Index

AAcephate, 501, 547Acetylcholine (Ach), 320Acute poisonings in pesticides application,

in United States, 86Adoption, IPM, 1–41Africa, IPM programs in, 23–26

Egypt, 23Ethopia, 26losses from insect pests by rice

environment, 456–460sub Saharan Africa, 26Sudan, 23Zimbabwe, 26

Ageniaspis fiscicollis, 152Agrimycin, 382Agrobacterium tumefaciens, 139Agrobiodiversity, 219Agro-ecosystems, population outbreaks

in, 339–341colonization, 340environmental limitations, 341host acceptance, 341host habitat location, 340host location, 340host recognition, 340host suitability, 341location of a suitable host,

340–341reproductive potentials, 341

Agronomic IPM techniquesEldana saccharina, 243–245

cultural control options, 244population monitoring, 244use of damage and/or population

thresholds, 244in rice tolerance, 481

Allelochemicals, in behavior-modifyingstrategies, 264

allomones, 264kairomones, 264, 292–293

Allium white rot (AWR), 145Almonds IPM

California, 150navel orangeworm, 150

Alternaria brassicola, 379Alternaria dauci, 151Alternaria leaf spots, 379Alternaria raphani, 379American bollworm, see Helicoverpa armigeraAmerican Cooperative Extension Service

(CES), 8Amrasca devastans, 515Amsacia albistriga, see Red hairy caterpillar

(RHC) (Amsacia albistriga)management (1989–1993)

Amyelois transitella, 150Analytical methods, for yield loss in

rice, 420–426damage functions, 422–423direct measurement, 420–426

simple regression, 420–422Andhra Pradesh, non pesticidal management

studies, 543–570See also under Non pesticidal management

Anomala orientalis mating disruption inblueberries, 283–285

See also under Mating disruption techniqueAntibiosis category in HPR development,

185–186Antibiotic producers role in plant disease

control, 140–141PA23-63 mutant in, 140–141

Anticarsia gemmatalis, 136Anti-pest sprays, 563–564Antiviral principles (AVP’s), 148Aonidiella aurantii, 151Aphanomyces cochlioides, 144

667

668 Index

AppleCydia pomonella, 652integrated fruit production (IFP) in, 17integrated mite management in, 616–620

binomial mite sampling, 618biological control, 616cumulative mite days, 617dynamic ET, 619–620mite damage, 617mite predators, 617mite sampling, 618sequential mite sampling, 618stethorus sampling, 618

parasitoids role in, 654–655predators role in, 654–655Quadraspidiotus perniciosus pests in, 654See also Pome fruits

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), 141–142Area-wide integrated pest management

(AW-IPM), 255, 599–624Armyworms (Leucania convecta), 461

Mythimna, 461Spodoptera, 461

Arsenical insecticides, 4Artificial infestation, yield loss in rice, 415–416Ascochyta blight in chickpea

disease management based on pathogenphenology, 355–356

moisture, 356temperature, 356

Asia, IPM programs in, 26–38IPM-FFS programs outcome in, 29See also China, IPM programs in; India

Assessment of IPM, 68–69environmental impacts, 69expected profit, 68human health impacts, 69

Attacticides, cotton IPM, 509Attract-and-kill concept, 269, 293

tephritid fruit fly pests as targets, 269Augmentation biological control, 211–212

implementation, 212non-target impacts, 212scientific basis, 211–212

lack of experimental work support-ing, 211

Australia, IPM programs in, 17–21Bt-cotton, 20–21cotton, 19grains cropping systems, 18–19horticultural crops, 17insecticide resistance management

(IRM), 20

integrated fruit production (IFP) inapples, 17

revegetation by design, 584–585rice, 19SIRATAC support system, 20sugar cane, 18vegetable IPM, 575–593

adoption in, 591brassica vegetables, 575, 577diamond back moth (DBM), 579–580science supporting brassica vegetable

IPM, 580–584‘two-window’ insecticide rotation

strategy, 579–580Austria, 16, 17Autocidal/genetic approaches, in fruit crop

ecosystem BIPM, 641–642Azadirachtin, 322, 512Azerbaijan, 26Azospirillum brasilense, 139

BBacillus amyloliquefaciens, 149Bacillus-based biological control agents

(BCAs), 144Bacillus thuringiensis, see Bt cottonBacterial diseases, integrated disease

management in, 381–383bacterial spot, 382bacterial wilt, 382–383black rot, 383bleaching powder for, 382cultural control measures, 382metribuzin, 382pendimethalin, 382plantomycin, 382soft rot/curd rot, 383

Bait tree, 600–624Banana weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus), 21Bangladesh, 27, 29Barriers, 220–221Beans, Sitona lineatus control in, 147Beauveria bassiana, 66, 510Beetle outbreak, 333Behavioral manipulation, 263–301Behavior-modifying strategies in IPM,

263–301allelochemicals, 264broad-spectrum insecticides in, 299constraints hindering development and

adoption of, 298policy related, 298socio-economic, 298technical, 298

Index 669

farmer education and adoption, 297–300semiochemical-based strategies, 299species-specific control technolo-

gies, 299using geographic information systems

(GIS), 298pheromones, 264–301See also Host-plant volatiles; Manipulation

of pest behavior; Mating disruptiontechnique; Pheromones, inbehavior-modifying strategies; Sexpheromones, in behavior-modifyingstrategies

Belgium, 14, 16, 17Bemisia tabaci, 4Beneficial disruption index (BDI), 225Beneficial organisms, 207–227Benomyl, 379Bifenthrin, 502Biofix DD, 608Bio-intensive IPM (BIPM) in fruit crop

ecosystem, 631–661adoption, 656–657autocidal/genetic approaches, 641–642biological control agents in, 641citrus, 647–648classical biological control, 633–634cultural approaches in, 638–639guava, 651host plant resistance (HPR) in, 639–640

apple, 640citrus, 640guava, 640mango, 640peach, 640

litchi, 648–649mango (Mangifera indica), 645mechanical control, 639novel approaches, 642–643

light trap, 643pheromone trap-monitoring, 643selective, safer and eco-friendly

insecticides, 644trapping devices, 643yellow pan/sticky traps, 643

olive, 649–650peach, 655–656physical control, 639pome fruits, 652–655

San Jose scale, 652pre-requisites of, 634–638

base line data or informationcollection, 634

field monitoring, 636–637identification of major fruit

pests, 634–635pest forecasting, 635–636record keeping, 638sampling, 635–636scouting of pest population, 636–637threshold level determination, 637

strategies, 656–657bio villages development, 658–659corporate houses involvement, 660–661farmer field school (FFS), 657government policies, amendments, 661national park concept, 659–660problem cause diagrams, 658seasonal calendars, 658

Biological control practices in IPM,65–66, 134–138, 207–227,296–297

Anticarsia gemmatalis, 136approaches to, 207–215Costelytra zealandica, 136definition, 208Diaphorina citri, 136efficacy under field conditions, 137–138Entomophaga maimaiga in, 136fruit crop ecosystem BIPM, 641fungi, 65–66Harmonia axyridis in, 136HIPV in, 295historical perspective of, 214–215

cottony cushion scale project, 215parasitism, 214predatory behavior, 214

interaction with other IPM tactics,215–226

barriers, 220–221cultural controls, 216–219mechanical or physical controls,

219–221population monitoring, 216tillage, 219–220traps, 220–221

Lymantria dispar, 136Macrosiphum euphorbiae, 136by means of entomopathogens, 65microbials role, 65–66Monellia caryella, 136Monelliopsis pecanis, 136Mononychellus tanajoa, 136parasitoids, 65plant breeding, 221–223

conventional, 221

670 Index

Biological control practices in IPM (cont.)predators, 65rice, 473–476

arthropod time-series, 478classical biocontrol, 479macro-invertebrates, 478spiders, 478

