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Independent and interdependentself-views and their influence on

clothing consumptionElena Millan

Department of Food Economics and Marketing, University of Reading,Reading, UK, and

Jonathan ReynoldsSad Business School, Oxford Institute of Retail Management,

University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Abstract

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the influence of individualism and collectivism atan individual level, in the context of an emergent market economy of Eastern Europe. Morespecifically, the effects of the psychological constructs of independent/interdependent self on a numberof clothing-related consumer behaviour phenomena are examined.

Design/methodology/approach Data were collected through a home-based face-to-face survey ofsome 1,000 Bulgarian respondents.

Findings Evidence was found supporting the notion that the relationship between individualismand collectivism is complex, and individualist and collectivist values do not characterise two opposingcultural dimensions. Additionally, being autonomous or being interrelated with important, others werefound to play an important part in consumer preference for self- and social-symbolic meanings ofclothing artefacts, as well as on shopping attitudes held and actual purchase behaviour.

Research limitations/implications Conclusions and implications of the research are limited tothe factors considered in the conceptual model. The use of face-to-face interviews can lead to the

interviewers intentional or unintentional influencing of the survey results. The use of self-reportingmeasures in the structured interview can result in acquiescence.

Practical implications Findings suggest that marketers and retailers will benefit fromindividualising their activities.

Originality/value The paper develops further our understanding of the effects of theindependent/interdependent self-concept on diverse consumption phenomena and provides empiricalevidence in support of the proposed conceptual model using a nationally representative sample.

Keywords Individual psychology, Consumerbehaviour, Bulgaria,Market economy, Emerging markets,Eastern Europe

Paper type Research paper

IntroductionIt is widely acknowledged that cultural context has an important influence on consumerbehaviour (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2010). The transforming socio-cultural, economic,and political organisation of Eastern European societies has proved to be a fruitful domainfor consumer research due to their unique transition from a socialist to a capitalist order.The Communist collectivist ethos has been challenged through interaction with WesternEuropean cultural systems (Ashwin, 1999). There is limited knowledge of the implicationsof the interplaybetween cultural individualism and collectivismon consumer behaviourinthese countries. This study explores the challenges that consumers individualist

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-0552.htm

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Received March 2010Revised August 2010,September 2010Accepted November 2010

International Journal of Retail &

Distribution Management

Vol. 39 No. 3, 2011

pp. 162-182

q Emerald Group Publishing Limited

0959-0552

DOI 10.1108/09590551111115015


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or collectivist inclinations pose to marketers and retailers and evaluates their possibleresponses.

This research aims at examining the effects of cultural individualism and collectivism,through the psychological constructs of the independent/interdependent self, upon various

consumer behavioural phenomena. We argue first that independent/interdependentself-notions reflect internalisation of individualist and collectivist values and maytherefore be better predictors of individual buying behaviour than are values measuredat acultural level. Second, the shift from more interdependent to more independentself-concepts occurring in the countries of Eastern Europe, as well as the centrality ofthe independent self-concept in the self-definitions of Western consumers, makes theexploration of the effects of this dual self-concept worthwhile. Further, the influence of theindependent/interdependent self-concept on shopping attitudes and purchase behaviourhas not been systematically investigated.

We address this knowledge gap by examining how a consumers in(ter)dependence mayaffect shopping attitudes and actual purchasing of clothing artefacts in the Bulgarianmarket. We also examine the effects of the independent/interdependent self-concept on

consumer preference for self-expressive,affiliation and statussignalling clothing. Althoughsome evidence exists in support of the first two associations (Aaker and Schmitt, 2001; Leeand Kacen, 2000), the influence of the independent/interdependent self-concept on statusconsumption has not been systematically investigated. As a result, we can ask: how doesthe salience of ones independent or interdependent self-concept affect consumer preferencefor status goods? We develop and test a set of hypotheses on a nationally representativesample drawn from Bulgaria, a former socialist country, which embarked on marketreforms in 1989 and became a member of the EU in 2007. A further objective is to identifygroups of consumers exhibiting different levels of independence and/or interdependence,and to profile them in terms of key socio-demographic, attitudinal, and behaviouralcharacteristics. Finally, managerial implications for marketers and retailers are identified.

Individualism/collectivismCultural individualism/collectivism relates to the extent individuals are integrated intogroups. More individualist cultures are characterised by loose social ties. Typically,people tend to be self-reliant, looking mainly after themselves and their immediatefamily. Values such as independence, personal achievement, hedonism, and competitiontend to be emphasised. Individual needs, interests, and preferences are main drivers ofbehaviour. Conversely, people in more collectivist cultures tend to belong to closely knitstable social groups. Norms and values such as conformity, family integrity, andharmony usually guide individual behaviour, and the in-group needs and goals havepriority over individual ones (Hofstede, 2001).

The cultural particularities of individualism and collectivism have a direct bearing

on the independent/interdependent self-construct, which we discuss below. Theindependent/interdependent self-views comprise the psychological conceptualisation ofcultural individualism/collectivism (Kagitcibasi, 1994) and, as such, they play animportant mediating role between culture and individual behaviour.

