9/11 and the post-9/11 strategic environment 16, 202–5, 211

17 February Brigade see Bu Katif, Fawzi

17 February Coalitions 73–417 February revolution see Uprisings1969 Revolution (aka The al-Fateh

Revolution or The Great September Revolution) 23–4, 31, 36, 176, 185

Abdul-Jalil, Mustafa (Chairman of the NTC) 45, 71, 130, 162, 209, 213–15

Abdul-Nasser, Gamal (President of Egypt 1956–1970) 24–5, 194–5 see also Nasserism

Abu Salim Prison massacre 21, 42–5, 93, 204–7

families of victims 21, 42–3, 45see also al-Senussi, Abdullah

(perpetrator) and Terbil, Fathi (advocate on behalf of the victims)

Accountability 231Activism, civil 11, 23–45Afghanistan 10, 18, 40, 118,

128–9, 139, 200–4, 211–13, 222–3

Africa, sub-Saharan 104–5, 116, 134, 148, 176–8

African Union (AU), attempts at mediation between Qadhafi and rebels by the 124, 128, 133–5, 148, 227

Agriculture 85, 89

Ajdabiyya 29, 113, 116, 151, 158, 161, 212, 220

Algeria 17, 19, 38, 103–4, 135, 177, 181, 185, 222

Al-Jazeeracoverage of Islamists 74, 124,

192, 194, 204, 214, 224platform for Libyan rebels 74, 79,

124, 183, 207Qadhafi’s attitude towards 79

Allen, Sir Mark 203Allies see Coalition of anti-Qadhafi

powers and NATOAlliot-Marie, Michèle (Foreign

Minister of France 2010–11) 118

Al-Qaeda 17, 40, 97, 100affiliates with bases in the new

Libya 17alleged connection with Darna

brigades 206–11links with the LIFG 201–6offshoots in West Africa 103–4see also Al-Qaeda in the Islamic

MaghrebAl-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb

(AQIM) 97, 100, 103, 110Amazigh (Berbers) 12, 36–8,

66–8, 92, 157, 160, 175–7, 186–7, 213

antagonization of by Qadhafi 12, 36–8

religion of 37, 55, 81, 177rising up of 209see also Identity, Amazigh and

Ibadhism

Inde x

I n de x234

Ambassador J. Christopher Stevens see Stevens, Ambassador J. Christopher

Amirateof Darna 210–11Sanussi of Cyrenaica 56

Ancien regimes 1, 3–5, 73, 164, 229Anglo-American cooperation

agreement over détente with Libya (2003–10) 118

joint proposal about reconciliation over Lockerbie 90

Ansar al-Sharia 17, 76, 222Anticolonialism 176–7, 187 see also

Colonialism, legacy ofAouzou Strip 38, 179Arab League

landmark statement (of 12 March 2011) 116–17, 123

support of No-Fly Zone (NFZ) 7, 14, 116–17, 123, 129–30, 140, 144–6

Arab Nationalismdeath/decline of 2, 116spread of to Libya from

Egypt 10, 24–5see also Nasserism and Abdul-

Nasser, GamalArab Spring

differences inherent to Libyan manifestation of 5–7, 97

heightened expectations caused by 127, 207

Muslim Brotherhood response to 216–17

organizations created by 70–1origin and validity of the

term 19–20spread of to Libya 114–16unique features of 1–5Western diplomacy towards 118see also Uprisings and Egypt and

TunisiaArab uprisings, concept of 2–3,

19–20

Arab-Israeli dispute1973 Arab-Israeli War 87, 128Libyan role in 126, 128

Arabsfighters in Afghanistan in

the 1980s 102–3Libyans as 176–7

Armscontrol by local militias 19,

66, 69shipment to the rebels by France

and Qatar 127, 137, 148, 216smuggling/proliferation out of

Libya 17, 103see also Embargo and Militias

and MaliArmy

defections of army troops to rebels 45, 67, 161, 212

as an institution 8, 60, 103, 140, 163, 230

Libyan National 5–6, 103, 140, 181

role in federalism issue 166–7role of in opposition to

Qadhafi 30Arus al-Bahr, editor threatened by

Islamists 68‘Asabiyya (group or tribal

solidarity) 14, 128, 159, 161, 168

Assets, Libyancrony privatization of 121freezing of 6, 106investment of by LIA 104issues surrounding the unfreezing

of 138–9, 148nationalization of by RCC 87smuggling of Qadhafian assets

back into Libya 94Awjila oasis 37, 161Awlad Mahmud (tribe) 154Awlad Suleiman (tribe) 158–9, 181–3Azawad (Independent Tuareg State

in Northern Mali) 103, 177 see also Mali

I n de x 235

Bab al-Aziziyya (Qadhafi’s compound)

bombing by NATO 136storming of by rebels 214

Bamako 103 see also MaliBani Walid

as counterrevolutionary force 3, 14–15, 162–5

feud with Misrata 14–15as ignored by NTC 142last siege of by rebels (Sept/Oct

2011) 54, 156, 159, 160, 181as outside the control of the post-

Qadhafi government 18overt conflict with NTC post-

Qadhafi 162–5as part of Qadhafi support

base 58, 152, 154–5see also Warfalla and Coup, by

Warfalla Officers (in 1993)Barclays, as Central Bank of Libya

during the BMA 86Barqa Conference (on 6

March 2012 advocating for Cyrencaican federalism) 59, 83, 166–7

Barqa see CyrenaicaBarrels per day, Libyan production

of (million b/d) 87–8, 91, 97, 117 see also Oil

Bashir, Muhammad (leader of revolutionary Warfalla 28 May Brigade) 155, 163–4

Basic People’s Congress (BPC) 25–7, 47–8, 73

Bay’a (allegiance) 29, 48Bayda 10, 66–7, 92, 157, 210

as administrative center during the Monarchy 10

Ben Ali, Zine Al-Abidinecollapse of his regime 45, 114,

118, 128, 143–4half-hearted reforms by 4role of institutions in his

regime 5–6, 97see also Tunisia

Ben Gdara, Farhat 133 see also Central Bank of Libya (CBL)

Benghazi17 February Coalition in 73–5as administrative center during

the Monarchy 10American bombing of (in 1986)

29–30attack on Christopher Stevens

see Stevens, Ambassador J. Christopher

as both center and periphery 10Bulgarian nurses scandal in 42,

142cartoon riots in 43, 93demographics of 32 see also

Populationelection of local council in 73and federalism 59, 102formation of rebel organizations

in 68–71, 77, 118, 128–33, 136, 156–7

influx of Westerners to during the uprisings 63, 118–20, 122, 138

Islamists in 76, 201, 209–19localism in 66–7militias in 124participation in BPCs 27political liberalization in 42, 49Qadhafi’s threat to destroy and

