, reaching out far-flung rural areas. Computer literacy, computer-aided learning

instruction and computer based schooling become important inputs in teacher-education.

Globalising Higher

Education

Teaching

Sharing of resources

Professional development of teachers

Increasing accessibility

Research & Development

Virtual university

Human resources

development

Distance education

Total Quality Management

Bridging gap b/w have & have-nots



Curriculum development includes components like innovative items in the areas of media

production, interactive video, virtual reality, and multimedia software. Teacher should adopt

an instrumental design that helps the learner master methods not really used like heuristic

method. It is believed that it would result in a shift from the traditional learning atmosphere

to one that encourages exploration, problem solving, decision-making etc. As mobile learning

environments become prevalent, students need technologies that enable secure, seamless

access to many different kinds of educational experiences. Technology can also transform the

educational experience by helping individuals with special needs to communicate access

information more easily, or provide a voice. However, successful deployment of assistive

technology can be complex because each solution must be custom designed and built to meet

the requirements of the individual student.

Harnessing the Power of Digital Learning in Higher Education:

Technology is playing an increasingly important role in the way students want to

learn, millions of students now taking at least one online course. There is a tremendous

impact of technology on instruction and learning. Some examples include the ability to

redesign entire courses with digitally embedded multimedia resources, provide a more

effective way by which to manage high growth online learning programs and digital learning

assets, and assess and remediate developmental skills. Faculty and instructional designers

spend years creating and curating appropriate content for their courses and programs.

However, this content is usually available only to individual users or, at most, on a

departmental basis. The emergence of inexpensive and highly efficient information networks

has increased the volume of available information. But it has also changed the way in which

information is produced and distributed. While the impact of these changes on society is

clearly far-reaching, its’ significance to higher education is particularly profound given the

fundamental role of information in higher education. Changes of particular significance to

higher education include:

Information used in education is often now available from sources other than higher

education institutions, often at lower costs (or free), and in more convenient forms.



It is far easier for individuals to form communities focused on narrow interests and

needs, including educational, without involvement of mediating educational

institutions.

Increasingly sophisticated search technologies make finding relevant information

easier, often reducing the value of intermediaries. Forecasts suggest that search

capabilities will continue to accelerate in the coming decade.

What constitutes current and relevant information changes more quickly, placing

great pressures on institutions that produce and distribute information to keep pace.

Traditional strategies used for protecting ownership of information (i.e. copyright)

have lagged behind the capacity to share/copy information.

Challenges Arising from Digitization: There are several challenges as follows-

1. Challenges in Higher education:

With the present infrastructure it is difficult to achieve all objectives of higher

education.

2. Urban-Rural Divide:

Educationally the great urban-rural divide has become glaring in most parts of the

country. The villages do have schools- a vast majority of them being single teacher

and on the other hand cities are having schools with all facilities.

3. Language Bar:

Majorly dominated by English language its scope is limited to a particular sector.

4. Challenges of Heterogeneous Indian society:

India is a nation of diversities, and it is very difficult to cope-up all diversities in a

very short span of time.

Conclusion:

There is little doubt about the benefits of digitization of education at every level so far

as next generation leaning in the age of Information and Communication Technology is

concerned. India has done and is doing well in this regard, National Policy on ICT in

School Education is evidence, that government is doing well, but so far as dealing with



the country like India is concerned it needs serious attention. Before implementing IT and

ICT revolutions in the field of education, government are required to fulfil the quantity

crisis at every sector of education irrespective of region and places, only then globalizing

of next generation education @ ICT will be possible in true sense.

References:

Boyer, L.E.: Five Priorities for Quality Schools. Education Digest, 62(1), 1996.

Buch, M.B. (ed.): A Survey of Research in Education. (All Vol.)

Chandola, R.P.: The Real Problems of Indian Education. Book Enclave, Jaipur, 2003.

Chauhan, C.P.S.: Modern Indian Education: Policies, Progress & Problems. Kanishka

Pub., New Delhi, 2004.

Drucker, P.F.: Management: Tasks, Practices, Responsibilities. Harper & Row, New

York, 1974.

GATS, (1995), General Agreement on Trade in Services, WTO Document, Annexes

1B.

Kaufman, R.: Mapping Educational Success. Corwin, California, 1992.

Mukherji, S.N.: Education in India Today & Tomorrow. Vinod Pustak Mandir, Agra,

1992.

NIEPA: Globalisation & Challenges for Education. Shipra Publications, Delhi, 2008.