Serratia entomophila in, 136sterile male method, 65transgenic crops, 221–223Typhlodromalus aripo in, 136worldwide, 135–137See also Augmentation biological control;

Conservation biological control;Importation biological control;Microbial bio-control of plantdiseases; Pesticides/Pesticide use

Biopesticides, 134–135in nematodes management, 148–149promotion in India, 71

Biotechnology, 66–67Biotic factors, insect outbreaks, 343–347

See also under Outbreaks, insectBio villages concept, 658–659Bird kills due to pesticides use, 102Black rot, 383Black scurf, 378Bollworms, cotton, 500–533Bordeaux mixture, in integrated disease

management, 378Botanical biopesticides, 512Botanicals in pest management, 147–148,

317–327breakdown, 319carbamates, 320chlorinated hydrocarbons, 320essential oil, 321factors affecting, 325–326

market opportunities, 326raw material availability, 325standardization of botanical

extracts, 325–326as fungicides, 320–322as insecticides, 320–322methanol, 321mode of action, 323–325

azadirachtin, 323limonene, 323, 325neem, 325nicotine, 323–324pyrethroids, 322rotenone, 323–324ryania, 324–325

ryanodine, 323sabadilla, 324

monoterpenes, 321neem formulations, 321nicotine sulfate, 319organophosphates, 320pyrethrins, 319pyrethroids, 320saponin rich extracts (SREs), 321synthetic chemicals versus, 319–320toosendanin, 322use, 323–324

Brambles, 601Brassica vegetables IPM

Australia, 575–584USA, 585–588

Brazil, 22Bt cotton, 67, 195, 506–507

efficacy of, 531HPR action mode, 187impact on pests and non-target beneficial

insects, 530Cry1Ac-based Bt-cotton, 530hairy caterpillars, 530semiloopers, 530

in India, 197resistance management strategies

for, 531–532Bt gene pyramiding strategy, 190–191

assumptions, 190Buckeye rot, 378Burkholderia cepacia, 139

CCalifornia, IPM in, 5, 150–151

almonds, 150cotton, 151oranges, 151processing tomatoes, 151

Cambodia, 27, 29Camouflage in mating disruption, 269, 277Canada, 4

Canadian forestsinsect outbreaks in, 338

successful IPM strategies in, 152–153apple pests, 152greenhouse cucumbers, 153greenhouse tomato crops, 152

Cancer due to pesticides application, in UnitedStates, 90–92

Cane, see Sugar cane production, pestsaffecting

Carbamates, 320

Index 671

Carbamyl, 320Carbaryl, 501Carbendazim, 376–377Carbofuran, 102, 442, 502Carrot in New York, fungal leaf blight

diseases, IPM program, 151–152Cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV 35S),

189–190Cercospora beticola, 149–150Cercospora carotae, 151–152Challenges, IPM, 51–78

implementation, 76–78Chemical control, 371

rice, 480–481Children, negative health effects of pesticides

in, 91Chile, 22China, IPM programs in, 27–28, 34–38

ADB cotton IPM program, 35development process, stages, 34–35

crop-centered IPM, 34ecosystem-centered IPM, 35pest-centered IPM, 34

dissemination and IPM impact, 35–37Gaoming, 36Guangdong Province, 36implementation problems, 37–38insect-resistant transgenic rice in, 198Jilin Province, 36–37pesticides consumption in, 37–38training courses, 36

Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 320Chloronicotinyl insecticides, 506Chloropicrin, 378Chlorothalonil, 380Chlorpyrifos, 502Cholinesterase (ChE), 320Chronic health effects of pesticides

application, in United States, 90–92Chronic versus epidemic pests, 446–447Citrus fruits, BIPM in, 647Classical biocontrol, 479Climatic variation role in forest insect

outbreaks, 341–343Codling moth, see Cydia pomonellaCognitive effects of pesticides application, in

United States, 91Colorado potato beetle, insect attractants

derived from, 290–291Commercialization, 317–326Common root rot, 146Commonwealth of Independent States, IPM

program in, 26

Community managed sustainable agriculture,568–570

Community wide adoption, rice, 477Compensation, yield loss in rice, physiological

basis of, 426–433crop management to enhance, 441high pest counts and low loss, 437–438slope of regression of yield loss with

yield, 438solar radiation role in, 438–441tolerance as a mechanism of plant

resistance, 444–446yield loss paradox, 441–444

Competitive attraction mechanism, matingdisruption technique, 275–276

Components of IPM, 62–68biological control, 65–66biotechnology, 66–67crop rotation, 63cultural control, 62–64host-plant resistance, 66–67intercropping, 63pesticides, 67phytosanitaion, 64planting and harvesting dates, 63policy change, 70push-pull strategies, 67–68quarantine and regulatory control, 64solarization, 64training programs, 70

Composting, 146Concept, IPM, 51–78

economic threshold, 57identity crisis, 58mid 1970s, 53

Conservation biological control, 212–214,599–624

economics, 214integrated biocontrol, 213pesticide use modification, 213

Contaminated products, due to pesticideuse, 92–95

Conventional and new biological andhabitat interventions for IPMsystems, 241–256

See also under Eldana saccharina, IPMsystems for

Corporate houses involvement, in pestmanagement, 660–661

Cosmopolites sordidus, 21Costa Rica, 21Costelytra zealandica, 136

672 Index

Costs of pesticides application in UnitedStates, 89–107

See also Environmental and economiccosts

Cotton IPM/cotton pest managementfrom 1960 to 1980, 503

pink bollworm, 503Spodoptera litura, 503spotted bollworm, 503

from 1980 to 1990, 503synthetic pyrethroids, 503

from 1990 to 2000, 504–506IPM/IRM strategies, 505pheromone traps, 505

from 2000 to 2007, 506chloronicotinyl insecticides, 506Cry toxins, 506

in Asia, 501–502Australia, 19California, 151changing trends in, 499–533China, 35cotton bollworm, see Heliothis armigeracotton leafhopper, see Amrasca devastansHelicoverpa control in, 147historical perspective, 500–506

carbamates, 501cyclodienes, 501formamidines, 501organochlorines, 501organophosphates, 501pyrethroids, 501

implementation of IPM, 525–529Africa, 527–528Asia, 528Australia, 526China, 528–529Egypt, 527Farmer Field School (FFS)

approach, 528India, 528Pakistan, 528–529pyrethroid resistance action network

(PR-PRAO), 527USA, 526

insecticide resistance, 514–525carbamates, 517cyclodienes, 517in H. armigera, 517–518in lepidoptera, 515–519organophosphates, 515organotins, 517pyrethroid resistance, 516–517

in sucking pests, 514insecticide resistance management (IRM)

strategies, 519–520carbamates, 520endosulfan, 520for H. armigera control in India, 520India, 519organo-phosphates, 520pyrethroids, 520See also Indian IRM Field Program,

cottoninsect resistant GM crops and IPM,

529–532Bt-cotton impact, 530Cry (crystal) genes, 529genes for pest management, 529–530vip-3A genes, 529–530

IPM components, 509–514attacticides, 509Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), 510–511Beauvaria bassiana, 510–511botanical biopesticides, 512cypermethrin, 509economic threshold levels (ETL), 514entomopathogenic nematodes, 510–511host plant resistance, 512–513intercropping, 513mating disruption, 509Metarhizium anisopliae, 510–511microbial control, 510–511nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV),