NFZ to protect 113–16, 126–7, 130, 144

Qatari links with 123–4start of the uprisings in 5–7,

21, 43–6, 92–3, 113, 206–9, 219–20

as traditional locus of anti-Qadhafi opposition 21, 40–2, 154

university in 32, 34, 199, 218 see also Qar Yunis

see also killing of Younis (al-Obeidi), Abdul Fattah

Berbers see Amazigh (Berbers)Berlusconi, Silvio (Prime Minister

of Italy) 121–3

I n de x236

Bernard-Henri Lévy (BHL) see Lévy, Bernard-Henri

Bevin-Sforza Plan see British Military Administration and Independence, Libyan (1951)

Bilhajj, Abdul-Hakimcompetition with Salafists 221connection with Qataris 76,

125, 137failure of his Homeland

Party 80, 125, 137, 215legal proceedings against British

government 203and the LIMC/LIFG 65,

205–6, 212–14release from prison and

reconciliation with Qadhafi regime 41, 204, 208

shift of focus to Syria 216and the Tripoli Military

Council 66, 124, 192, 214Bin Khayal, Ashur (NTC Interim

Libyan Foreign Minister) 104Birth rate 86 see also Population,

demographicsal-Bishti, Shaykh Muhammad (and

his disappearance in 1980) 39–40, 194

Blair, Tony 119–20BMA see British Military

AdministrationBottom-up organization of

uprisings 1Bouazizi, Mohamed, immolation of

see Arab SpringBrak 155, 181, 201 see also Wadi

al-ShatiBrega, Marsa 113, 132, 136, 215Brigade, revolutionary see MilitiasBritain, see United KingdomBritish Military Administration

(BMA) of Libya (1943–51) 9–10, 56, 86, 229

British Petroleum (BP) 98, 120Brutality 1, 5, 35, 78, 205, 229

Bu Katif, Fawzi (Leader of the 17 February Brigade) 124, 218, 219

Bulgarian Nurses Scandal see Benghazi, Bulgarian nurses scandal in

Bureaucracy 3–6, 8–9, 18, 20, 25, 59–60, 113, 140, 230

Bush, George W. 121, 129Business

American in Libya 86–8, 120–1conducted by Saif al-Islam 33–4debates over the role of

Western 20–1French in Libya 117–18German in Libya 120Italian in Libya 122lack of private sector 90–1Libyan in Dubai 125–6probusiness orientation of

NTC 71with the Qadhafi regime

20–1, 63Qatari in Libya 98, 125Tunisian in Libya 98, 104see also Foreign direct

investment and Projects and Infrastructure

Businessmenreputation of Libyan 98–9supporting Saif al-Islam 203Western visiting Libya 6, 118,

143–4

Cameron, David 119–20Capacity building (assistance

offered to Libya) 80, 105, 115, 142–3, 138, 217

Capitalism, unique Libyan version of (aka “People’s Capitalism”) 26, 92

Censorship, under Qadhafi 199Center and periphery, Pack’s

concept of 5–6, 9–12, 15, 17, 21–2, 64–7, 69–70, 80,

I n de x 237

106, 124–5, 140–3, 152, 168, 186–7, 215, 232

ascendency of the periphery over the center 5, 9, 15, 125, 152, 186–7, 215

new center in Benghazi 6, 9potential for harmony

between 17, 66, 232recreation of historical

relationships of 9–12, 64see also Periphery (in Pack’s

concept of center and periphery)

Central Bank of Libya (CBL) 86, 106, 133, 148

Chadborder security and smuggling

issues with 103, 178–83immigration from 179–80Libyan confrontation with (over

the Aouzou strip) 38relationship with the Tubu

of 178–83Charismatic leadership 1, 23, 199,

232China

LIFG members fleeing to 202stance on Libya NFZ 13,

116–17, 141Civil Society

activists 5, 6, 76–8, 99, 192, 208–9organization of 5–6, 12, 24–5,

31, 59, 74, 76–9, 99, 101, 186–7, 208–9, 217–18

Qadhafi’s destruction of 31, 46, 79–80, 97, 99, 186, 200

Civil State (dawla ma’adaniyya) 65–6, 75

Civil WarArab-Berber civil war (1919–22) 9concept of the uprisings as a 6,

14, 36, 38, 142, 151, 168–9tribal dimension 151–4, 156–61,

165, 168–9see also Uprisings

Civiliansprotection of as pretext for

intervention 93, 115–17, 135–6, 144 see also Responsibility to Protect (R2P)

Qadhafian attacks on xvi, 1, 93, 115–17

Clinton, Hillary 116Coalition

of anti-Qadhafi powers (NATO-led) 98, 115–25, 128–30, 132–19, 142–3 see also NATO

of Islamist actors 215–16, 219of tribes led by Warfalla (anti-

NTC) 152, 165“Coalition of the willing” 129Collective Punishment 35, 201Colonialism, legacy of 37 see also

AnticolonialismCommunication, ease of 1, 136,

205–6Communities see LocalismConservative forces (inside Qadhafi

regime) see Hard-linersConstitution

1951 precedent 75, 99–101direct election of Constitutional

Assembly 10, 12, 20–2, 75discussion of by Saif al-Islam 34,

197draft version of (i.e., the

TCD) 69–70, 83, 101, 110, 131, 147–9

Islamists and the 224recognizing the Berber language

in the 68timetable for 10, 18, 139, 187transition to permanent version

of 10, 12, 69, 75, 101, 105, 110, 187, 231

Contact Group, Libya 130, 132, 138, 148

Contingency Plans 114, 139Continuities, of Libyan

History 12–13, 53–81

I n de x238

Contracts 88, 91, 98, 120–2Corruption

of Imperialists in Libya 229of Qadhafi regime 4–5, 12, 33,

92–5, 97, 114, 229, 230of rebels and transitional

authorities 79, 94–5, 109, 139Counteroffensive, major Qadhafian

(6–17 March 2011) xvi, 13–14, 113–15

Counterproliferation see ArmsCounterrevolutionary forces 161,

165–6, 168Counterterrorism

erroneous assumptions by analysts of 210–15

Libyan role in 203Coup

1975 anti-Qadhafi coup 24contemplated by Hizb

al-Tahrir 194popular uprisings in Egypt and

Tunisia as similar to 5–7Qadhafi’s 1 September 1969 23,

25, 28by Warfalla Officers (in 1993)

30, 36, 59, 155, 163Cretz, Ambassador Gene 121, 227Cultural conservatism 166Culture

contact with the West 33, 62as empowering the periphery

against the center 10–11of entitlement 13, 94–6Libyan 18–19, 37, 64, 78–80,

101, 176, 186, 221tribal 59

Customary Law (‘urf) 153Cyrenaica

artificial amalgamation into United Kingdom of Libya (in 1951) 2

guerilla war in (mid-1990s) 16, 39, 41–2

NTC administration of 6

organization of opposition to Qadhafi 12, 30–1, 36–7, 41–2, 45

roots of Islamist sentiment in 42–3

separatist movements in 2, 18–19, 59–60 see also Federalism

support for the Sanussi regime 10, 24, 28, 30–1, 56–8

tensions with Tripolitania 9, 39terrorist training camps in 17tribes in see Tribe and Sa’adi

tribes and Majlis Hukama’Cyrenaican Defense Force

(Praetorian guard of King Idriss) 58

Da’wa 200Darfur 133Darna 19, 40, 67, 102, 143–4,

156–7, 207–8as a center of Islamist

resistance 210–11, 226vis-à-vis Abdul-Fattah

Yunis 66–7, 215Davis, John 48, 151, 169“Day of Rage” 21, 45, 93Decentralization

calls for further during the uprisings 2, 67, 77, 102–3, 107

under Qadhafi regime 31, 64Defections (from Qadhafian

officials to the rebels) 93, 113, 130, 133, 154, 209 see also Rebels, organization of