Cultural context of Bulgarian consumersThe extent of individualism tends to vary across different cultural contexts. Forexample, the cultures of some Western countries appear to be more individualist,

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whereas a more collectivist ethos prevails in other countries such as China and Ecuador(Hofstede, 2001). According to Hofstedes analysis, amongst the Eastern Europeancountries Hungarian culture is more individualist, whereas Bulgarian and Romaniancultures are more collectivist. However, the degree of individualism or collectivism can

also vary within a national cultural context (Green et al., 2005). Currently, the culturalspace of Eastern European societies is characterised by both individualist andcollectivist dispositions, with the younger generations being more willing to embrace theindividualist ethos, while the older generations are more likely to retain the valuepriorities and self-conceptions shaped under socialism (Rojsek, 2001; Topalova, 1997).Several studies suggest that the process of change in favour of greater individualisationhas been slow on the whole, people from the post-socialist countries seem still toadhere more to traditional, family-focused values (Delhey, 2004; Grunert and Beckmann,1999; Wright and Kelemen, 2000).

Existing studies do not provide conclusive evidence of the extent of anyindividualisation process in Bulgaria. According to some research, Bulgarians tend tobe more collectivist (Schwartz and Bardi, 1997; WVS, 2000-2001). Yet, Davidkovs (2004)findings suggest that Bulgarians are neither individualist nor collectivist. Finally,a study conducted only two years after the introduction of market reforms found that theBulgarian sample was the most individualist by comparison with respondents fromBritish and Indian samples (Lalljee and Angelova, 1995).

Independent/interdependent self-conceptThe independent/interdependent self-concept is a central component of a personsidentity, deeply embedded in and conditioned by the socio-cultural environment inwhich people are raised. It affects the whole organisation of the individual self-systemand is an important motivator of human action. The independent/interdependentself-distinction underscores the cultural variations in the focus of an individuals

attitudes, inner feelings, motives, and behaviours (Markus and Kitayama, 1991). Markusand Kitayama (1991, 1994) regard the independent self-concept as bounded, unitary,stable, autonomous, individualist, egocentric, self-contained, separate, and detachedfrom the social context. This self-concept is perceived as a distinctive configuration oftraits, thoughts and feelings that regulate individual behaviour and underlie individualstrivings towards the fulfilment of personal goals such as realising oneself.An individuals responsiveness to others is often derived from a personal quest forexpressing or asserting internal attributes, and these others are considered to beimportant primarily for self-evaluation purposes.

The interdependent self-concept has been defined as:

[. . .] seeing oneself as part of an encompassing relationship and recognising that ones

behaviour is determined, contingent on and, to a large extent, organised by what the actorperceives to be the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others in the relationship (Markus andKitayama, 1991, p. 227).

The interdependent self-concept is intimately related to its social environment, isdependent on others, and is highly responsive to contextual influences (Singelis andBrown, 1995). Individuals with a strong interdependent self-concept tend to emphasisesocial roles and relationships, belonging and fitting to the in-group, occupying onesproperplace and engaging in appropriate behaviour (Markus and Kitayama, 1991; Singelis, 1994).

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The strength and manifestation of ones independent or interdependent self-conceptvaries depending on the particularities of the cultural environment (e.g. homogeneous orheterogeneous cultures), the individuals cultural background and specific situationalfactors (Trafimow et al., 1991; Triandis, 1993). In general, consumers whose value

systems and behavioural patterns have been moulded under prevailing individualistnorms and beliefs (e.g. USA, UK) tend to be more independent. In such cultures, theindependent self-concept is more often activated. Conversely, stronger interdependenttendencies tend to be encountered amongst consumers brought up in collectivistsocieties (e.g. the Japan, the China) (Singelis et al., 1999). In these cultures, theinterdependent self is of greater importance for self-definition, and thus sampled moreoften (Trafimow et al., 1991; Triandis, 1989).

The studyOn ly rec en tly h av e sc holars tu rn ed th eir atte nt ion t o t he role of t heindependent/interdependent self-concept in explaining consumer behaviour (Aaker

and Lee, 2001; Escalas and Bettman, 2005). Most studies have been preoccupied withexploring the interaction effect between these two facets of the self and advertisingappeal types (individualist or collectivist), and its influence on brand attitudes (Aakerand Schmitt, 2001; Wang et al., 2000), brand evaluations (Agrawal and Maheswaran,2005), and attitude-towards-the-ad (Wang and Mowen, 1997). Besides, existing studieshave primarily focused on countries exhibiting cultural extremes. However, manycultures cannot be allocated neatly in this way and this leads to the need for a morenuanced set of hypotheses.

Research objectivesOn the basis of the purpose of the study, the following research objectives have beendeveloped:

(1) To study the influence of the independent/interdependent self-concept onconsumer preference for self-expressive, affiliation and status signallingclothing artefacts.

(2) To examine the effects of the independent/interdependent self-concept onshopping attitudes and actual purchase behaviour.

(3) To identify consumer segments holding distinct independent or interdependentself-views, and to uncover a set of variables which are able to differentiatebetween them.

(4) To assess the validity of the conceptual model proposed (based largely onWestern conceptualisation and empirical evidence) in the context of the emergentmarket economies of Eastern Europe.

Six hypotheses are developed below to address these research objectives.

Independent self-concept and preference for self-expressive and hedonic meaning ofclothing artefactsClothing artefacts are an important means of self-expression. They are also a potentmeans of engendering positive emotions during purchase and use. We propose that thestronger ones independent self-concept, the more pronounced will be consumers


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preference for self-expression and inner enjoyment through clothing. This hypothesis isin line with Markus and Kitayama (1991, p. 242), who suggest that a person withstronger independent inclinations will satisfy their drive for maintaining a positiveself-regard by fulfiling tasks associated with expressing unique inner attributes. This

notion is supported by a study conducted amongst consumers from Australia, the USA,Singapore, and Malaysia, which found a positive significant relationship between apersons independent self-concept and purchase justification associated withuniqueness (Lee and Kacen, 2000). Consistent with this evidence, Thompson andHaytko (1997) report that one of the uses of fashion discourses is to construct and sustaina sense of distinctive personal identity through the uniqueness of consumption choices.