510–511parasites, inundative releases of,

511–512predators, inundative releases of,

511–512sex pheromones, 509–510Verticillium lecani, 510–511

natural enemies in cotton ecosystem,507–509

See also Helicoverpa armigeraCover crops, 145Crop age, yield loss in rice and, 434–436Crop and crop product losses, due to pesticide

usage, 98–100Crop loss assessment, rice, 398,

446–466chronic versus epidemic pests, 446–447constraints, 403empirical knowledge, 398empirically derived decision models, 398losses from all pest groups, 456losses by growth stage, 447–450

Index 673

damage functions, 450–452decision thresholds, 450–452EIL, 450–452insecticide check method, 448

losses from individual insect pests,460–466

armyworms, 461Asian countries, 462, 463–464defoliators, 460–461gall midge, 462–463leaffolders, 463leafhoppers, 464planthoppers, 463–464rice hispa, 463rice seed bug, 464–465rice whorl maggot, 460stemborers, 461–462

losses from insect pests by riceenvironment, 456–460

Africa, 459Claveria, 459deepwater rice, 458dryland rice culture, 458–459Ghana, 459India, 458Koronadal, 457Laguna, 459Pangantucan, 459Philippines, 452–454rainfed wetland rice, 458Sri Lanka, 458Sulawesi, 458Zaragoza, 457

losses from multiple pests andstresses, 465–466

India, 464Madagascar, 466

mechanistic single pest simulationmodels, 398

multiple pests and stresses, 398occasional pests, 446probabalistic data, 398quelling chronic losses, 447scale up, 398yield gaps, 452–455

Indonesia, 454–455Philippines, 452–454Sri Lanka, 455Thailand, 455

Crop losses to pests, 84–86annual estimated pesticide use in world, 85USA, 84–85

Crop management to enhance compensation,441

Crop modeling, yield loss in rice, 416–417Crop protection practices, advances

in, 131–154, 263–301economic liberalization, 132entomophages in IPM systems, 135–136globalization, 132sustainable farming practices, 132transfer of technology, 153–154WTO policies, 132See also Management programs

Crop rotation, 63, 217Cryptochetum iceryae, 214–215Cry toxins, 506Cuba, 22Cultural approaches in BIPM, 638–639Cultural controls, 62–64, 216–219

cover cropping, 218crop rotation, 217habitat stability, 216–217intercropping, 217non-crop vegetation, manipulation,

218–219rice, 472–473trap cropping, 217–218

Cultural practice IPM techniques, 244–245Cumulative DD, 608Cyclical eruptive outbreaks, 338Cyclical gradient insect outbreaks, 337Cydia pomonella, 269–272, 608, 610

in deciduous fruit, 601insect attractants derived from, 288–289See also under Deciduous fruit IPM

Cyfluthrin, 502Cypermethrin, 501, 509Cytochrome c oxidase subunit, 1 (CO1) region

of the mitochondrial genome, 243Cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) induced by

Wolbachia, 254

DDaily degree-days, estimating, 609–611Damage simulation methods, for yield loss in

rice, 414DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichlorethane), 2, 83

banning, 2drawbacks, 83–84during WWII, 599

Deciduous fruit IPM, 599–624broad-spectrum insecticides, 605codling moth, 606, 620–622

areawide mating disruption, 621–622See also Plum curculio

674 Index

Deciduous fruit IPM (cont.)crop phenology and pest biology, 607economic induced shift of tactics, 605economic thresholds in fruit, 614edge effects, 606–607germplasm resistant to fruit pests, 602grape berry moths, 606habitat, 606–607host plant resistance, 614–616insecticidal compounds, 604management tactics, 614–624origins, deciduous fruits, 600–602

brambles, 601peaches, 601Vaccinium fruit crops, 601Vitis vinifera L., 600

pest management, foundation, 606See also Degree-Day (DD) models

pest management, history, 602–605in 1945, 604early 1990s, 604since 1989, 604toxicity of pesticides to natural

enemies, 605pest scouting, 612

general scouting guidelines, 613pests origin, 602

geographic origin, 603predatory insects, 605sampling programs, 612–613

sampling methods, 612visual or odor-based traps, mainte-

nance, 612See also Apple

Decision rules that guides pest control actionselection, 60

Decision support systems (DSS)in disease management, 354

computer-based DSS, 358integrated IT approaches, 360for vector transmitted viruses, 359

Deepwater rice, 458Defining IPM, 6, 59–60

decision rules, 60economic benefits

to environment, 59to growers, 59to society, 59

FAO defining, 6, 60impact on multiple pests, 60pest control methods, selection, 59

Defoliation, 428, 460–461Degree-Day (DD) models, 607–612

deciduous fruit IPM, 607–612apple, 610biofix DD, 608blackberry, 610cumulative DD, 608daily degree-days, estimating, 609–611grape, 608lower developmental threshold

(LDT), 607–608online degree-day calculators, 612peach, 610thermal constant (TC) deriving,

608–609upper developmental threshold

(UDT), 607–608validation, 611

Deltamethrin, 501Denmark, 11, 14, 16, 17Dermolepida albohirtum, 18Desensitization mechanism, mating disruption

technique, 272–275antennal adaptation, 273–274codling moths, 274peripheral adaptation in male pests, 274tortricid moth species, 274

Destructive Insects and Pests Act 1914 (DIPAct 1914), 64

Developed countries, IPM initiatives in, 6–21See also Asia, IPM programs in;

Australia, IPM programs in;Europe, IPM in; United States ofAmerica (USA), IPM in

Developing countries, IPM initiatives in, 21–38Commonwealth of Independent States, 26disease management in, 360–362

farmer field schools, 360–362market role, 362

See also Africa, IPM programs in; LatinAmerica, IPM programs in

Developing IPM systems, factors toconsider, 61–62

bioagents, effectiveness, 61botanical pesticides, 62ecosystem approach, 62environmental problems, 61genetic engineering, 61resistant varieties, 61

2,4-Diacetylphloroglucinol(DAPG), 83, 99, 139

Diamond back moth (DBM), 579–584Diaphorina citri, 136Dichlorodiphenyltrichlorethane, DDT, 2Dieldrin, 83

Index 675

Disease management, 351–364based on pathogen phenology, 355–356by modeling time of infection, 357through health of planting material,

353–354subsistence crops, 353

through spatial structure knowledge ofdisease, 354–355

Asia, 355gradient studies, 355

transferring epidemiological knowledge toend users, 358–360

decision support systems (DSS), 358industrialized countries, 358–360

virus diseases, 354Dithiocarbamate fungicides, 2Domestic animal poisonings, due to pesticide

use, 92–95Downy mildew, 379Dryland rice culture, 458Dynamic ET for apple, 619–620

EEconomic benefits, IPM

to growers, 59to society, 59

Economic constraints, in IPM implementation,73

Economic injury level (EIL) concept,57–58, 632

crop loss assessment, rice, 446–447action thresholds, 451–452thresholds with low nitrogen, 451

for yield loss measurement in rice, 422Economic threshold concept in IPM, 57,

599–624, 632cotton IPM, 511in fruit crop ecosystem, determination, 637

Edge effect feeding, 606–607Egypt, 23Eldana saccharina, IPM systems for, 241–256

fourth trophic level, 251–255Fusarium isolate to, 252–253habitat management, 245–250new insights/technologies for, 243–251

agronomic control options, 243–245ecology, 243

Wolbachia in, 253–255See also Sterile insect technology (SIT)