Defenseinstitutions of 69No Fly Zone favoring the 6Qadhafi’s air defenses 126–7,

130rebel’s Ministry of 8, 164, 181,

218sales 118, 122see also Younis, Abdul-Fatteh

I n de x 239

DemocracyIslamist accommodation

with 64–6, 75–6progress towards 4, 17, 43,

64–6, 76–7, 79–80, 216Qadhafi’s version of direct

23–7, 99Democratization 43, 79–80Demographics see Population and

demographics of LibyaDeradicalization schemes of

initiated by Saif al-Islam see Reconciliation, of former jihadists with Qadhafi regime

Détente see Reconciliation, between Qadhafi regime and the West

Development see Economy, development of

Diaspora, Libyan 1, 4, 19, 96, 124, 131

Diplomacy (surrounding UN Resolution 1973) 115, 129

Disarmament 114, 160Disconnected uprisings see

Multiplicity of uprisingsDissidents, anti-Qadhafi 33, 124

see also Exiles, LibyanDiversification, of Libyan economy

62, 89–91, 93, 95–6, 103–6Doctrine, Obama 114Doha (role in supporting rebels and

Islamists) 123–5, 131, 138, 197, 216 see also Qatar

Dubai 125

Economic Development Board 131Economy

development of 65, 69, 77, 86–9, 91, 95, 99, 101, 105–7, 119, 125, 131, 187

global 24, 65liberalization 31–2, 34, 62, 91, 120Libyan 5, 12–13, 18, 25, 31–2,

34, 62, 85, 89, 91, 93, 95–6, 98–9, 103, 105–7, 120

market 4–5, 99Ministry of 91, 201reconstruction 59, 69, 80, 99,

106, 138–9, 142, 230reforms of 4–5, 9, 20, 90, 95, 99,

106, 203sanctions impact on 11, 31–3,

63, 88, 90, 93, 106, 116–17, 123, 138, 141, 184, 231

see also Diversification, of Libyan economy

Education 24, 32–4, 86, 89, 94, 96, 105, 120

Egyptborder issues with 103,

162, 178as catalyst of events in Libya 21,

45, 92, 114, 126–7, 206–7as exporter of Arab

nationalism 9–10, 24flee of refuges towards 116French government reaction to

revolution in 118–19jihadist elements 200–2LIFG operation in 212–13Qatari ties with 124role in diplomacy (over

Resolution 1973) 135similarities/differences with

Libyan uprisings 5–6, 70, 96–7, 100, 128, 193, 209–10, 223

spread of Brotherhood ideas and tactics to Libya via 196–8, 217–20

Elites, Libyan 8, 28, 43, 62, 166, 203

Élysée Palace, The 118Embargo, on arms 116Embassy

attack on the American (11 September 2012) see Stevens, Ambassador J. Christopher

Yvonne Fletcher shooting outside the Libyan 119

I n de x240

Employmentfor former militiamen 8public sector 93for youth in 114see also Unemployment

Energy 63, 88, 120–2 see also OilENI (Italian Oil Company) 121–3,

145–6Entitlement see SubsidiesEPSA see Exploration and

Production-Sharing Agreements

Europe 41–3, 63, 86, 94, 98, 104, 120–2, 126, 129, 131, 134, 205, 214 see also individual European country entries and European Union, the

European Union, the 42, 43, 121, 129

Exiles see Diaspora, LibyanExpatriates, Western in

Libya 143–4 see also Diaspora, Libyan

Exploration and Production-Sharing Agreements (EPSA) 88, 91

Exportsof Libyan hydrocarbons 87–8,

90, 106, 117, 122, 162Tunisian to Libya 104

Extremism, see Islamic Extremism

Facebook 19, 21, 97, 206–8, 216Fahkih, Mohamed (Anti-Qadhafi

salafi-jihadi insurgent) 198–9Fascism 56al-Fateh Revolution 47

see also 1969 revolutionFatimid Empire 26, 55Fatwas

against abandoning violent jihad 201

against Qadhafi 198against the rebels 220as a way of studying changes in

Libyan Islamism 222–3

Federalismcalls for 66–7, 166contemporary debates about 59implications of 18, 106–7Islamist opposition to 67legacy of (1951–1963) 59, 102Liberal opposition to 77tribal support for 166see also Cyrenaican, Federalists

and Al-Sanussi, Ahmad ZubairFekini, Anwar 131, 159Fekini, Muhammad 42Females see Women and Women’s

rightsFighters see ThuwwarFinance

access to by NTC via Temporary Finance Mechanism 137–8

of arms shipments by Qatar 137NTC ministry of 77, 94, 102,

105–6, 108–10Five-Year Plans 88–9Fletcher, Yvonne 119Foreign businesses, in Libya

difficulties of 33, 120 see also Business

Foreign direct investment (FDI) 17, 95, 203

Foreign goods, import of 89, 137Foreign interference in Libya post-

Qadhafi 79–81, 139, 180Foreign policy

centrality of anticolonial rhetoric to Qadhafi’s 187

and Libyan self-perceptions 80Qadhafi’s towards Africa 38,

177, 179, 185Qatar’s 123Sarkosy’s 118

Francecolonialism in Africa 176economic relations with

Libya 117–18French revolution 3–4interests in post-Qadhafi

Libya 80

I n de x 241

primary role in enforcing NFZ 13–14, 114–18, 122, 129, 133–4

Frattini, Franco (Italian Foreign Minister 2008–11) 122, 145–6

Free Markets see MarketsFree Officers 24–5, 28, 31Friendship Treaty, Italo-Libyan

(2008) see Treaty of Friendship, Italo-Libyan (2008)

FROLINAT (National Liberation Front of Chad), Qadhafi support of 38, 179 see also Chad

al-Gama’a al-Islamiyya (Egyptian jihadist Group) 201–2

Gar Younis see Qar Yunis UniversityGDP/GNP 88–9, 93, 105–6General People’s Congress

(GPC) 25, 35, 91–2Germany

abstention on Resolution 1973/opposition to NFZ 13, 116, 129

economic role in Libya 120role in post-Lockerbie

sanctions 63similarity of Qadhafian economy

to Nazi version 46–7Ghadames 15, 163, 172, 176–7,

185–6, 189Ghanem, Shukri (Reformist Prime

Minister of Libya 2003–6) 33–4, 91–2, 133

Gharyan 138, 160Ghat 38, 177, 181, 184Ghuqah, Abdul-Hafiz (also known

as Ghoga, Abdelhafiz) 207, 209

Gibril, Mahmoud see Jibril, Mahmoud

Glasnost 4Globalization 33Grand Mufti, Qadhafi’s abolition

of 194

Grassrootsconflict resolution 162evangelism (da’wa) 200political mobilization 16–17, 65,