In addition, the sociology literature suggests that the independent individual, largelydetached from the social context and lacking emotional and other support from extendedfamily and stable social networks, may be relatively lonely. Thus, spending on goodsand services which are able to engender sensory stimulation and emotional gratificationmay also be emphasised by consumers with a stronger independent self-concept.Consistent with this argument, Schwartz (1994) reports significant positive correlationsbetween Hofstedes individualism value orientation and his affective autonomy valuetype, which includes hedonism and stimulation values such as pleasure, enjoyinglife, and exciting life. These arguments lead to the following hypothesis:

H1. The independent self-concept will be positively related to consumerpreference for the self-expressive and hedonic meaning of clothing.

Interdependent self-concept and preference for affiliation meaning of clothing artefactsMarkus and Kitayamas (1991, 1994) conceptualisation of the interdependentself-concept as a constellation of socially defined characteristics and behavioursuggests that such consumers are likely to be more attentive to the social symbolicqualities of clothing which facilitates and/or signals connectedness to important others.

This meaning preference is likely to be influenced by strong pressure to conform toothers expectations, as well as by pervasive concerns about being accepted in and fearsof being excluded from in-groups. This hypothesis is supported by Lee and Kacen (2000),who report a positive relationship between ones interdependent self-concept and groupaffiliation reasons for purchasing goods. Thus, the following hypothesis is advanced:

H2. The interdependent self-concept will be positively related to consumerpreference for the affiliation meaning of clothing.

Independent/interdependent self-concept and preference for status meaning of clothingartefactsWe also suggest that having a more salient independent self-concept will result in

stronger preference for status-signalling clothing artefacts. For independent individuals,being distinctive and different from others are important aspects of their self-definitionand motivation. Individuality can be expressed through the consumption of expensive,unique luxury goods, which offer high-scarcity value (alongside other qualities) (Tepperand Hoyle, 1996). Upmarket apparel may be used in the quest for an authentic,distinctive and independent identity. Besides, underscoring ones unique qualities andseeking their recognition (especially those qualities which are highly valued by onesreference group) by means of consumption of prestigious products can elevate ones

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position vis-a-vis other members of a reference group, which can furtherenhance individual independence (Clark et al., 2007). Thus, the following hypothesis isproposed:

H3. The independent self-concept will be positively related to consumerpreference for the status meaning of clothing.

The influence of interdependent tendencies on status consumption is not clear cut.On one hand, studies have shown that the self-enhancing motive is of low importance insome Asian collectivist cultures, whereas it is prioritised in Western individualistcultures (Heine and Hamamura, 2007). Modesty is an intrinsic trait of the interdependentself-conception, underlying self-effacing presentations in diverse social settings(Heine et al., 2000; Wong and Ahuvia, 1998). Community-oriented individuals tend toperceive themselves as ordinary citizens (Parkes et al., 1999), who are guided by valuessuch as moderation, thrift, humility, and following the middle way, resulting inmoderation in enacted behaviours. More interdependent individuals tend to emphasiseharmonious relationships and similarity with others (Aaker and Schmitt, 2001; Torelli,2006). Spending large sums of money on status apparel to fulfil individual status-relatedgoals reduces the amount of money that can be allocated to the achievement of in-groupgoals (Lee, 2000). Such behaviour runs against the collectivist values endorsed byinterdependent consumers. Therefore, people with a stronger interdependentself-concept may not be interested in conspicuous displays involving status brands.

By contrast, some commercial research indicates that Japan and China twocollectivist cultures rank very highly in their spending on luxury goods (Schwarz andWong, 2006). According to Wong and Ahuvia (1998), growing economic affluence inEast Asia coupled with social pressures to conform to norms and others expectations topreserve ones face motivates many purchases of luxury goods. Chinese consumersappear to value well-known brands not because of a need for uniqueness or self-esteem,

but because of a need to bond with family and friends (Schwarz and Wong, 2006).In high-involvement situations, Chinese consumers tend to be led by purchase criteriaincluding prestige, brand name, and packaging (Lowe and Corkindale, 1998). Giventhese contradictions, we propose the following hypothesis:

H4. The interdependent self-concept will not be related to consumer preference forthe status meaning of clothing.

Independent/interdependent self-concept, shopping attitudes and purchase behaviourConsumers who exhibit stronger independent tendencies may be heavier buyers ofvalue-expressive goods than those who are more interdependent. This is because,self-expression, self-reward, and hedonic gratification tend to be important motivational

factors. It is widely accepted that clothing has the potential to fulfil diverse valueexpressive and experiential needs (Giddens, 1992; McCracken, 1990). In addition, thebehaviour of consumers with a strong independent self-concept is largely guided bypersonal needs, attitudes, and perceived rights rather than social norms and filialobligations (Bagozzi et al., 2000). Thus, there are fewer, if any, social barriers in the formof social norms and sanctions to hamper the satisfaction of diverse ego-centred needsand desires and to curb spending on symbolic goods and services. Consequently, thefollowing composite hypothesis is proposed:


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H5. The independent self-concept will be positively related to (a) consumerattitudes towards shopping for clothing; (b) frequency of visits to clothingshops to browse; (c) frequency of clothing purchases for oneself; and (d)money spent on clothing artefacts.