Enabavi village in Warangal, non pesticidalmanagement, 564–565

organic farming, 564–565Endocrine disrupting pesticides, 91

Endophytic microorganisms, 251–253pest responses to, 251

in maize, 252Endosulfan spraying, 502

destructive impacts of, 121Entomopathogens means, biological control

by, 65Entomophaga maimaiga, 136Environment

benefits of IPM to, 59environmental impacts assessment, 69

Environmental and economic costsof pesticides application in United

States, 89–107acute poisonings, 90beneficial natural predators and

parasites, destruction, 94–96cancer and other chronic effects, 90–92contaminated products, 92–94crop and crop product losses, 98–100destruction of beneficial natural

enemies, losses due to, 95domestic animal poisonings, 92–94environmental and social costs from

pesticide, 107estrogenic, 91ethical and moral issues, 105–106farm animal poisoning, 93fishery losses, 101government funds for pesticide

pollution control, 105ground water contamination,

100–101honeybee poisonings, 97–98invertebrates, 104mammals, damage to, 101–104microbes, 104pesticide resistance in pests, 96–97pollination reduction, 97–98public health effects, 90–92surface water contamination, 100–101wild bee poisonings, 97–98wild birds, damage to, 101–104See also under Pesticides

Environmental factors consideration, yield lossin rice, 417–419

Epidemics, plant, 351–364spatial structure in epidemic develop-

ment, 352See also Disease management

Eruptive type insect outbreaks, 336cyclical eruptive outbreaks, 338permanent eruptive outbreaks, 338

676 Index

Eruptive type insect outbreaks (cont.)pulse eruptive outbreaks, 338sustained eruptive outbreaks, 338

Erwinia tracheiphile, 383Erysiphe betae, 149Essential oils, 317Estonia, 16Estrogenic effect of pesticides, 91Ethical issues, in pesticides use, 105–106Ethopia, 26Europe, IPM in

initiatives, 11–17Austria, 16Belgium, 12Denmark, 12Germany, 12incentives to growers, 11Italy, 12Netherland, 12Norway, 12Sweden, 12Switzerland, 13United Kingdom, 13

pesticide sale in, 16Expected profit, assessment, 68

FFalse-plume following, 272Farm animal poisoning, due to pesticide

use, 93Farmer education and adoption, in behavior-

modifying strategies, 297–300Farmer Field School (FFS) approach, 528–529

Asia, 6bio-intensive IPM, 633–634Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), 13in disease management, 362India, 126

Farmer participation, 73–74Farm and landscape scale, vegetable IPM, 590Farmscaping, 219Fenpropathrin, 502Fensulfothion, 103Fenvalerate, 501Finland, 17Fire blight in pears

disease management by modeling time ofinfection, 357

climatic factors influencing, 357Fishery losses, due to pesticide usage, 101Flucythrinate, 502Fluorescent pseudomonads, 142–143Fluvalinate, 502

Fonofos, 103Food, pesticide residues in, 92Forecasting, pest, in BIPM, 635–636

calendar method, 636phenological method, 636

Forest ecosystem, insect outbreaks in, 338–339Canadian forests, 339ponderosa pine, 339Russia, 339Siberia, 339

Forest insect outbreaksclimatic variation role in, 341–343moisture, 343temperature, 342–343weather role in, 341–343

mechanisms, 342Fourth trophic level

Eldana saccharina IPM systems, 250, 253fungal endophytes, 251–253

France, 11, 17Fruit crop ecosystem IPM, 631–661

See also Bio-intensive IPM (BIPM) in fruitcrop ecosystem

Fruits IPM, 599–624areawide pheromone-based mating

disruption, 599–600mite management program, 599–600resistant rootstocks, 599–600See also Deciduous fruit IPM

Fungal diseases, integrated diseasemanagement in, 376–381

Fungal endophytes, 251–253Fungal leaf blight diseases, of carrot in New

York, IPM Program, 151–152Fungal leaf diseases in sugar beet

control of, 149–150leaf blotching, 150powdery mildew, 149–150

Fungicidesbotanicals as, 320–322

synthetic fungicides, 321See also Synthetic chemicals

Fungi in pest control, 65–66Fusarium oxysporum, 380Fusarium wilt, 378–379

GGall Midge, 462–463Gene flow impact of HPR, 191–192

between a GM and non-GM plant, 191–192through hybridization, 192

Gene pyramiding strategy, 190–191See also Bt gene pyramiding strategy

Index 677

Genesis of IPM, 57–58Genetically-engineered pest resistance, 66–67Genetic resistance, rice, 475–476Germany, IPM in, 11, 13, 16, 17

for fungal leaf diseases control in sugarbeet, 149–150

Germplasm for pest resistanceevaluating, 615fruit pests, 600

Goniozus indicus, 245, 248Government Performance and Results Act of

1993 (GPRA), 8Government support requirement, in IPM

implementation, 74–75Gradient type insect outbreaks, 336

cyclical gradient outbreaks, 337pulse gradient outbreaks, 337sustained gradient outbreaks, 337

Grains cropping systems, 18Grape phylloxera, 614Grapevine moth (Lobesia botrana), 270

insect attractants derived from, 288Greece, 16Green revolution, 132Greyback canegrub (Dermolepida albohir-

tum), 18Ground water contamination, due to pesticide

usage, 100–101Groundwater hazard index (GHI), 69Guava, BIPM in, 649

HHabitat diversification, management, 133–134Habitat influencing pests in deciduous

fruits, 606–607Habitat management

Eldana saccharina, 250, 253farm based habitat management, 249host plant volatiles, 245–247induced plant resistance, 251Melinis minutiflora repelled by, 249partial host plant resistance, 251

Habitat stability, 216–217Harmonia axyridis, 136Harvesting dates manipulation, importance, 63Health hazards related to pesticide

use, 118–122Helicoverpa armigera, 4, 19–20

in cotton, 147control of, 499–533pyrethroid resistance, 516resistance to cypermethrin, 516resistance mechanisms in, 518

See also Cotton IPM/Cotton pestmanagement

Helicoverpa punctigera, 19–20Heliothis armigera, 4Heliothis virescens, 22Herbage removal, 427Herbicides, negative effects on birds, 102Herbivore induced plant volatiles

(HIPV), 288, 291–292in biological control, 296–297

Heterodera cajani, 148History, IPM, 1–41

basic tactics of IPM, 3Canada, 4‘the dark ages’ of pest control, 2DDT, 2–4early 1970s, 3early twentieth century, 3economic threshold concept, 5experiences, 38–40perspectives, 38–40Peru, 4problems, 38–40See also Developed countries, IPM

initiatives in; Developingcountries, IPM initiatives in

Honeybee poisonings, due to pesticideusage, 97–98

Host plant resistance (HPR) in IPM,66–67, 163–177, 287–292

adoption, 194–199advantages, 164–166applications, 292–295attractants, 287–290

codling moth, 289colorado potato beetle, 290grapevine moth, 289–290plum curculio, 290

attract-and-kill, 293–294benefits, estimates lack in, 172biological control, 296–297biotechnological interventions in,