218–19, 221social work 16–17, 218uprisings 1

Great Britain see United KingdomGreat Man-Made River see WaterGreen Book, The 26, 57, 60,

92, 195Green Square (Martyr’s

Square) 209Guest Workers (in Libya) 104, 116Gulf States 63, 138

Hamas 197, 217–18Hard-liners (anti-reform Qadhafi

officials) 41, 91, 121Hasawna 158, 165, 181Hiftar, Khalifa (Temporary Chief of

Staff of Rebel Forces) 215Hijab 198Historical imaginary 165Hizb al-Tahrir (HT) 16, 193–6,

197, 198, 224Homeland Party (Watan Party)

see Bilhajj, Abdul-Hakim, failure of his Homeland Party

Housing 32, 89, 92–7role of as a precursor to the 17

February revolution 114, 143–4

Human Rightsabuses 134, 139groups emergence in post-

Qadhafi 78Human Rights Watch 35, 171protests by activists for 1, 92–3,

208–9reform 4–5, 32UN Human Rights

Commission 114, 131uprisings led leadership by

activists for 72–3, 76, 206–11see also Terbil, Fathi and Torture

I n de x242

Humanitarianaid/supplies 123, 131, 137–8,

188civil society groups 78emergency support 116, 139rationale for military

intervention 13–14, 114–15, 117–19, 142

al-Hurrati, Madhi (Head of Tripoli Brigade) 213–15

Hydrocarbons 13, 63, 87, 91, 93, 96–8, 105–6

Ibadhism 37, 55, 81 see also Amazigh (Berbers)

Ibrahim, Khalil (Leader of JEM) 133

Ibrahim, Saleh (pro-regime Warfalla leader) 155

IdentityAmazigh 37–8, 50, 160documents (lacked by certain

groups) 185Libyan 57–8, 61, 176, 186–7politics surrounding 39, 54, 77,

186–7tribal 39, 58, 61, 101see also Arabs, Libyans as

Ideology see Qadhafian IdeologyIkhwan al-Muslimin see Muslim

BrotherhoodImazighen (Berbers) see AmazighIMF see International Monetary

Fund (IMF)In Amenas, attack on gas facilities

at 17, 103–4, 222Independence, Libyan (in 1951)

28, 57, 85–6, 181India 13, 71, 102, 116, 135Industrial sector, the Libyan 85,

87, 88–90, 163Infitah 4, 90 see also ReformsInfrastructure 8, 10, 13, 65, 95,

98, 105, 117, 121, 132, 137, 139, 187, 222

Institutions 5–6, 14, 27, 29, 30, 39, 59–60, 93, 127, 151, 153–4, 156, 158, 163, 167, 200

building of 3, 11, 22, 70–1, 78, 80, 99, 101, 230

Libyan lack of 3, 8, 10, 23–4, 29, 46, 58, 62, 69, 78, 132, 194

Insurgency 6, 49Intellectuals, Libyan 34, 72, 195International assistance 14, 80,

124–5, 137–8, 140, 142 see also Capacity building

International community 63, 114–15, 117, 142, 216, 229

International Crisis Group (ICG), report of 143, 170, 172, 188

International Monetary Fund (IMF) 106

Internetopposition 78, 196role in the uprisings 45, 156, 207spread of in Libya 78, 97, 207use of by the Brotherhood 74use of by tribes 156

Interventionaerial by NATO in the Libyan

uprisings 13–14, 44, 79, 114–44, 216

African opposition to 133–5Arab League calling for 115–16,

129–30calculations

surrounding 115–22, 126–9hypothetically on behalf of the

Tubu 183lack of an international

contingency plan for 114–15lessons from Libya 128LIFG position towards 223risk of 126–9

Iran 1, 4, 20, 126, 202, 213Iraq 98, 127–9, 135, 139, 210–12,

223Irish Republican Army (IRA) 119

I n de x 243

Islamidentity politics of 56, 64–8,

192–4institutions of 23, 99–100practice of 13, 39, 40, 55, 57, 77,

81, 97, 198–200, 221–3Qadhafi’s conception of 26, 100rhetoric against 43role in the uprisings of 2, 12,

74–6, 191–3Islamic Amirate at Darna 210–11Islamic extremism 14, 40–1, 57,

65, 75–6, 211, 222Islamic Movement for Change

(led by Abdul-Hakim BilHajj) 66, 205–6, 212

Islamism, ideology of 77, 191, 193, 200

Islamists 3, 8, 12, 16, 18, 41, 57, 65–8, 74–8, 81, 103, 124, 191–223, 231 see also Libyan Islamic Fighting Group and Muslim Brotherhood and Salafists

al-Islam, Saif see Qadhafi, Saif Al-Islam

Isolation, of Qadhafi’s Libya 13, 33, 90, 141, 231

Israel 68, 87 see also Arab-Israeli dispute, Libyan role in

Issawi, Ali 71, 209Italy

colonial legacy of 45, 56, 229cultural impact on Libya 43economic interests in Libya 80,

120–2role during sanctions period 63role in diplomacy surrounding

the NFZ 13, 63, 115, 120–2, 133

Jabal Nafusa see Nafusa MountainsJacobin tendency 3, 12, 19al-Jahmi, Fathi (prominent anti-

Qadhafi dissident) 35

Jalil see Abdul-Jalil, MustafaJamahiriyya 5–6, 10–11, 17, 23–6,

28, 33, 40, 43, 124, 176, 181, 187Jibril, Mahmoud

connections with Qatar and UAE 124–5

as head of EDB 34, 131as head of NFA 77, 167, 219popular opposition towards 65,

219as Prime Minister 71, 131–2,

209, 216, 218, 227Jihad

anti-Italian 9, 56, 210anti-Ottoman 182anti-Qadhafi 198, 201–2, 204concept of 204, 206, 225in Iraq and Afghanistan 210–11,

216West African 104see also Jihadism

Jihadism 40–1, 200, 210, 214, 226–8, 231

Jobs, creation of 8, 18–19, 96Jordan 35, 130, 132, 135,

218–19Judiciary 7, 68, 95, 159–62Jumail 160Justice and Construction Party

(al-Adala wa al-Bina’a) 65, 75, 167, 219

Justice and Equality Movement (JEM), Qadhafi sponsorship of 133

Justice system 7, 70, 96, 102, 161–3, 165, 168

al-Juwaili, Usama (NTC Defense Minister) 164

al-Khatib, Abdul-Ilah (UN Special envoy for negotiations between Qadhafi and the rebels)135

al-Kib, Abdul-Rahman (Prime Minister of NTC post-Liberation) 142, 166, 218

I n de x244

el-Kikhia, Mansour Omar 29, 48Kim Jong-Il 4Kufra

as a case study 15, 176, 178–81Sudanese occupation of 138tribal politics/uprisings in 151,