Fidler, B.: Strategic Planning for School Improvement. London, Pitman, 1996.

Reddy, G.S.(ed.): Current Issues in Education. Neelkamal, Hydrabad, 2007.

Mukhopadhyay, M.: Total Quality Management in Education. SAGE, 2005.

Sansanwal,D.N., (2000), Information Technology and Higher Education, University

News, 38(46)

International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, New York, Free Press, 1979.

http://www.unesco.org

http://www.ugc.ac.in

http://www.ncert.nic

http://www.education.nic

http://www.wto.org

http://www.education.nic/

http://www.wto.org/



A Conceptual Understanding of Constructivist Pedagogy

Dr. Deepa Mehta

ABSTRACT

There has been a continuous search of a viable teaching learning theory for the learners.

Although, many theories have been developed but a consensus builds up that involvement of

the learner makes learning effective and meaningful. Such consideration further led to

emergence of a theory called constructivism. It is basically a theory -- based on observation

and scientific study -- about how people learn. It says that people construct their own

understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on

those experiences.

Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the activity is helping

them gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies, students in the

constructivist classroom ideally become "expert learners." This gives them ever-broadening

tools to keep learning. With a well-planned classroom environment, the students learn how to

learn. Thus, it is sound understanding of constructivism is needed among teachers of present

generation. In this context the present paper in-depth deals the concept of constructivism and

its different components. Some suggestions for teachers have also been given to adopt this

theory in their classrooms.

Key word: Constructivism, Learning theories, Child centred methods, innovative

teaching methods.

Assistant Professor (Stage-2), Faculty of Education, Banaras Hindu University, Kamachha, Varanasi, UP - 221010



A Conceptual Understanding of Constructivist Pedagogy

Dr. Deepa Mehta

Constructivism is a theory of learning and an approach to education that lays emphasis on

the ways that people create meaning of the world through a series of individual constructs.

Constructs are the different types of filters we choose to place over our realities to change our

reality from chaos to order. Von Glasersfeld describes constructivism as, “a theory of

knowledge with roots in philosophy, psychology, and cybernetics” (Glaserfeld, 1989).

Simply stated, it is a learning process which allows a student to experience an environment

first-hand, thereby, giving the student reliable, trust-worthy knowledge. The student is

required to act upon the environment to both acquire and test new knowledge

The constructivist pedagogy involves the following characteristics (Richardson, 2003):

1. Attention to the individual and respect for students' background and developing

understandings of and beliefs about elements of the domain (this could also be described as

student-cantered);

2. Facilitation of group dialogue that explores an element of the domain with the purpose of

leading to the creation and shared understanding of a topic;

3. Planned and often unplanned introduction of formal domain knowledge into the

conversation through direct instruction, reference to text, exploration of a Web site, or some

other means.4

4. Provision of opportunities for students to determine, challenge, change or add to existing

beliefs and understandings through engagement in tasks that are structured for this purpose;

and

5. Development of students' met awareness of their own understandings and learning

processes.

The characteristics of constructivist learning shows an environment where due recognition

would be ensured for each uniqueness in the individual. It may emanate from cognitive

domains to all other domains of learners personality. The inclusive education movement is

Assistant Professor (Stage-2), Faculty of Education, Banaras Hindu University, Kamachha, Varanasi, UP - 221010

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_%28education%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_construct_theory



also one of the reflections of such principle. Further, students may also differ in terms of their

socio economic characteristics. These differences should be properly addressed within and

outside of the classroom. Another important characteristic is to allow the learners to work in

groups and encourage collective learning. In traditional sense teacher has always been

conceived some who dominates the whole teaching learning in the classroom but in context

of constructivism teacher should act as a keen observer and should facilitate group dialogue

and group performance. In such activities students would themselves explore the knowledge

and accommodate properly in words of jean piaget.

Constructivist learning in this context demands proper planning to deal a particular topic by

the teacher. Any group activity may turn into chaos if it not properly planned. Thus,

formulation of objectives and specific allocation of responsibilities in view of each student’s

caliber should be done beforehand. The whole learning procedure should be carefully

designed so that the activity may result as a fruitful experience facilitating cooperative

learning.

Here, the teachers may present before students challenges or problem where students have to

solve them individually or collectively. Project oriented tasks may also be given to be

completed in team spirit. Some dilemmas may also be presented by the teacher where

students may be able to change or add something new in their existing understanding.

In order to facilitate such type of leaning the locally available resources may be used and

students should be encouraged to explore their surroundings to observe and analyze the

particular knowledge being dealt in their classrooms.