The discussion above, linking the interdependent self-concept to utilitarianconsumption inclinations, suggests no or even negative, relationships with shoppingattitudes and actual purchase behaviour. However, studies linking the interdependentself-concept to social symbolic consumption for group affiliation and to fit in suggestpositive relationships. In view of these contradictions, we propose the following finalcomposite hypothesis:

H6. The interdependent self-concept will be unrelated to (a) consumer attitudestowards shopping for clothing, (b) frequency of visits to clothing shops tobrowse, (c) frequency of clothing purchases for oneself, and (d) money spenton clothing artefacts.

Conceptual modelThe relationships discussed above are graphically shown in Figures 1 and 2.

MethodologyProcedureThis study is based on a cross-sectional survey. The questionnaire was prepared inEnglish and validated by a back-translation procedure (Craig and Douglas, 2000). Thequestionnaire was pre-tested on 15 respondents. Face-to-face interviews were thenconducted with some 1,000 respondents at their homes, using a random multi-stagesampling procedure. The interviews were conducted at 175 sampling points and an85 per cent survey response rate was generated, producing 969 usable responses.

Figure 1.Effects of independent/interdependentself-concept on consumerpreference for clothingsymbolic meanings

Independent

self-concept

Interdependent

self-concept

Preference for

affiliation meaning

Preference for self-

expressive & hedonic

meaning

Preference for

status meaning

H1 (+)

H3 (+)

H4 (null)

H2 (+)

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Measures

Five categories of variables were considered. Independent/interdependent self-concept. The strength of individuals independent or

interdependent self-views was measured using Singeliss updated scale (Singelis et al.,1999). Some small modifications were made to make the items more relevant andcomprehensible by the chosen respondents. A total of 15 items were ultimately used tomeasure the independent self-concept and 16 items the interdependent self-concept.

Preference for clothings symbolic and hedonic meanings. Consumer preference forclothings status-symbolic, self-symbolic and hedonic meanings was measured partlywith items adapted from Mittals (1988, 1994) expressiveness scale, which comprises twodimensions. One relates to consumer preference for clothing artefacts conveying publicmeaningsrelated to social status (e.g. clothes that are socially prestigious). This measurewas labelled preference for status meaning (six items). The second dimension comprises

items relating to consumer preference for clothing expressing ones self (e.g. clothes thathelp me to express my personality), and engendering sensory experiences (e.g. clothesthat put me in good mood when I wear them). This measure was labelled preference forself-expressive and hedonic meaning (five items). Finally, a three-item scale based onBearden etal.s (1989) items tapping into referent identification through consumption wasused to capture preference for clothing artefacts signalling affiliation with importantothers (e.g. my clothing choices are strongly influenced by the clothes worn by peopleI admire).

Figure 2.Effects of independent/

interdependentself-concept on shopping

attitudes and purchasebehaviour

Independent

self-concept

Interdependentself-concept

Frequency ofclothing purchases

Attitude towards

shopping

Frequency of

visits to shops

H5b (+)

H6b (null)

H6c (null)

Money spent

on clothing

H5c (+)

H5d(+)

H6d(null)

H5a (+)

H6a (null)


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Attitude towards shopping. Shopping attitude was measured with three items fromGutman and Millss (1982) clothing-shopping enjoyment index (e.g. I like to go tostores to see whats new in clothing).

Actual purchase behaviour. Actual purchase behaviour was measured using a few

single-item scales. Data on frequency of visiting clothing shops were recorded on aneight-point scale, ranging from 1 several times a week to 8 once in more than a year.Data on frequency of personal clothing purchases were recorded on an eight-point scaleranging from 1 once a week to 8 once in more than three years. Information onclothing spending was derived from the question: Would you tell me approximatelyhow much money have you spent on clothes for yourself since the beginning of thisyear? Finally, information on the types of outer clothes bought by the respondents overa year was recorded in relation to categories of clothing (e.g. formal wear, casual clothes).

Socio-demographic variables. Sex, age, marital status, education, type of residence,and ethnic group were included in the analysis to create more comprehensive profilesof the groups of consumers identified (Table IV). For income, a measure of subjectivehousehold income comprising two items was used: how do you assess the financialsituation of your family? (from 1 excellent to 5 very bad, reverse-coded); andWould you say that the total income of your household is: (from 1 much less thannecessary to 5 much more than necessary).

The statements of the multi-item scales were intermixed in the questionnaire tominimize the risk of spurious internal consistency. Responses were measured on afive-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree. Thevalues of the composite measures were computed as average scores of their constituentitems.

SampleRespondents were aged between 18 and 55. The age boundaries were chosen on the

basis of the following considerations: the relevance of the independent/interdependentself-concepts inventory for a more mature audience; major life transitions and life stylechanges that usually occur within these age boundaries; greater intensity of socialinteractions and group membership dynamics; generally stronger involvement withclothing and higher level of clothing consumption; and growing or maturingpurchasing power. Comparison of the samples socio-demographic profile againstnational statistics revealed that it was largely representative of the national population.

Data analysisReliability analysis and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of all composite measureswere performed before testing the hypotheses. All but one Cronbachs alphacoefficients were above 0.70 (one coefficient was 0.68). The CFA resulted in the deletion

of three items from the interdependent self-subscale and one item from Mittalsmeasure of preference for public meaning. The specified model for shopping attitudewas just identified. The structure of this measure was further examined by means ofprincipal components analysis. One factor was extracted, explaining 63.52 per cent ofthe data variance. The minimum factor loading was 0.70.