157–8, 161, 163, 176, 178–81, 183, 186–7, 188

Tubu in 38, 178–81voting in 186–7

al-Kuni, Afnayt (Senior Tuareg tribal leader) 155

al-Kuni, Amid Hussain (Former Governor of Ghat) 184

al-Kuni, Musa (Tuareg representative on NTC) 155, 183–4, 186

Kusa, Musa (Head of External Security 1994–2009 and Foreign Minister 2009–2011) 133

Laden, Osama bin 202–3, 225“Leading from behind” see Obama

doctrineLebanon

historic opposition to Qadhafi 116, 126

support of NFZ 116Legitimacy

constitutional 149Islamic 57, 64, 197–8, 211Jamahiriyyan 24, 41, 58, 209NTC 8, 83, 101–2reforms to buttress 3–4revolutionary 12, 72, 74Sanussi 56, 58social contract 63tribal role in 30, 58, 60–1

Levinson, Charles 83, 146–7, 210, 227

Liberal interventionism 115–16, 144Liberalization 31, 34, 40, 42–3,

46, 90–1, 121, 207–8“Liberals”, Libyan 8, 65, 81, 191,

200, 216 see also National Forces Alliance

Libya Shield Force 8, 163, 181Libyan Investment Authority

(LIA) 104, 110, 148Libyan Islamic Fighting Group

(LIFG and LIMC) 16, 65, 212–16, 219

origins of 16, 40–1, 201rejection of al-Qaeda 202relationship with Qadhafi 100,

197, 201, 202–8, 210–11 see also Refutations (muraja’at)

role of in the transition period 65–6, 215–16, 219–21

role of in the uprisings 76, 193, 211–15, 216, 222–3

see also Bilhajj, Abdul Hakim and Sallabi, Ali and Thuwwar, contribution of LIFG to

Libyan Islamic Movement for Change (LIMC) see Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG and LIMC)

Libyan Nationalism 26, 213Libyan Uprisings, The 2011

see UprisingsLobbying 129, 133, 155, 166Lockerbie (bombing) 31, 33, 63,

90, 119London School of Economics

(LSE), Saif al-Islam’s pursuit of a Phd at the 33

“Losers of the uprisings”, alliance of 164–5

Loyalists forcesmovements of xvi-xviii, 130,

136, 133, 219 see also counteroffensive

strongholds of 3, 54, 68, 155, 163–4, 178, 181, 184–5

Madhhab 55Magarha see MaqarhaMaghawir Brigade (pro-regime

Tuareg force) 155–6, 184Maghreb see North Africaal-Magrief, Mohammad (First

President of the GNC) 196

I n de x 245

Mahmoud, Suleiman (commander of the Tobruk military region) 154

al-Mahmudi, Baghdadi (Qadhafi’s hard-line Prime Minister of Libya) 92, 96, 160

Majalis Hukama’ (councils of tribal, religious, and urban notables) 14, 158, 162, 166

Malieffects of Libyan uprisings on 17,

103–4, 134, 140, 222Qadhafi’s relationship

with 183–5Tuareg of 38, 155, 177see also Azawad

Maliki Islam 55, 81Malta 122, 126, 131Mansour, Issa Abdul-Majid

(Founder of Tubu Front for Salvation of Libya) 158, 178, 180, 183

Maqarha (tribe) 10, 58, 62, 155, 158, 165, 171–2, 181–2, 204

Markets, free 4Mashashiyya 14, 157, 160, 163, 165Matar, Hisham (Author of In the

Country of Men) 25Media

freedom and censorship 33–4, 79, 99, 199, 230

Islamists in the 16, 74–5, 124, 192, 203–4, 210–11, 214, 216–17, 220, 222–3

Tubu activism in the 183use in the uprisings 1, 141, 151,

206–7, 210–11Western 100, 156, 175see also Al-Jazeera and Internet

and radio address and TVal-Meera Consumer Goods

Company 98al-Megrahi, Abdul-Basset (convicted

Lockerbie suspect) 119, 145Middle East and North Africa

(region) 43, 104, 116, 123, 134, 197, 202

Military see ArmyMilitias

abuses and corruption by 94, 96demobilization and disarmament

of 19, 101–2, 139–41destabilization caused by 17,

68, 73, 159–60, 163–5, 186, 215, 222

fighting during the uprisings by 8, 115, 123–4, 136–9, 143, 178, 216

mobilization of 7, 11, 14, 46, 124, 151, 155–8, 213–14, 218

political function of 9, 12, 14, 65, 69–70, 80, 142, 159, 166–8, 190, 219

transitional government’s use of 163–4, 180–1

see also 17 February Coalitions and Bilhajj, Abdul-Hakim and Bu Katif, Fawzi and Libyan Islamic Fighting Group and Rebels

al-Mismari, Idris 45, 207Mobilization

demobilization 14, 115grassroots 113Islamist 194military 16, 156–7political 154tribal 151–2, 159, 161, 168

Moghrebi, Zahi (Libyan Intellectual) 34, 46, 74, 83

Monarchy, the Sanussi see Sanussi Monarchy

Morocco 126, 218Morsi, Muhammad 196Mosque 39, 74–5, 136,

194–222Mouvement National de

Libération de l’Azawad (MNLA) 103–4

Mu’tasim Billah Qadhafi see Qadhafi, Mu’tasim Billah

Mubarak, Hosni 4, 21, 45, 97, 128, 207, 220

Mukhtar, Omar see Omar Mukhtar

I n de x246

Multiplicity of the uprisings 2–3, 12, 70–1, 113, 127–9, 140, 142, 175, 192, 209

Murzuq 158, 178, 181, 183, 189Muslim Brotherhood (Ikhwan

al-Muslimin)electoral presence via JCP 65–6,

167, 191, 216–19, 223 see also Justice and Construction Party

as an internationalist movement 2

position in Qadhafi’s Libya 16, 40–1, 74–5, 100, 127–8, 193, 195–200

role in the uprisings 16–17, 57, 64–5, 74–5, 81, 167, 193, 208, 212, 216–19, 223, 231

Nafusa Mountainsdemographics of 36–7, 55, 58, 67Italian colonial period in 9, 131post-Qadhafi politics in 168uprisings in 38, 93, 103,

136–40, 143, 147, 151, 156–7, 161, 162, 167, 177, 207, 209, 213–14, 219

Nasser, Gamal Abdul see Abdul-Nasser, Gamal

Nasserism 24–5, 194–5National Conference of the Libya

Opposition (NCLO) 75–6National Economic Development

Board see Economic Development Board

National Forces Alliance 61, 77, 81, 125, 127, 167, 219

National Front for the Salvation of Libya (NFSL) 75, 196, 205

National Oil Company (NOC) 92, 97, 133

Nationalism (as a concept) see Arab Nationalism and Libyan Nationalism

Nation-Building 14, 127, 139Nation-State, as focus of Arab

Spring movements 2, 6

Nayed, Arif Ali 125Niger 38, 90, 103, 117, 158,

177–8, 181, 183–5No-Fly Zone (NFZ) 7, 13–14, 75,

93, 114, 116, 121–2, 126–7, 129, 146, 215, 220

Normalization 20–1, 63, 118, 120, 143

North Africa 4, 14, 26, 43–4, 48, 68, 86, 100, 104, 118, 123, 126, 176, 202, 222

existing scholarship on 14, 152Libya as different from the rest

of 4, 43–4similarities of Libya with 48, 55,

176, 202trade within 104

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), role in enforcing the NFZ 7, 44, 53, 79, 98, 122–38, 141, 146–7, 216, 223