183–200in BIPM, 639–640Bt crops, mode of action of, 187China, 197cotton IPM, 511–512deciduous fruit IPM, 612–614

fruit germplasm for pest resis-tance, evaluating, 615

grape phylloxera problem, 614development mechanisms, 185–186

antibiosis category, 185–186

678 Index

Host plant resistance (HPR) in IPM (cont.)non-preference category, 185tolerance category, 185

environmental and ecological impacts,191–194

effect on non-target organisms, 192–193gene flow, 191–192new insect biotypes, 193–194

factors to considerdegree of specialization, 286gender differences of insects, 287physiological state of insects, 287

herbivore induced plant volatiles(HIPV), 288, 291–292

host findingdisruption, 294–295manipulation of, 287–292

impact, 194–199increased use, keys to, 173–176

implementation, quantitative approachto, 176

increased application of modern genetictools, 174–176

phenotypic basis of plantresistance, mechanisticunderstanding, 173–174

India, 197insect resistant transgenic GM crops,

impact of, 196insufficient understanding of, 171–172integration of, 134mass trapping, 293monitoring, 292–293multiple pest resistance, need for, 170–171obstacles to, 166–172

resistant varieties development, conse-quences, 168–169

single gene resistance, features of, 167typical nature of plant resistance,

166–170pheromones, 295–296push-pull strategy, 294repellents, 291resistance conditioned by one or a few

genes, 165resistance likely conditioned by many

genes, 165rice varieties, 169screening techniques, 168South Africa, 198transgenic crops with Bt gene, 188–189transgenics versus conventional

HPR, 186–187

USA, 198visual cues, 295

Host-plant volatiles, 263–301Huffaker Project, 7Human health impacts, 69

assessment, 69Hungary, 16Hydrellia michelae, 19

IImidaclopid, 283Implementation of IPM, 1–41, 525–529

challenges, 76–78constraints in, 71–73

economic constraints, 73informational constraints, 72institutional constraints, 72sociological constraints, 72–73

future prospects, 76–78biological control, 78digital technology, 78environment friendly pesticides

development, 77genetic approaches to pest resistance, 77integration of IPM, 78

improving measures, 73–76farmer participation, 73–74government support, 74–75improved awareness, 76institutional infrastructure, 75–76legislative measure, 75

See also under Cotton IPM/Cotton pestmanagement

Implications of pesticide useIndia, 120–127

agroecosystems disturbance, 119ecological implications, 118–120economic implications, 120–122environmental pollution, 118–119, 122human health problems, 118, 120, 121occupational health hazards,

121–122pest resistance problems, 119poisoning, 120–122psychiatric problems, 121resurgence of pests, 119social implications, 120–122

Importation biological control, 208–211economics, 209–210

cost-benefit analysis, 209–210non-target impacts, 210pest resistance, 211success rates, 209

Index 679

India, 27, 29–34bioagents of pests in, 642

fungus, 642parasitoids, 641predators, 641

cotton pest management, 504endosulfan, 504methomyl, 504quinalphos, 504

crop loss due to pests in, 117brinjal, 117cabbage, 117cauliflower, 117chilli, 117cotton, 117okra, 117pigeonpea, 117rice, 117sunflower, 117wheat, 117

insect-resistant transgenic Bt cotton in, 197IPM accomplishments during 1994–1995

to 2001–2002, 124–125IPM impact in, 69–71

awareness towards health ofenvironment and man, 70–71

biopesticides, promotion of, 71hazardous pesticides, banning, 71pesticide use, decline in, 71policy change, 70

losses from insect pests by riceenvironment, 456–460

organic food demand in, 123India, IPM programs in, 28–34

in 1974–1975, 29–30agencies involvement, 32Agriculture Man Ecology (AME), 31Ashta IPM model, 31Operational Research Projects (ORP),

29–30outcome of IPM programs in, 33

Andra Pradesh, 33Central India, 33Punjab, 33Tamil Nadu, 33

pesticide consumption (1955–1956 to2006–2007), 30

pesticide use reduction, reasons for, 32Indian IRM Field Program, cotton, 520–525

60–75 DAS, 52375–90 DAS, 52390–110 DAS, 524110–140 DAS, 524

>140 DAS, 524early sucking pests, 523–524from 2002 to 2007, 521intervention thresholds, 522

India, pesticide use inarea versus crop loss due to insect

pests, 116consumption pattern, 115

during 1995–1996 to 2000–2001, 115bio-pesticides, 124pesticides, 124, 125

crop-wise consumption of, 114–115economic and ecological externalities

of, 113–127Farmers Field Schools (FFSs), 125government spending, 124–125green revolution, 126human health problems, 118implications, 120–122

See also under Implications of pesticideuse

important crop pests, 116–118information technology utilization

in, 126risks associated with, 123state-wise consumption of, 114–115stewardship initiatives, 123–126

pesticide drift management, 123triple rinse procedure, 123

in subsistence farming, 125Indonesia, 27, 28

rice yield gaps, 454–455Java, 454Yogyakarta, 455

Induced resistance, 166–167, 174, 186Industrialized countries, disease management

in, 358–360Informational constraints, in IPM

implementation, 72Insect attractants derived from host plant

volatiles, 288Insecticide check method

yield loss in rice, 410–413action thresholds, 412growth-stage partitioned yield

loss, 410–413limitation of, 412reproductive stage, 411ripening stage, 412vegetative stage, 412yield gap studies, 413–414

Insecticide resistancecotton, 514–525

680 Index

Insecticide resistance (cont.)insecticide resistance management

(IRM), 20, 153–154See also under Cotton IPM/cotton pest

managementInsecticides

botanicals as, 320–322lethal effects of, 223–224

Insecticide spraying, in insect outbreaksmanagement, 347

Insect outbreaks,see Outbreaks, insectInsect repellents derived from host plant

volatiles, 288–289Insect resistant GM crops and IPM, 196,

529–532See also under Cotton IPM/cotton pest

managementInstitutional constraints, in IPM implementa-

tion, 72Institutional infrastructure improvement

requirement, in IPM implementa-tion, 75–76

Integrated disease management (IDM),369–385

See also Plant disease management;Vegetable diseases, integrateddisease management in

Intensive arable agriculture, push-pullstrategies in, 147

Intercropping, 63, 217International Organization for Biological

Control of Noxious Animals andPlants (IOBC), 11

Invertebrates, pesticides damaging, 104Iprodione, 379Ireland, 16Isomate dispenser pheromone treat-

ment, 270, 273–274, 276, 279for tortricid moths in tree fruit, 278–283

Italy, 12, 14, 17

KKairomones, 220, 264, 292, 293Kodiak (Bacillus subtilis isolate GB03), 144Koronadal, 457

LLambda-cyhalothrin, 502Laos, 27Latin America, IPM programs in, 21–23

Chile, 22Colombia, 22Costa Rica, 21Cuba, 22

farmer training, 23Nicaragua, cotton pest management, 21outcome of, 24

Argentina, 24Bolivia, 24Brazil, 24Chile, 24Colombia, 24Peru, 24–25

Peru, 22–23cotton pest management, 21

Leaffolders, 463Leafhoppers, 464Leaf miner (Hydrellia michelae), 19Leafrollers (various species), 270Legislative measure, in IPM implementa-

tion, 75Lepidoptera, insecticide resistance in, 515–519Lepidopteran pests, 195–198Lethal dose (LD50), 121Leucania convecta, 19Limonene, 319, 323Litchi, BIPM in, 648–649Locusta migratoria manilensis, 35Lower developmental threshold (LDT), 607Lymantria dispar, 136–137

MMacrosiphum euphorbiae, 136Maize,see Zea mays, stem borers control inMalathion, 502Malaysia, 27Mammals, pesticides damaging, 101–104Management programs

for insects pests and diseases, 133–149bio-control of pests worldwide,

135–137biological control, 134–138biopesticides in nematodes, 148–149botanicals role, 147–148germplasm well development, 133habitat diversification, 133–134host plant resistance, integration of, 134organic soil amendments, 145–146production inputs use, 133push-pull strategies, 146–147