The hypothesis tests were conducted using correlation analysis. The groups ofconsumers with distinct independent or interdependent self-views were identified bymeans of a two-step cluster analytical procedure. Hierarchical clustering with Wards

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algorithm was used at the first step, followed by K-means cluster analysis. The resultsfrom the latter analysis are provided in Table I. Reliability and validity checks producedconvincing evidence of a valid and stable K-means cluster solution. As a test of criterionvalidity, a series of ANOVA analyses was performed. All consumer attitudes and

behaviour variables, which were used to profile the segments, were entered as dependentvariables and the four clusters as a fixed factor. This analysis revealed that thedifferences amongst the four clusters on all dependent variables were statisticallysignificant at the 0.001 level. Chi-square analysis was conducted to ascertain whether thesegments differed regarding several socio-demographic variables.

ResultsEffects of independent/interdependent self-concept on preference for self-expressive andhedonic, affiliation, and status meanings of clothing artefactsH1 postulates that the independent self-concept will be positively related to consumerpreference for self-expression and inner enjoyment through clothing. We found a

moderate to substantial relationship between these two variables, which was also in theexpected direction, r (969) 0.49 (p , 0.001). Thus, H1 was supported. The H2suggests a positive relationship between the interdependent self-concept and consumerpreference for affiliation meaning of clothing. The results from the correlation analysisprovide support for H2, r(969) 0.16 (p , 0.001). According to H3, more independentconsumers will exhibit a stronger preference for status-signalling clothing.H3 was alsosupported, r (969) 0.37 (p , 0.001). H4 proposes lack of association between theinterdependent self-concept and consumer preference for clothing status symbolism.Support for this null hypothesis was found, r(969) 20.02, p 0.53.

Segmentsa

IndependentsIndependents and

interdependents Interdependents UndefinedVariables ( n 171) ( n 298) ( n 246) ( n 254)

Independent self-concept 4.22 4.32 3.49 3.41Interdependent self-concept 3.02 4.02 3.86 3.10Attitude towards shopping 3.19 2.97 2.66 2.70Preference for self-expressiveand hedonic meaning

4.47 4.46 4.00 3.89

Preference for affiliationmeaning

2.01 2.33 2.26 2.28

Preference for statusmeaning

2.97 2.94 2.33 2.47

Frequency of shops visits Once a month Once a month Once in threemonths

Once in threemonths

Frequency of clothingpurchases

Once in threemonths

Once in threemonths

Once in sixmonths

Once in sixmonths

Money spent on clothing(BGL) 101-150 101-150 50-100 50-100Whole sample (%) 17.6 30.8 25.4 26.2

Note: aSegments are based only on the independent/interdependent self-concept

Table I.Consumer segments

categorisedby independent/

interdependentself-concept


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Effects of independent/interdependent self-concept on shopping attitudes and purchasebehaviourComposite hypothesis H5 was supported. As expected, consumers with a strongerindependent self-concept displayed more positive attitudes towards shopping for

clothing (H5(a), r (969) 0.23, p , 0.001), tended to visit more frequently clothingshops to see the new merchandise (H5(b), r (939) 0.21, p , 0.001), to make morefrequent clothing purchases (H5(c), r(953) 0.25,p , 0.001), and to spend more moneyon clothing (H5(d), r (931) 0.29, p , 0.001). As for H6, three of the four anticipatedeffects were supported. Specifically, no significant relationships were found between theinterdependent self-concept on one hand, and shopping enjoyment (H6(a),r (969) -0.06, p 0.07), frequency of visiting clothing shops to see the newmerchandise (H6(b), r (939) 0.02, p 0.59), and frequency of clothing purchases(H6(c), r(953) 0.04,p 0.26), on the other hand. However, a weak significant negativeassociation was found between the interdependent self-concept and money spent onclothing (H6(d), r(931) 20.10, p , 0.01).

A summary of the hypotheses and the tests results is presented in Table II.

Consumer segments identifiedThe profiles of the clusters on the consumer attitudinal and behavioural characteristicsare reported in Table I, arranged in the following order: independents (17.6 per cent),independents-interdependents (30.8 per cent), interdependents (25.4 per cent), andundefined (26.2 per cent). The independents cluster is the smallest one. Its members holdthe most favourable attitude towards shopping, visit clothing shops on average once amonth, buy clothing once in three months, and spend around 150 Bulgarian leva (BGL)on clothing per year. In terms of consumers symbolic consumption inclinations, thestrongest preference is for clothing expressing their unique selves. Preference for statussignalling clothing is of lesser importance, whilst clothing conveying affiliation with

important others is generally of no interest.

Hypotheses Findings

H1 The independent self-concept will be positively related to consumerpreference for the self-expressive and hedonic meaning of clothing

Supported

H2 The interdependent self-concept will be positively related toconsumer preference for the affiliation meaning of clothing

Supported

H3 The independent self-concept will be positively related to consumerpreference for the status meaning of clothing

Supported

H4 The interdependent self-concept will not be related to consumer

preference for the status meaning of clothing

Supported

H5 The independent self-concept will be positively related to (a)consumer attitudes towards shopping for clothing, (b) frequency ofvisits to clothing shops to browse, (c) frequency of clothingpurchases for oneself, and (d) money spent on clothing artefacts

Supported

H6 The interdependent self-concept will be unrelated to (a) consumerattitudes towards shopping for clothing, (b) frequency of visits toclothing shops to browse, (c) frequency of clothing purchases foroneself, and (d) money spent on clothing artefacts

H6(a)-H6(c) supported;H6(d) not supportedTable II.