North Korea 4, 126NTC see National Transitional

Council

Oasis/Oases 37–8, 161, 177–9, 181, 185

Obama, Barack 114, 121, 144Doctrine of 114

Obeidat (tribe) 66, 154, 161–2, 166, 172

Occidental Petroleum 86–7Oil

boom 62companies 85, 87, 94, 98, 117,

120–4discovery of 85, 88, 93embargo 63, 137infrastructure 113, 124, 137,

154, 162, 187investments 57, 63, 88, 91, 125pipeline 137, 220production 6, 87–8, 91, 98, 106,

139, 142 see also barrels per day and National Oil Corporation

reserves 87, 91, 97

I n de x 247

revenue 24, 86–9share of GDP 93wealth 10, 12–13, 17, 22, 53,

55, 62, 85Omar Mukhtar 45, 56, 182, 213One-Nine Group 33OPEC 33, 87–8, 91Opposition

Islamist 16, 40–1, 75, 124, 127–8, 193, 197, 199–200, 204–11, 218, 227

to the NTC 3, 24, 84to Qadhafi 2, 11, 36, 29, 32, 34,

38, 49, 53, 76–7, 79, 99, 117, 129–34, 177

Ottoman Empire 9–10, 18, 55–6, 182, 229

Palestine 217–19Pan-Am 103 see LockerbiePargeter, Alison 108, 187–8, 210,

224–7Perestroika 4Periphery (in Pack’s concept of

center and periphery)emergence of the power of the

periphery 66, 68–70, 80, 106, 125, 152, 168

inadvertent NATO support of 140origins of the uprising in the 5,

9, 15, 106productive energy of 232 see also

Center and peripheryQatari sponsorship of 125

“Perpetual dynamics” 12, 53–5, 64, 68, 70, 79–81

Personalized political system 24–7, 31, 33, 43

Peters, Emrys 153, 170Petroleum see OilPoland 129Political Parties

Arab Socialist Union 24banning of under Qadhafi 99Justice and Construction

Party 65, 75, 167, 219

National Forces Alliance 61, 77, 81, 125, 127, 167, 219 Homeland Party 80, 125, 137, 215–16

organization of 65–6, 68, 75, 77salafist 221tribal dimension of 167–8

Popular Social Leadership (PSL) 29, 31, 36, 59–60, 82, 166

Populationthe demographics of

Libya 17–18, 32, 27–39, 60, 85–6, 95–102, 154, 157, 175–81, 185, 186

direct democracy by the populace 24–8

the Libyan populace 3, 6, 8–10, 17–18, 37–9, 44, 46, 75, 85, 114, 125–6, 132, 134, 137, 140, 183, 232

Populism 25–6Posted Price (of crude) 86–8Power, Samantha 116, 144Privatization 5, 71, 91–2, 98, 103,

106, 121Projects, infrastructure 8, 17, 34,

59, 64, 89, 94, 104, 114, 121, 143

Propaganda 60–1, 133, 139, 156, 210, 213–14

Public sector 91, 93, 137, 230 see also Employment, Public sector

Public space 42

Qadhadhifa (tribe) 10, 30, 36, 58, 61–2, 155, 158, 165, 181–2

al-Qadhafi Charitable Foundation 33–4, 40, 98, 197

Qadhafi, Hannibal 94Qadhafi, Mu’tasim Billah 120, 203Qadhafi, Muammar

capture and execution of 3, 17, 229

children of 5, 37, 104, 121, 148 see also individual children entries

I n de x248

crack down on rebels 12–15, 61, 71, 79, 93, 113, 127–8, 133, 141

demonstrations against 2, 10, 21, 45–6, 61, 93, 113, 209

ideology of see Qadhafian ideology

threats against Benghazi 114, 116, 130

Qadhafi, Muhammad 94Qadhafi, Mu’tasim Billah 120, 203Qadhafi, Sa’adi 94, 211Qadhafi, Saif al-Islam 6, 11, 31,

33–5, 37, 42–3, 49, 67, 94, 96, 99, 113, 120, 124, 177, 197, 202–3, 205, 207, 209, 211

Qadhafian forces see Loyalist forcesQadhafian Ideology 5–6, 15, 18,

23, 26, 34, 37, 44, 46–8, 57–8, 60, 73, 92, 100, 176–7, 194–5, 224–5

Qaeda, Al see Al-QaedaAbdul-Wahhab al-Qaid 206,

212, 215al-Qaradawi, Yusuf 196–7Qaramanli Dynasty 9Qar Yunis 32, 34Qatar

aid to rebels 122–4, 137, 140, 146, 227

business interests in Libya 98, 125

military and diplomatic role of in enforcement of no-fly zone 7, 13–14, 122–3, 130, 132, 136–7

Qatari Special Forces 123, 136relationship with Islamists 14,

16, 66, 76, 80, 124–5, 192, 196, 206, 212–16, 222, 224

R2P see Responsibility to ProtectRadicalization 102, 227Radio address 114Rajban (tribe and city) 58, 147,

154, 157, 159, 213

Ras Jdeir xvi, 161Ras Lanuf xvii, 125, 161, 113,

212, 220RCC see Revolutionary Command

CouncilRebels

military actions of and support to 7, 14, 103, 113–15, 122–5, 129, 132, 134, 137–8, 155, 215

objectives of 2political organization of 7, 71–2,

93, 101, 113, 118, 119, 130 see also National Transitional Council

Recognition, international of the NTC 6, 104, 115, 117–18, 122–3, 131–2, 164

Reconciliationof former jihadists with Qadhafi

regime 16, 202–6, 212, 225post-Qadhafi attempts

at national/tribal reconciliation 15, 59, 68, 80, 101, 142, 152, 159, 161–3, 182, 186–7 222

between Qadhafi regime and the West (2003–2010) 4, 21, 23, 33–5, 41, 90, 120

Reform processAmerican role in the 120–1economic dimension of 71,

90–2, 95, 99, 106as leading to the uprisings 3–5,

20–1political 197, 207, 232role of Saif al-Islam in the 11,

34, 49, 120, 197, 203–5, 207, 209

Refutations (Muraja’at) 204, 206, 212, 227 see also Libyan Islamic Fighting Group, relationship with Qadhafi

Regime changebest way to achieve 135, 139historic patterns of 98

Qadhafi, Muammar—Continued

I n de x 249

international consensus for 115–18, 135

Libyan protestors demand 93Regionalism 2, 12, 53, 58

see also FederalismReligion 26, 39–41, 53–8, 65, 70,

79–80, 99–100, 198, 225 see also Islam

Remittances 104, 116Rendition 203Reserves see Oil, reservesResponsibility to Protect (R2P) 13,