See also Biological control practices inIPM

Mangifera indica, BIPM in, 645Mango,see Mangifera indica, BIPM inManipulation of pest behavior

definition, 264See also Behavior-modifying strategies in

IPM

Index 681

Market demands, pesticides, 226Market opportunities for botanical

pesticides, 326Mass trapping, 220–221, 293

using sex pheromones, 266–267Mating disruption technique, 263–266

codling moth (Cydia pomonella), 270,272–278

cotton IPM, 509–510dodecanol (12OH), 277grapevine moth (Lobesia botrana), 270leafrollers (various species), 270mechanisms, 272–278

camouflage, 272, 277competitive attraction, 275–276completeness of pheromone blend and

antagonists, 277–278desensitization, 272–275false-plume following, 272non-competitive mechanisms, 276–277sensory imbalance, 272

oriental beetle (Anomala orientalis )matingdisruption in blueberries, 283–285

imidaclopid, 283pheromone treatment, 283–285(Z)- and (E)-7-tetradecen-2-one,

283–284oriental fruit moth (Grapholita

molesta), 270pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossyp-

iella), 270tetradecanol (14OH), 277tomato pinworm (Kaiferia lycopersi-

cella), 270of tortricid moths in tree fruit, 278–283

Hercon Disrupt CM flakes, 280–281high-density reservoir formulation, 281microencapsulated formulation, 281non-competitive mechanism, 279Scentry NoMate CM Fibers, 280

Mechanical control in BIPM, 639Mechanical or physical controls, 219–221Meloidogyne incognita, 149Metarhizium anisopliae, 510–511Metarhizium fungus, 18Methanol, 321Methomyl, 501Metribuzin, 382Microbes, pesticides damaging, 104Microbial bio-control of plant diseases,

138–145Agrobacterium tumefaciens, 139Allium white rot (AWR), 145

antibiotic producers role, 140–141Aphanomyces cochlioides, 144Azospirillum brasilense, 139Bacillus-based biological control agents

(BCAs), 144Bacillus mycoides, 143Bacillus subtilis, 143Botrytis cinerea, 143Burkholderia cepacia, 139cotton IPM, 510–511crop growth stage, significance, 139–140Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens, 143fluorescent pseudomonads, 142–143formulation, importance, 143–144integration in IPM, 142–145Kodiak, 144mycorrhizal fungi role in, 141–142Peanibacillus azotofixans, 139Pichia guilermondii, 143Pseudocercospora purpurea, 144

Mite management in apple, 616–620See also Apple

Mite sampling, 599–624Moisture in forest insect outbreaks, 342Monellia caryella, 136Monelliopsis pecanis, 136Monocrotophos, 502Mononychellus tanajoa, 136Monoterpenes, 321Moral issues, in pesticides use, 105–106Mulching, 64Multiple pest resistance, need for, 170–171Multiple pests, IPM on, 60Multiple-regression, for yield loss measure-

ment in rice, 423–426Mycorrhizal fungi role in bio-control of plant

diseases, 141–142Phytophthora parasitica, 141–142

Mythimna, 461

NNational park concept, 659–660Natural control, 65

rice, 477–480pathogens in, 479

Natural enemiesin cotton ecosystem, 507–509

aphids, 507bollworm populations control, 507chrysoperla lacewings, 508India, 508jassids, 507leaf eating lepidopteran species, 508

682 Index

Natural enemies (cont.)mites, 507parasites, 508predators, 508sucking insect pests, 507thrips, 507

destruction by pesticides, 95in insect outbreaks, 346–347

See also under Outbreaks, insectpesticides side effects on, 223–224pesticides toxicity to

deciduous fruits, 603Natural predators and parasites, destruction

due to pesticide use, 94–96Navel orangeworm, see Amyelois transitellaNeem formulations, 55, 147–148,

317–319, 325, 512, 567Nematodes management, biopesticides

for, 148–149Nepal, 27Netherland, 11–13, 16, 17New York, IPM program in

fungal leaf blight diseases of carrot,151–152

Alternaria dauci, 151Cercospora carotae, 151

Nicaragua, cotton pest management, 21Nicotine, 324

Nicotine sulfate, 4, 319Non-chemical approaches to pest manage-

ment, 65–66See also Biological control practices in

IPMNon-competitive mechanisms, mating

disruption technique, 276–277Non-crop vegetation, manipulation, 218–219Non pesticidal management

in Andhra Pradesh, 543–570See also Enabavi village in

Warangal, non pesticidalmanagement; Punukula village, nonpesticidal management

distress, 544–547dominant paradigm, 544–545evolution of dialogue on, 560–561IPM, 547–550

ETLs, 548FFS, 547–548

NPM scaling up with SERP, 565–570See also Society for Elimination of

Rural Poverty (SERP), NPM scalingup with

pesticide induced pest problems, 545

pesticide poisoning, 546pesticide regulation, 546–547pesticide resistance, 545pesticides, 544–547pesticides and ecological impacts, 546pests, 544–547red hairy caterpillar (Amsacia albistriga)

management (1989–1993), 550–551adult stage, 555egg stage, 555enhancing the habitat, 554growing healthy plants, 552–554life cycle of pests, understanding,

555–557practices followed, 552–554pupal stage, 555understanding insect biology and

behavior, 555–557traditional technology with a modern

twist, 557reactive sprays, 558–559shaking method, 559understanding crop ecosystem, 557

transgenic insecticide resistant crops, 561Non-preference category in HPR develop-

ment, 185Non-target impacts

augmentation, 212of biological control practices, 210

Non-target organisms, HPR effect on, 192–193Norway, 11, 12, 15–17Nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV), 510

OOlea europaea, BIPM in, 649–650Olive, see Olea europaeaOnline degree-day calculators, deciduous fruit

IPM, 612Opportunities, IPM, 51–78Oranges IPM, California, 151Organic food demand in India, 123Organic soil amendments role

in insects pests and diseases manage-ment, 145–146

composting, 146Organophosphate (OP) compounds, 122, 318

organophosphate induced delayedpoly-neuropathy (OPIDP), 91

Oriental Fruit Moth (Grapholita molesta), 270Outbreaks, insect, 331–348

biotic factors, 343–347cyclic versus stable regulation, 344–345environmental heterogeneity, 345–346

Index 683

food, 343–344multicellular consumers, 345–346pathogens, 344–346

characteristics, 332spatio temporal, 332

classification, 336–338eruptive type, 336gradient type, 336

in forest ecosystem, 338–339historical perspective, 332–333major hypotheses, 333–334

herbivore outbreaks, 334intrinsic genetic changes causing, 334physical environment changes

causing, 333trophic interactions causing, 333–334

management, 347–348forest management, 347harvesting insect-killed trees to reduce

wildfire risk, 347insecticide spraying, 347no treatment, 348salvaging insect-killed trees

for economically valuableproducts, 348

salvaging insect-killed trees to improveoverall forest health, 348

natural enemies role in, 346–347as agents in natural selection, 346biological control, evidence in,

346–347pine beetle in British Columbia, 333population outbreaks in agro-

ecosystems, 339–340See also Agro-ecosystems, population

outbreaks inreasons of, 333–334space-time dynamics of, 336theory of outbreaks, 334–336

gene single species populationmodel, 335

positive density dependence, 336Taylor’s theorm, 335

See also Forest insect outbreaks

PPaecilomyces lilacinus, 149Parasitoids, 207–227Parathion, 320

parathion-methyl, 502Participatory technology development

(PTD), 74Peaches,see Prunus persica

Peanibacillus azotofixans, 139Pear, 652–655

See also Pome fruitsPendimethalin, 382Permaculture, 219Permanent eruptive outbreaks, 338Peru

cotton pest management, 21IPM adoption, 1, 4

Pest controlartificial control mechanisms, 57‘the dark ages’ of, 2, 56, 58historical perspective of, 53–57

phytophagous insect, 53post WWII, 55–56prior to WWII, 55traditional approaches, 55

pest complex, 60pest management methods, 60Silent Spring, 56spray programs, 56See also Crop losses to pests