Summary of hypothesistesting results

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The independents-interdependents segment is the biggest one. Its members hold neutralattitudes towards shopping for clothing. They visit clothing shops on average once amonth, make clothing purchases every three months, and spend approximately 150 BGLon clothing. They exhibit similar preferences to the independents regarding

self-expressive and status-signalling meanings. But, unlike the independents, theyshow a slightly stronger preference for clothing signalling affiliation with importantothers.

The interdependents hold a neutral attitude towards shopping, visit clothing shopsonce in three months, shop for clothing once in six months, and spend below 100 BGL onclothing purchases. The profile of the undefined segment is somewhat similar to that ofthe interdependents in terms of consumer attitudes towards shopping, preference forclothing symbolism and actual purchase behaviour.

Consumer segments and types of clothing purchasesThe types of clothing purchases reported by the respondents in the four groups during a

year period are shown in Table III. The data clearly indicate that consumers in theindependents-interdependents segment are the heaviest buyers of all four types ofclothing. This finding has important managerial implications, not least because this isthe largest segment. The independents appear to provide a good target market forformal or party/evening wear, leatherwear, and sports gear, whilst casual clothes seemto appeal most to the interdependents segment.

Socio-demographic profiles of consumer segmentsThe socio-demographic profiles of the four segments are reported in Table IV. The groupsdiffer significantly on all but one characteristic (marital status). The independents andundefined segments are younger than the independents-interdependents and theinterdependents segments. Besides, the independents have the highest level of education,followed by the undefined, the independents-interdependents, and the interdependents.Furthermore, the independents have the largest proportion living in urban areas, followedby the independents-interdependents, the undefined, and the interdependents. In termsof ethnic group belonging, the largest share of the independents identify with the main(Bulgarian) ethnic group, followed by the independents-interdependents. Theinterdependents have the highest proportion of members amongst the four segments whoidentify with the Turkish and Roma ethnic groups. Finally, the independents report the besthousehold financial circumstances, followed by the independents-interdependents, theundefined, and the interdependents segments.

Variable Independents

Independents and

interdependents Interdependents Undefined Total

Formal or party/evening wear 43(25.9) 56(33.7) 32(19.3) 35(21.1) 166(100)Casual clothes 148(17.9) 255(30.8) 207(25.0) 218(26.3) 828(100)Sports clothes 91(25.7) 107(30.2) 64(18.1) 92(26.0) 354(100)Leather clothes 12(21.8) 24(43.6) 4(7.3) 15(27.3) 55(100)

Note: Values within braces denote percentage

Table III.Types of clothing

purchases made byconsumer segments


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Segments

Socio-demographicvariables(%

withingroup)

Independents

Independentsandinterdependents

Interdependents

Undefined

x2

value

Sex

18.1

7**

Male

50.3

43.6

35.4

53.1

Female

49.7

56.4

64.6

46.9

Agegroups

29.6

4*

18-2

4

17.0

17.4

15.0

21.3

25-2

9

13.5

10.7

11.4

11.8

30-3

4

18.7

10.4

12.6

12.6

35-3

9

14.0

12.1

9.8

13.0

40-4

4

12.9

16.4

17.5

10.2

45-4

9

16.4

17.4

13.4

14.2

50-5

5

7.6

15.4

20.3

16.9

Maritalstatus

14.1

4

Single

28.7

21.5

19.1

30.7

Livingwithpartner

4.7

4.4

4.9

4.8

Married

60.8

64.8

67.5

58.6

Divorced/separated/widowed

5.8

9.4

8.5

6.0

Education

38.7

0**

Primaryandlowerseconda

ry

5.3

14.1

24.0

16.9

Uppersecondary

62.6

66.8

60.2

59.1

Highereducationandmore

32.2

19.1

15.9

24.0

Typeofresidence

19.1

0**

Rural

23.4

30.9

43.1

35.0

Urban

76.6

69.1

56.9

65.0

Ethnicgroup

na

Main(Bulgarian)

96.5

92.3

80.9

87.4

Secondlargest(Turkish)

1.2

4.4

8.9

3.9

Roma

0.6

2.7

8.5

7.5

Other

1.8

0.7

1.6

1.2

Subjectiveincome

Mean

Mean

Mean

Mean

F-value

2.2

7

2.1

7

1.8

3

1.9

9

18.2

3**

Notes:Significanceat:*p,

0.0

5,

**p,

0.0

01;forthepurposesof

x2

analysis(i.e.toavoidcellswithexpec

tedcountlessthanfive),theeducational

levelsgroups

werereducedfrom

seventothree;similarconsiderationsledtom

ergingthedivorced/separatedandwido

wedrespondentsintoonegroup;x

2

sta

tisticwasnot

estimatedforethnicgroupbecausefourcellshadexpectedcountlessthanfive;thesubjectiveincomestatistic

foreachsegmentistheaverageofthetw

oconstituting

itemsmeasuredonfive-pointscales

Table IV.Socio-demographicprofiles of consumersegments

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Discussion of resultsOverviewOur research found a significant positive relationship between the independent andinterdependent self-concepts. The largest segment of respondents comprises

consumers who hold simultaneously independent and interdependent self-views,thus providing support for the notion that the relationship between individualism andcollectivism is complex, and individualist and collectivist values do not characterisetwo opposite cultural dimensions, at least not in the Bulgarian context.