126Revolution see Uprisings and

France, French revolution and 1969 Revolution

Revolutionaries see ThuwwarRevolutionary Command Council

(RCC) 25, 74, 87–9, 99, 176, 194

Revolutionary Committees Movement (harakat al-lijnat al-thawra) 27–34, 39, 48, 199, 201–3

Rijal al-khayma (Men of the Tent—a term for Qadhafi’s inner circle) 25, 26

Rijdalain 14, 160, 163Rule of Law 17, 102, 208, 229Rules of engagement, NATO 128Russia 1, 13, 116–17, 121, 141–3

al-Sa’adi, Abu Mundir (aka Sami al-Sa’adi, LIFG leader) 203–4, 211

Sa’adi Qadhafi see Qadhafi, Sa’adiSa’adi (tribes) 36–7, 58Sabha

General National Congress election in 167

Qadhafi speech on housing in (13 January 2011) 144

Regime support base in 6, 10, 58, 133, 176

struggle for control of xviii, 181–3, 185–6

tribal politics in 158–61Tuareg in 177Tubu in 15, 38, 178

Saff/Sufuf (tribal blocs) 30, 48, 157, 165

Sahara 15, 38–9, 103–5, 175–87Sahel region 38–9, 103–4, 140,

177–8Sahwa movement 198–200, 202Saif al-Islam Qadhafi see Qadhafi,

Saif al-IslamSaif al-Nasr family (historic heads of

the Awlad Suleiman tribe) 159, 182–3

Salafistsposition under Qadhafi 57,

193, 204rejection of democracy and

electoral fortunes of 64, 100, role in uprisings 19, 191, 213, 220–3

spread as social movement 16–17, 100, 220–1

Salaries 94, 137, 142Sallabi, Ali 41, 64, 124, 197, 212,

214Sanctions

US unilateral 32, 88, 93–4UN (1992–1999) 11, 31–2, 63,

90, 93–4, 117–18, 231UN (2011) 13, 106, 116, 123,

138, 141, 142, 148, 181al-Sanussi, Ahmad Zubair

(figurehead for Cyrenaican Federalists) 166

Sanussi Amirate 56al-Sanussi, Idriss (Head of Sanussi

Order 1916–69 and King of Libya 1951–1969) 21, 56–8

Sanussi Monarchy 9, 21, 24, 27, 31, 36, 39, 56, 224- 225, 229

Sanussi Sufi Order 9–10, 58, 75, 171, 194, 213, 224

Saudi Arabia 87, 123, 126, 197–9, 220–1

I n de x250

Sawan, Muhammad (leader of JCP) 65, 219

Scaroni, Paolo (CEO of ENI) 122Secessionism 59, 184, 186–7Security

post-Qadhafi lack of coherent institutions 13, 15–18, 69, 115, 118, 162–3, 180, 186, 230

provided by militias 8, 141, 167, 180, 214, 218, 222

services under Qadhafi 28, 30, 33, 38–42, 45, 59–60, 138, 154, 158, 177, 179, 181–5, 201, 203–5, 207, 211

situation in post-Qadhafi Libya 8, 13, 17–18, 21–2, 73, 76, 98, 101, 105, 186, 230

Security Council Resolutions see United Nations, Security Council Resolutions 1970 and 1973

al-Senussi, Abdullah (Qadhafi’s Intelligence Chief and Brother-in-Law) 42, 96, 117, 121, 181, 204

Shakir, Yusif (Qadhafi propagandist) 156, 170

Shalgam, Abdul-Rahman 209Shammam, Mahmoud 124Shari ʿa 65, 99–100Shaykhs 29, 39, 123–4, 154, 194,

205, 220–1, 228Shura

councils 159, 204, 206, 208, 213, 216, 218

principle of 64Sinjar Records 210, 226Sirte

advance towards xviii, 113, 136, 138, 213

Basin 36, 39, 86, 179battle for 5, 10, 54, 132,

138, 181Gulf of 29regime power base in 6–7, 58

tribal dynamics of 28, 155–6, 159, 166–7

Social contract see Legitimacy, social contract

Social Networks 1, 78, 80, 97, 194, 221

Social work 16, 217–18Society, atomized 31, 36, 39, 58Souq al-Jum’a 163–4, 192, 215Sovereign Wealth Funds see Libyan

Investment Authority (LIA)Sovereignty 69–70, 72, 77, 83,

104, 117, 123Speech

freedom of 4, 131, 208by Qadhafi encouraging housing

occupations (13 January 2011) 143–4

by Saif Al-Islam (20 February 2011) 6, 49, 209

SpokesmenArab League 117Qadhafian 116Rebel 120, 141

Stalin 4Standard Oil of NJ 86–7Standards of living 4State see Nation-State and

“Statelessness”, (concept of Libyan) and Institutions

State-building 229 see also Institutions, building of

“Statelessness” (concept of Libyan) 17–18, 58, 231–2

Stevens, Ambassador J. Christopherdedication of book to xiii-xvikilling of 17, 76, 222

Struggle for post-Qadhafi Libya 74, 222

Students 32, 49, 102 196, 198–9Subsidies 12, 94–5, 105, 114, 180, 183Sufi Orders and Shrines 55, 76,

100, 220, 228 see also Sanussi Sufi Order

Sunni Islam/Sunni Muslims 26, 55, 57, 81, 97

I n de x 251

Supreme Security Council (SSC) 8, 159, 222

Syria 6, 13, 96, 97, 100, 135, 140, 142, 209, 216

Tahrir Square 5–6, 207–9 see also Egypt

Tajoura 163Tarhouna 156, 165Tarhouni, Ali (NTC Deputy Prime

Minister and Oil and Finance Minister) 77

Tawergha 67Technocrats 8, 11, 18–19, 71, 77,

131, 191–2, 219Television (TV) 1, 123–4, 156, 170,

197, 207, 220 see also Al JazeeraTelevision see TVTemporary Constitutional

Declaration (TCD) see Constitution, draft version of (i.e., the TCD)

Terbil, Fathi (civil rights advocate and spark of the uprisings) 45, 92, 207, 209

Terrorism 16, 88, 120, 203, 210, 222 see also 9/11 and the Post-9/11 strategic environment, counterterrorism

al-Thani, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa (Amir of Qatar) 123

Third Universal Theory see Qadhafian Ideology

Thuwwar (anti-Qadhafi revolutionary fighters)

contribution of LIFG to 16, 137, 213–14, 216, 219

contribution of Misratan 214lack of formal military

training 212local origins and organization

of 123, 137, 157, 159, 160, 163–4, 166, 168–9

numbers during the uprisings 94training of 123

Tibesti Hotel 162

Tibesti Region 38, 179al-Tir, Mustafa (Libyan

intellectual) 60–2, 82Tobruk 123, 154, 157, 159, 162,

166, 207Torture 161, 205, 208, 215Tourism 90, 187Trade 10, 90–1, 95, 104, 117–18,

126, 178, 180–1, 183, 207, 210

Trade Unions 5, 24, 97, 99, 200Tradition

of bay’a 30, 48of justice 7of opposition 21, 201power and 11religious 26, 29, 57, 65, 194 198,