Pesticide pollution control, US governmentfunds for, 105

Pesticide resistance in pests, in USA, 96–97Pesticides/pesticide use, 67, 83–86, 223–226

2,4-D, 83acute poisonings in, 90affecting reproductive system, 91affecting respiratory system, 91basis of using, 67BHC, 83cancer due to, 90–92chronic health effects of, 90–92cognitive effects of, 91DDT, 83Dieldrin, 83direct lethal effects of, 223–224endocrine disrupting, 91estrogenic effect of, 91ethical and moral usage issues in

US, 105–106implications, world scenario, 118in India, 114–116

See also Indiajudicious use of, 67market demands, 226modification practices, 224

active ingredients use, 224lowest effective rates of pesticides, 224

negative health effects in children, 91reduced risk pesticides, 225residues in food, 92

684 Index

Pesticides/pesticide use (cont.)resistant natural enemies, 226selectivity, 225–226side effects on natural enemies, 223–224use in India

decline in, 71hazardous pesticides banning, 71

worldwide pesticide impacts onenvironment and public health, 86

Phenotypic basis of plant resistance, mechanis-tic understanding, 173–174

Pheromones, in behavior-modifyingstrategies, 220, 293

in BIPM, 639codlemone antagonists addition, 278pheromone blend and antagonists, com-

pleteness, 277–278See also Sex pheromones, in behavior-

modifying strategiesPhilippines, 27

rice yield 1982–1991, 397–398rice yield gaps, 452–455

in Iloilo site, 453in Laguna, 453in Nueva Ecija, 453

Phorate, 103Physical control in BIPM, 639Phytophagous insect, 53Phytophthora nicotianae, 378Phytophthora parasitica, 141Phytosanitaion, 64Pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella), 270Pinus ponderosa, 339Plant breeding, 221–223

conventional, 221Plant disease management

chemical treatments, 373chemotherapeutants, 375concepts and principles of, 372–375

principle of eradication, 373principle of exclusion, 373

crop rotation, 373cultural practices, 374heat therapy, 373, 375host nutrition, 374–375resistant varieties development through

hybridization, 374soil treatments, 373–374See also Vegetable diseases, integrated

disease management inPlant extracts, 317–327Plant and field scale, vegetable IPM, 589–590Planthoppers, 463–464

Planting and harvesting dates manipula-tion, importance, 63

Plantomycin, 382Plant resistance

tolerance as a mechanism of, 444–446antibiosis, 445non preference, 445tolerance, 445

Plant volatilesclassification, 289

attractants, 288repellents, 291

See also Host-plant volatilesPlum Curculio

insect attractants derived from, 288management, 622–623reduced spray program for, 623–624scouting for, 623–624

Poland, 16Pollination reduction, due to pesticide

usage, 97–98Polygenic plant resistance, 168

characteristic features of, 166–167context-dependence, 166continuous plant resistance to

arthropods, 166costs, 167induced resistance, 166–167

Pome fruitsBIPM in, 652–655codling moth, 652IPM strategies, 653–655San Jose scale, 652

Population monitoring, 216Population outbreaks in agro-ecosystems,

339–341Portugal, 16Potato wart, 378Powdery mildew, 149Pratylenchus zeae, 148Predators, 207–227Predatory insects, deciduous fruits, 605Problem cause diagrams, bio-intensive

IPM, 658Processing tomatoes IPM, California, 151Profenofos, 502Programs, IPM, 1–41Prophylactic ‘insurance’ insecticides, 18Prunus persica, 601

BIPM in, 653–654Pseudocercospora purpurea, 144Pseudomonas fluorescens, 142–143Pseudoperonospora cubensis, 380

Index 685

Public health effects, of pesticides applicationin United States, 90–92

Pulse eruptive outbreaks, 338Pulse gradient insect outbreaks, 337Punukula village, non pesticidal manage-

ment, 562–564anti-pest sprays, 563

from green chilli-garlic extract, 563from neem seed powder, 563

evolution, 562–563SECURE role in, 562

Push-pull strategies, 67–68, 146–147, 294in intensive arable agriculture, 147in subsistence farming, 147

Pyrethrins (Pyrethrum/Pyrenone), 319mode of action, 323

Pyrethroids, 320, 322, 503–504pyrethroid resistance action network

(PR-PRAO), 527

QQuadraspidiotus perniciosus pests in

apple, 654Quarantine regulations, 64Quinalphos, 502

RRainfed wetland rice, 458Ralstonia solanacearum, 382Red hairy caterpillar (RHC) (Amsacia

albistriga) management(1989–1993), 550–551

Reduced risk pesticides, 225Regulatory control, 64Resistance management strategies for

Bt-cotton, 531–532Resistant natural enemies, 226Resistant rootstock, 599–624Resistant varieties development, conse-

quences, 168–169donors for breeding purpose, difficulty in

discovering, 168resistance and agronomic quality, 168

Revegetation by design, 584–585Rhizoctonia solani, 378Rice

crop losses, measuring locations, 402–404economic constraints, 403environmental constraints, 403farmers’ fields, 404management constraints, 403research stations, 402–403technical constraints, 403

crop loss information, users of, 399–402

administrators, 402extensionists, 400–401farmers, 401–402researchers, 400

demand for, 393–394population growth and, 394

feedback to IPM, 466–471yield loss data, usefulness of, 466–467

green revolution, 391–486insect as a pest, myths about, 471–473

breaking, 471–473insecticides for high yield, 472on new technologies, 473nitrogen fertilizer contributes

outbreaks, 472on planthopper epidemics, 472

insect plant injury, 404–406IPM program development, 467–471

compensation, 469–470crop management strategies, 468–469research programs, 468synergistic yield gain hypothesis, 470

IPM tactics, 473–482agronomic practices to bolster

tolerance, 481Australia, 19biological and natural control, 477–480chemical control, 480–481community wide adoption, 477cultural controls, 476–477genetic resistance, 475–476host plant resistance, 475single field adoption, 477

Philippines 1982–1991, 397Rice hispa, 463Rice seed bug, 464–465Rice stem borer (Scirpophaga incertu-

las), 35Rice tungro virus (RTV), 148yield loss, 391–486

See also Yield loss in riceRice varieties

host-plant resistance in, 169brown planthopper, 169green leafhopper, 169rice water weevil, 169yellow stem borer, 169

Rice whorl maggot, 460Rodolia cardinalis, 214–215Rotenone, 323–324Rotylenchulus reniformis, 148Ryania, 324–325Ryanodine, 323

686 Index

SSabadilla, 324Sampling in BIPM, 635–636San Jose scale, 652Saponin rich extracts (SREs), 321Scirpophaga incertulas, 35Scirtothrips citri, 151Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, 379Seasonal calendars, bio-intensive IPM, 658Season long training (SLT), 74Secondary compounds, see Botanicals in pest

managementSelectivity, in pesticides usage, 225–226Semiochemicals, 220, 298Sensory imbalance, 272Serratia entomophila, 136Sex pheromones, in behavior-modifying

strategies, 263–301applications, 267–285

attract-and-kill, 269mass trapping, 268–269monitoring, 267–268

cotton, 509host-plant volatiles versus, 264isomate dispensers for, 270–271synthetic pheromones, 267See also Mating disruption technique