Constructivism emphasizes the processes by which children create and develop their ideas.

Applications lie in creating curricula that not only match but also challenge children’s

understanding, fostering further growth and development of the mind (Baltes, 2007;

Kincheloe, 2006; Leitner, 2010). Furthermore, when children collaborate in cooperative

learning groups, they share the process of constructing their ideas with others. This collective

effort provides the opportunity for children to reflect on and elaborate not only their own

ideas but also those of their peers as well. With the improvement and access to the WWW,

the children’s cooperative classroom becomes the world (Payne, 2010; Stewart, 2010). In this

cooperative learning setting, children view their peers as resources rather than as competitors.

A feeling of teamwork ensues. These processes have resulted in substantial advances in

student learning (Bulach, Lunenburg, & Potter, 2012; Larochelle, 2010; Phillips, 2000).



Constructivist Pedagogy: Role of teachers

In every innovation that deals with the classroom cannot be realised until full cooperation by

the teachers. Teachers are the basic agencies which act upon actively to make any reform

successful in view of the whole education system. Thus, the role of teacher is the pivot to

adopt constructivist principles of learning in the pedagogy. The first and foremost reason

being an attitudinal change on the part of teachers; teachers have to trust for the positive

outcome of constructivist teaching and be ready to put off the transmission model of

teaching.

Beginning with such attitudinal change teachers have to act as a facilitator to facilitate the

learning process where learners may construct knowledge.

According to Dirks (1998) the role of the teacher is to engender learning by supporting the

student in this construction process. He proposes a linear model which looks like this:

In this way, the steps shown above may be followed by the teacher within the classroom.

Teaching through lenses of constructivism does not mean a carefree environment rather it

needs more discipline to encourage the learners towards meaningful tasks. The teacher

should try to expose students towards different ways of solving the particular tasks so that,

students may not digress. A conducive environment should also be ensured by the teacher so

Steps in the construction of

knowledge:

Supporting activity of the

teacher:

(a) Exposure to alternative

perspectives

Ensure alternative perspectives are

accessible readily to students

(b) Empathetic experience of

entering into those perspectives for

understanding

Establish a conducive environment

and encourage the student to

empathetically enter the alternative

perspectives

(c) Understanding of the body of

theory relating to the subject

Provide access to the "conversation

of the knowledge community"

(d) Evaluation of the alternatives

through reflection and critical

thinking

Enable the social environment in

which cognitive interactions and

dialogic processes can evaluate the

alternatives

(e) Construction of a personal

perspective, the matter that is

learned

Provide incentives to encourage

learners to complete the knowledge

construction process



that the student may analyse and reach to a conclusion regarding each perspective. In order to

analyse these perspective a teacher may design variety of learning exercises for making the

learning process interactive and joyful. Group discussion, task assignment, oral presentation,

and identification of facts, events, and examples from the community may be designed by the

teachers. In this way a teacher can successfully facilitate construction of the knowledge by

the learners. Ultimately some form of reward or a word of appreciation should also come

from the teacher so that students may feel motivated and expedite their exploration in future

tasks.

A model of conceptual change was developed by Posner, Strike, Hewson, and Gertzog (1982)

at Cornell University. It describes learning as a process in which a learner changes his/her

conceptions by capturing new conceptions or exchanging existing conceptions for new ones.

Dreyfus, Jungwirth, and Eliovitch (1990) were involved in trying to induce conceptual

change in students from six high schools in Israel. The concepts being examined were

respiration; the cell membrane; and the transmission of hereditary traits. Cognitive conflict

strategies were attempted using small-group interviews and discussions. The findings of this

qualitative study provide additional support for the importance of prior knowledge.

Conceptual change can be seen in terms of recognizing, evaluating, reconstructing: the

individual needs to recognize the existence and nature of their current conceptions, the

individual decides whether or not to evaluate the utility and worth of these conceptions, and

the individual decides whether or not to reconstruct these conceptions.

According to Hewson (1981) a key factor in the learning process is the status that new and

existing conceptions have for the learner. There are two major components of the conceptual

change model. First is a set of conditions, which determine the status of the concept, that

need to be met in order for a person to experience conceptual change. Second is a person’s

conceptual ecology that provides the context, in which the conceptual change occurs,

influences the change process, and gives a meaning to the change itself.

The conditions for the status apply to conceptions that a learner either holds or is considering.

A critical point is that it is only when the learner, rather than the teacher, decides, implicitly

or explicitly, that the conditions have been met that conceptual change occurs (Cakir, 2008).