200, 204, 213, 220role of in the uprisings 79Trans-Saharan trade 181, 185–6of tribal organization 36–7, 39,

58, 62, 64, 100–1, 147, 157, 159, 169, 177–9

Training see Capacity buildingTransition

to democracy 12, 59, 66, 68–70, 74, 78, 80, 101, 105, 139, 187, 192, 229, 231–2

period 8, 11, 65, 67, 69, 75–6, 79, 83, 105, 115, 139, 140, 151, 157, 159, 166, 168, 180, 186, 205, 222

Transparency 5, 92, 95, 101, 207–8, 216

Treaty of Friendship, Italo-Libyan (2008) 122

Tribe(s)concept of / definition of 14, 48,

152–3, 187conflict and resolution post-

Qadhafi 3, 14–15, 62, 67–8, 152, 159–65, 182

politics post-Qadhafi including electoral politics 29, 59, 61, 64–7, 70, 81, 152, 165–8, 231

I n de x252

Qadhafi’s use of 10, 23, 27–31, 36–9, 48, 58–61, 93, 99–100, 175–8

role in uprisings 12, 14, 39, 45–6, 53, 61, 72, 101, 130, 142, 151–2, 154–9, 168, 175, 179–82, 192, 203, 209, 215–16, 230

Sanussi Monarchy’s dependence on 24, 28, 58

tribal inversion 28, 36, 58, 182see also individual tribe names

and Identity, tribal and Sa’adi tribes and Tuareg, tribal politics of and Tubu

Tripolias administrative center 10,

118, 140–2 see also Center and periphery

American bombing of (in 1986) 29–30

battle for and fall of 16, 33, 69, 75, 120, 132, 134–9, 191

demographics of 24, 32, 165–6 see also Population

investment in 125militias in 74–6, 124, 137, 157,

163–4, 177, 213–14, 216, 219 see also Bilhajj, Abdul-Hakim, and the Tripoli Military Council

Ottoman control of 9–10 uprising in 5–6, 61, 113, 115, 120, 133, 209, 212

salafists in 219–21University of (Al-Fateh

University) 32–3, 196, 219Tripoli Military Council see Bilhajj,

Abdul-Hakim, and the Tripoli Military Council

Tuaregconflicts with 15, 182, 185–6demography of 177–8regime treatment of 38, 103,

176–7, 184–5

relationship with the NTC 183separatist movement of 103tribal politics of 153, 155–6,

163, 170, 172Tubu

antagonism with Awlad Suleiman 181–3

Qadhafi policy towards 38, 176–9

relationship with the Zwai 15, 157–8, 161, 180–1

role in the uprisings 15, 92, 157–8, 161, 163, 175–87

social structure of 153, 175–6, 187

Tubu Front for the Salvation of Libya (TFSL) 158, 178, 180 183

Tunisiaborder with Libya 161, 185, 213business interests in Libya 98,

104humanitarian role of 116, 131,

136, 217uprisings in 1, 5–7. 9, 44–5, 70,

92, 96–8, 100, 106, 108, 124, 126, 128, 209, 212, 226

TV 79, 123–4, 197, 207, 220, 224

Twitter 97 see also Facebook

Ubari 155, 167, 177, 181, 189Ulama 5, 39, 75, 194, 198, 220Unemployment 96–7, 114, 179 see

also EmploymentUnited Arab Emirates (UAE) 13,

115, 122–5, 130, 132United Kingdom of Libya 102 see

also Independence, Libyan (1951)

United Nations 37, 86, 209assistance 138, 217sanctions 31–3, 63, 90Security Council Resolutions

(1970 and 1973) 13, 44, 114, 116, 129–30, 135

Tribe(s)—Continued

I n de x 253

United States1986 bombing campaign 29–30Ambassador Christopher

Stevens 17, 76business 86–8, 120–1interests of 80, 104intervention 13, 114–15, 117,

127, 130–1, 134Libyan diaspora in 123, 131,

196, 214, 218recognition of the NTC 132, 134relationship with Libya under

Qadhafi 20, 32, 56, 120–1relationship with the LIFG 202,

223sanctions 43, 63, 88, 90, 98, 118support for human rights 35transitional assistance 22, 138, 140

Unity 3, 65, 68, 70, 77, 124, 139, 194

UNSCR see United Nations, Security Council Resolutions 1970 and 1973

UprisingsArab Spring as 1–3, 19–20, 96events in Libya as 1–11, 23,

45–6, 53–4, 59–60, 78, 80, 96, 113, 115–16, 127, 151, 168–9, 182, 206–7, 209, 221–2, 232

alternative histories of 17–19, 157unity/disunity of 61–2, 70–1,

127–9, 140, 142, 175, 192, 209 see also Multiplicity of uprisings

world community surprised by 114, 127

Urbanization 32, 36, 62

Vandewalle, Dirk 22, 46–8, 82, 108–9, 145, 148, 169, 187–9, 224–7

Vendée phenomenon 3, 14–15 see also Bani Walid and Counterrevolution

Vocational training 8, 32, 86

Wadi al-Shati 155, 165–7, 181, 201Wahhabism 75, 193, 197–200,

225Wardagu, Barka 158, 183Warfalla 15, 30, 36, 58–9, 62, 152,

155–6, 163–6“War on Terror” see 9/11 and

the post-9/11 strategic environment

Warriors’ Affairs Committee 94Warshafana 58, 156, 159–60, 162,

165, 167Water, pipeline infrastructure 95,

137Weapons see Armsal-Werfalli, Mabroka (Libyan

intellectual) 27, 47West, the

engagement with Qadhafi 4–5, 11, 20–1, 43–4, 63, 118, 120–1, 143, 203–4

Qadhafi opposing the 23, 72, 176–7, 199, 210, 220

support for the transition 22, 80, 138–40, 142–3

support for the uprisings 1, 13–14, 22, 63, 114, 117–22, 126–33, 141–2, 156

Western Mountain see Nafusa Mountains

Westerwelle, Guido (Foreign Minister of Germany 2009–2013) 129

Wikileaks 94, 121WMD see armsWollenberg, Anja xiii, 146Women and Women’s rights 19, 78,

99–102, 166, 198Workforce, Libyan

see also employment, unemployment 88

World War I 24World War II 9, 85–6

Yemen 2, 10, 97, 220Yifran 154

I n de x254

Youtheconomic prospects of 114identification with Islamists 75opposition to Qadhafi

(in 1970s) 39political organization of 101–2rising up of 5–7, 19, 27, 45,

154–5, 192, 222Yunis (al-Obeidi), Abdul-Fattah

defection from Qadhafi regime 7, 45, 67, 130, 154, 205, 215

implications of death of 6, 66–7, 132, 161–2, 215, 218

al-Zawahiri, Ayman 202Zawiyya 113, 131, 134, 138,

159–60, 162, 166, 168, 207

Zighlam, Hassan 94, 105Zlitan 164, 220Zuma, Jacob 128, 133–5Zuwara 14, 113, 157, 160–1, 163,

168Zwai (tribe) 15, 154, 157–8, 161,

178–81Zwai, Muhammad Abdul-

Qasim 179