We also found that the way an individual relates to others (i.e. being autonomous orbeing interrelated with important others) plays a part in consumer preference forself- and social-symbolic meanings of clothing, as well as affects shopping attitudesand actual purchase behaviour. Consumers with a more pronounced independentself-concept are likely to utilize to a greater extent the symbolic attributes of clothingthan those with a stronger interdependent self-concept. Specifically, more independentconsumers appear to be more attentive to self-expressive, inner enjoyment and socialstatus aspects of clothing than those who are less independent. Furthermore, consumerswith stronger independent self-views seem to be more committed clothing buyers thanthe less independent ones. By contrast, the stronger a respondents interdependentself-concept the more likely they are to show preference for the affiliation meaning ofclothing (although the preference may not be particularly strong), as well as a generallack of interest in the self-expressive and status symbolism of clothing. These findingsare the first of their kind in the context of Eastern Europe, providing strong support toour prior expectations.

General discussion Independent self-concept and preference for self-expressive and hedonic meaning ofclothing artefacts. In line with both existing theory and evidence (Lee and Kacen, 2000),

we found that independent consumers are more inclined to play with clothing imagery toexpress their unique identities and to engender gratifying sensory experiences. What ismore, they exhibit the strongest preference for the self-expressive meaning of clothingamongst the various types of symbolic meanings. This finding becomes particularlyimportant in the context of a former socialist system overlain by a new capitalist system,found in the post-socialist countries of Eastern Europe. First, Bulgarian consumers witha stronger independent self-concept appear to be more influenced by the new marketrealities and by Western cultural values and lifestyles. Second, previously unknownclothing choices may symbolise new-found freedoms for the construction andexpression of unique self-identities. Third, clothing preferences emphasised byindependent consumers may also negate the values fostered under Communist rule(i.e. collectivity and conformity). The clothing artefacts that have become available in the

countries of Eastern Europe after 1989 offer an abundance of new images for bothwomen and men, greater distance from their old lives and identities and an opportunityto enact more desirable identities congruent with the new economic and social orders.Finally, as the segmentation analysis revealed, the independents segment has thehighest household income and its members tend to be younger than those of the otherthree segments. Higher incomes provide greater latitude to draw from objects symbolicresources, whilst younger people tend to be more engaged with the symbolic imagery ofsocially visible goods.


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Interdependent self-concept and preference for affiliation meaning of clothingartefacts. We also fo und a significant po sitive associatio n betweena persons interdependent self-concept and their preference for clothing, whichsignifies connectedness with others. This conforms to the view that interdependent

individuals try to fit in, be accepted by and live in harmony with their in-group members(Markus and Kitayama, 1991). However, the finding that the relationship was weaksuggests that consumers with stronger interdependent self-concepts may not beparticularly interested in this symbolic resource. It may be that, given the circumstancesprevailing within Eastern Europe, and the shortages of consumption goods undersocialism, even the interdependents may want to escape from being dressed likeeverybody else. Also, for interdependent consumers, the need to exhibit modestconsumption practices may be more important than consuming symbolically. Finally,interdependent consumers were found to be older. In general, older consumers tend to bemore interested in products utilitarian than symbolic value. And of course, the values,identities and consumption preferences of older Bulgarian consumers will have beenshaped by a socialist ideology emphasising thrift, modesty, and restraint.

Independent/interdependent self-concept and preference for status meaning ofclothing artefacts. As predicted, clothing status consumption was found to serve thegoals of ind epe nd en t cons ume rs . Th is fin ding is c on sist en t with t heindependent/interdependent self-concept theory (Markus and Kitayama, 1991) andClark et al.s (2007) discovery of a positive association between the individual need foruniqueness and interest in consuming for status.

Our research found no significant relationship between the interdependentself-concept and consumer preference for status meaning. This result is compatiblewith the theory of the interdependent self-concept, according to which modesty is anintrinsic trait of the interdependent self, underlying self-effacing presentations andbehaviours in diverse social settings (Heine et al., 2000). It is also consistent with

Tambyah et al. (2009), who report no significant association between Vietnameseinterdependent self-views and the use of material objects as markers of success. Thesocialist heritage of Eastern Europe provides a fertile ground for further explanation.Bulgarian consumers with stronger interdependent self-views still appear to beinfluenced by the values, socialistaesthetics, and the simple way of life revolving aroundthe satisfaction of essential needs, which had been promulgated by the socialistideology. However, the market reforms generated serious threats to the personal identityof these consumers. For some, consumption of the more basic local products has becomea way of reappraising the socialist past during an otherwise painful transition to amarket economy, providing a marker of socialist experiences and identity (Betts, 2000).

Independent/interdependent self-concept, shopping attitudes and purchase behaviour.In relation to actual purchase behaviour, we found that consumers with stronger

independent inclinations tend to hold more positive attitudes towards shopping forclothing, visit clothing shops more frequently, keep informed about the latestmerchandise, make more frequent clothing purchases and, in general, spend moremoney on clothing than those who are less independent. This is logical given thatconsumers with a stronger independent self-concept tend to satisfy a greater variety ofsymbolic (and hedonic) needs via consumption. Furthermore, the behaviour ofindependent individuals tends to be guided by personal needs, goals and preferencesrather than by societal norms and prescriptions.

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By contrast, consumers with stronger interdependent self-views show little interestin visiting clothing stores to see the new merchandise, are not frequent buyers ofclothing artefacts, and tend not to spend money on clothing when there is not an urgentutilitarian need for this. Community-oriented individuals tend to perceive themselves as

ordinary citizens (Parkes et al., 1999), guided by values such as thrift and modesty,which result in moderation in behaviour and simplicity in lifestyles. Their budgets arelikely to be spent with the whole in-group in mind. Higher spending on clothing maydivert precious resources from satisfying other more pressing family needs. Moreover,Bulgarian interdependents have the lowest income amongst the four consumersegments. The oldest group is also highly represented in this segment.