Hewson and Thorley (1989) stated the conditions as follows:



1) Is the conception intelligible (meaningful) to the learner? That is, does the learner know

what it means?

2) Is the conception plausible (truthful) to the learner? That is, if the learner also believe that

it is true?

3) Is the conception fruitful (useful) for the learner? That is, if a conception achieve

something of value for the learner? Does it solve otherwise insoluble problems?

Does it suggest new possibilities, directions, and ideas?

Technical language of the conceptual change model (CCM), i.e., intelligible, plausible, and

fruitful, includes terminology that are not clear for every individual. Hennessey (1991) built a

consensus about a set of descriptors for each of these technical terms. The final set of

descriptors is contained in Table 1.

Table1. Descriptors for the technical terms of the CCM (Hennessey, 1991)

For an idea/concept to be Descriptors

INTELLIGIBLE to me

I must know what the concept means

The words must be understandable

The words must make sense

I should be able to describe it in my own words

I can give an example

Examples that belong

Examples that do not belong

I can find ways of representing my ideas to others

By drawing or illustrations

By talking about or explaining it

By using idea maps (concept maps)

PLAUSIBLE to me It must first be intelligible

I must believe this is how the world actually is

It is true

It must fit my picture of the world

It must fit in with other ideas or concepts I know



In this way the teacher may design a learning process using constructive principles and assess

the students if they possess such behavioural characteristics stated above.

Further Brooks and Brooks (2005) in his book ‘in search of understanding: the case of

constructivist classroom’ defined following characteristics of teacher for adopting

constructivist teaching:

1. Constructivist teacher encourage and accept student autonomy and initiatives

2. Constructivist teacher uses raw data and primary resources, along with manipulative,

interactive and physical materials

3. When framing tasks, Constructivist teachers use cognitive terminology such as

classify, analyse, predict and create

4. Constructivist teachers allow students responses to drive lessons, shift instructional

strategies and alter contents

5. Constructivist teachers inquire about students understanding of the concepts before

sharing their own understanding of those concepts

about or believe

It is the way I see things work

FRUITFUL to me

It must first be intelligible

It should be plausible

I can see it as something useful

It can help me solve problems

It can help explain ideas in a new way

I can apply it to other ideas

It gives me new ideas for further investigation or

exploration

It is a better explanation of things



6. Constructivist teachers encourage students to engage in dialogue, both with the

teachers and with one another

7. Constructivist teachers encourage student inquiry by asking thoughtful, open minded

questions and encouraging students to ask questions to each other

8. Constructivist teachers seek elaboration of students initial responses

9. Constructivist teachers engage students in experience that might engender

contradictions to their initial hypotheses and then encourage discussion

10. Constructivist teachers allow wait time after posing questions

11. Constructivist teachers provide time for students to construct relationships and create

metaphors

Therefore, a teacher in order to adopt constructivist learning should re-plan and restructure

teaching learning procedure so that the students’ construction of knowledge may be

facilitated

Conclusion

The discussion made so far on the constructive pedagogy shows that it is a methodology

which needs due participation of the learner as well as the teacher in the whole teaching

learning process. It demands a teacher who respects individuality of each learner and ready to

modulate learning process according to individual differences among the individuals.

Definitively an attitudinal change among the teacher should be the primary goal in order to

bring constructivist pedagogy in our classrooms. Teacher should be ready to absolve

themselves from traditional authoritative model of teaching to facilitate sound activity based

learning among the students.

It demands a new perspective for the teachers to analyse the relationship between how

teachers teach and how children learn. As Hausfather (2001) comments: Constructivism is

not a method. It is a theory of knowledge and learning that should inform practice but not

prescribe practice. By its very nature, constructivism emphasizes the importance of the

teaching context, student prior knowledge, and active interaction between the learner and the

content to be learned.

To sum up, it is recommended that constructivist pedagogy is somewhat in formative stage

not only in India but in whole global perspective particularly on its practical dimensions. It

needs more conceptual clarity in learning context of every country. Such clarity is more



seriously needed towards practical aspect of adopting constructivism in our classrooms.

There is need to orient our in-service and prospective teachers about such methodology so

that knowledge, skill as well as required set of attitude may be developed for adopting and

practicing constructivist pedagogy. Policy makers, practitioners and other stakeholders may

also contribute fruitfully in advancing awareness of such innovative practices in our

educational institutions. A very good scope for further researches in teacher education is also

visible where researches may be conducted on conceptual and pedagogical implications of

constructivism.

***************

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