Silent Spring, 2, 7, 29, 56Single field adoption, rice, 477Single-gene resistance, 168–169SIRATAC support system, 20Sitodiplosis mosellana, 35Sitona lineatus control in beans, 147Society for Elimination of Rural Poverty

(SERP), NPM scaling upwith, 565–570

community managed sustainableagriculture, 568–570

in Ananthapur, 568Kurnool dist, 568seed banks, 568–569

critical issues in, 566paddy in Kurnool dist (2005–2006),

567–568process of, 566–568

grounding the work 2005–2006,566–567

Sociological constraints, in IPM implementa-tion, 72–73

Solarization, 64Solar radiation role in crop compensation,

438–441Sorghum bicolor, stem borers control in, 147

Spain, 17Spatial structure knowledge of disease

in disease management, 354–355in epidemic development, 352

Spatio temporal characteristics of insectoutbreaks, 332

Spider mites (Tetranychus spp.), 4Sporodex R© , 153Sporothrix flocculosa, 152Spray programs, 56Sprays, non pesticidal management, 550–561

aqueous or solvent extracts, 558–559concoctions, 559decoctions, 559fermented products, 559

Sri Lanka, 27–28losses from insect pests by rice

environment, 456rice yield gaps, 455

Stalk rot, 379Stemborers, rice, 461–462Stenodiplosis sorghicola, 18Sterile insect technology (SIT), 255–256

link with AW-IPM, 255Streptomycin, 382Striga asiatica, 245Striga hermonthica, 245Sub Saharan Africa, 26Subsistence farming, push-pull strategies

in, 147Successful IPM programs from around the

world, 149–153See also Germany, IPM in

Sucking pests, insecticide resistance in, 515Sudan, 23Sugar beet, fungal leaf diseases control

in, 149–150Sugar cane production, pests affecting, 18Sulawesi, 458Surface water contamination, due to pesticide

usage, 100–101Sustained eruptive outbreaks, 338Sustained gradient insect outbreaks, 337Sweden, 11, 12, 16, 17Switzerland, 13, 15Synchytrium endobiotichum, 378Synthetic chemicals, 321

biologically active natural productsreplacing, 321

botanicals versus, 319–320organic insecticides, 53pesticides, 6pyrethroids, 501–504

Index 687

TTajaikistan, 26Taylor’s theorm, insect outbreaks, 335Temperature role in forest insect out-

breaks, 341–343Tephritid fruit fly pests, 269Terramycin, 382Tetra ethyl pyrophosphate (TEPP), 320Thailand, 27–28

rice yield gaps, 455Thermal constant (TC), 608–609Thiodicarb, 502Tillage, 219–220Tolerance

in HPR development, 185as a mechanism of plant resistance,

444–446Tomato IPM, USA, 587Tomato leaf curl, 384Tomato mosaic virus (ToMV), 384Tomato pinworm (Kaiferia lycopersicella), 270Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV), 148Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV), 384Toosendanin, 322Tortricid moths in tree fruit

mating disruption of, 278–283See also under Mating disruption

techniqueTradeoffs, 170–171Transfer of technology (ToT), 74Transgenic crops, 221–223

with Bt gene, 188–189cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV

35S), 189deployment of, 222effect on arthropod predators and

parasitoids, 222non-target effects of, 223resistance management using, 189–191

gene pyramiding strategy, 190–191transgenics versus conventional

HPR, 186–187Trap cropping, 217–218, 245Trapping devices, 220–221

in BIPM, 643Trap shut-down, 271Triazophos, 502Turkmenistan, 26Typhlodromalus aripo, 136Typology of insect plant injury, 404–406

UUnited Kingdom (UK), 13, 16–17United States of America (USA), IPM in

American Cooperative Extension Service(CES), 8

Brassica IPM, 577–586development, 2

1970s, 6–7ideas, 5

early 1970s, 7economic evaluation, 7ethical and moral issues in pesticides

use, 105–106extent of adoption of, 8failure of, 9government funds for pesticide pollution

control, 105Government Performance and Results Act

of 1993 (GPRA), 8Huffaker Project, 7implementation and adoption of, 10IPM programs and policies in, 6–10late 1970s, 22

extension IPM education programs, 7National IPM program, 10pesticides application costs in, 89–107

See also Environmental and economiccosts

regional IPM programs, 7tomato IPM, 586–587vegetable IPM, 575–593

adoption in, 591See also Latin America, IPM programs in

United States General Accounting Office(USGAO), 8–9

Upper developmental threshold (UDT),607–608

Uzbekistan, 26

VVaccinium fruit crops, 601Vegetable diseases, integrated disease

management in, 369–385bacterial diseases, 381–383fungal diseases, 376–381

alternaria leaf spots, 379benomyl, 379, 380benzimidazoles, 380black scurf, 378Bordeaux mixture, 378buckeye rot, 378captafol, 377carbamate fungicides, 378carbendazim, 379–380chloropicrin, 378chlorothalonil, 377, 380

688 Index

Vegetable diseases, integrated diseasemanagement in (cont.)

dinocap, 380downy mildew, 380EBIs, 380fentin hydroxide, 377fusarium wilt, 378India, 377–378iprodione, 379maintaining field sanitation, 377potato, 376potato wart, 378seed dressing, 379stalk rot, 379systemic fungicides, 377thiophanate-methyl, 380tomato, 376white rust, 380yellows disease, 380

See also Viral diseasesVegetable IPM

advances, 589–590in Australia, 575–593

See also Australia, IPM programs infarm and landscape scale, 590impact, 591–592plant and field scale, 589–590synthesis, 592–593USA, 575–593

See also United States of America(USA), IPM in

Verticillium lecani, 149, 510Vietnam, 27–28Viral diseases

integrated disease management in, 383–384chemo therapy, 384in potato, 383–384thermo-therapy, 384tomato leaf curl, 384tomato mosaic, 384true potato seed (TPS) in, 384

managing, 354Visual cues, in host-plant selection, 295

WWeather role in forest insect outbreaks,

341–343Wheat midges (Sitodiplosis mosellana), 35Whitefly, see Bemisia tabaciWhite rust, 380Wild bee poisonings, due to pesticide

usage, 97–98Wild birds, pesticides damaging, 101–104

Wolbachiainfections, 254–255

Canada, 254uses, 254

cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI)induced by, 254

World Health Organization (WHO)chemical pesticides classification by, 123on pesticide poisoning in India, 121

Worldwide pesticide impacts on environmentand public health, 86

XXanthomonas campestris, 383Xanthomonas vesicatoria, 382

YYellows disease, 380Yield loss in rice, 391–486

assessment, 398uncertainties in, 394

dynamic nature, 395–398framework of, 398measuring methods, 406–419

artificial infestation, 415–416crop modeling, 416–417damaged and undamaged plants, com-

paring, 407–408damage simulation methods, 414environmental factors considera-

tion, 417–419extrapolation of damage caused by

individual insects, 408insecticide check method, 410–414key informant surveys, 407potential yield, comparing,

408–409susceptible and resistant varieties, in-

festations on, 409–410multiple-regression, 423–426physiological basis of yield loss and

compensation, 426–446compensation, 428–430crop age, 434–436cultivar effect, 436–437defoliation, 428, 435–436endogenous factors in, 430evidence for compensation, 437–441exogenous factors in, 431field distribution of damage,

433–434herbage removal, 427injury, 431

Index 689

leaf removal, 427

within-plant distribution of feedinginsects, 434

reproductive stage infestation, 433

rationale for measuring yieldlosses, 399

See also Analytical methods, for yield lossin rice; Crop loss assessment, rice

Yponomeuta malinellus, 152

ZZaragoza, 457Zea mays, stem borers control in, 147Zimbabwe, 26