Implications for practiceOur findings suggest, in the Bulgarian context at least, that marketers and retailers willbenefit from individualising their activities. Given the motivational properties of theindependent self-concept and our discovery of a significant positive effect of independencetendencies on consumer preference for self-expressive and status-conveying clothing,advertising stimuli emphasising individual benefits (e.g. independence, individuality anddistinctiveness, personal status, individual achievement, and self-enhancement) are likelyto be better accepted, and thus to be more effective. As these benefits are derived from thesymbolic attributes of clothing, marketers targeting the individualist consumer segmentmay seek to differentiate their offers on the basis of clothing attributes such as brandname, fashion style, and country-of-origin. The more frequent visits of independentconsumers to clothing shops to inspect new merchandise present additional opportunitiesfor fashion retailers to influence the purchase decision-making process: through morefrequent introduction of new merchandise, continuing small scale in-store promotions,and an emphasis on creating a stimulating store atmosphere and pleasing merchandise

presentation. When this is combined with our finding that independent consumers tend tobe financially better off, to make more frequent clothing purchases, and to spend moremoney on clothing than less independent ones, this segment shows a significant marketpotential. The disadvantage is that it is relatively small (17.6 per cent).

Given the goals of interdependent consumers and the lack of significant associationswith clothing status consumption dispositions, frequency of shop visits and of clothingpurchases, as well as its weak significant negative association with money spent onclothing, this market segment is not an attractive target for clothing goods in general,and status attire, in particular. Status clothing artefacts should be clearly positioned asproducts aimed at the independent consumer.

Our research found that the largest segment of Bulgarian consumers (30.8 per cent)were those exhibiting both independent and interdependent tendencies. Importantly,

its members are the heaviest buyers of expensive formal and evening/party clothes andleatherwear, as well as casual and sports attire. This suggests that promotional activitiessubtly combining both independent and interdependent themes, and employing both selfand social imagery may have a greater impact on attracting consumers attention,creating positive brand attitudes, and stimulating actual purchases. As thedecision-making process of this type of consumer tends to be influenced by importantothers, who are also very likely to accompany the buyers during a shopping trip, retailersshould focus their sales efforts on both the buyers and their companions.


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Given the combined size (48.4 per cent) of the independents and theindependents-interdependents segments, and the finding that the two groups sharesimilar purchasing power, as well as some consumption-related characteristics, theyappear to be the most attractive market segments for both fashion manufacturers and

retailers. Furthermore, given their shared independent views, independent advertisingappeals may work well for both segments. However, subtle rather than strong emphasison individualist values would need to be used given the mixed values embraced by thelargest segment and the finding that the independents hold neutral (and not negative)attitudes towards group-related values and influences.

Study limitationsThere are some natural limitations associated with this study. The conclusions andimplications of the research are limited to the factors considered in the conceptual model.The use of face-to-face interviews can lead to intentional or unintentional influencing ofthe survey results by the interviewer. Survey evidence also suggests that duringface-to-face interviews respondents occasionally seek to present themselves in a morepositive light. The use of self-reporting in the structured interview raises the possibilityof acquiescence. Tackling these limitations required our research to employ widely usedscales, with well-established validity and reliability. In addition, the questionnaire wasthoroughly pre-tested before its administration. The potential problem of acquiescencewas addressed by mixing together items from different scales. To reduce any possibleeffect related to an interviewers influence, a reputable international market researchagency was commissioned to collect the data.

Contribution of the researchThis research makes four important contributions to knowledge in relationto independent/interdependent self-views. First, it develops further our understanding

of the effects of individualism and collectivism at an individual level through theindependent/interdependent self-concept on diverse consumption phenomena andprovides empirical evidence in support of the proposed conceptual model using anationally representative sample. Second, the study demonstrates the significantpotential of the independent/interdependent self-concept as a means of marketsegmentation. Third, we identify important distinctions between groups of consumers such as those exhibiting more pronounced independent or interdependent tendencies,or both and profile them in terms of socio-demographic, attitudinal, and behaviouralcharacteristics. Finally, to the best of our knowledge, this is the only study to test aconceptual model of this kind in an Eastern European country. This serves todemonstrate both the validity of the concepts and the kinds of nuanced and complexcontexts in which they need more realistically to be tested.

ConclusionThe transition to a market economy has led to significant cultural changes withinEastern European countries including, but notlimited to, the ways in whichpeople relateto each other. Conceptions of the self have been shifting from a more interdependent toa more independent orientation. Our research found evidence that these facets of the selfexert an important influence on consumer behaviour. The findings are also ofconsiderable value to marketers and retailers, as these new insights will permit them

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to develop better targeted and more differentiated marketing campaigns. The way thatthis dual self-concept relates to consumer behaviour has not been a subject of systematicinvestigation in the context of Eastern Europe, nor has the expectation that thisrelationship may evolve alongside the advancement of market reforms in the countries

from this region. In view of this, further research in the Eastern European societies islikely to prove fruitful.

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About the authorsElena Millan is a Lecturer in Consumer Research and Marketing in the Department of FoodEconomics and Marketing, at the University of Reading. She has previously worked as a Lecturerin Marketing at the University of Essex and the University of Surrey, and as a Research Officer at

the University of Oxford and the College of Europe, Bruges. She is researching issues of consumerbehaviour, retailing, advertising and international marketing. Elena Millan is the correspondingauthor and can be contacted at: [email protected]

Jonathan Reynolds is Academic Director of the Oxford Institute of Retail Management andMarketing Academic Area Head at the Sad Business School, University of Oxford. A geographer,urban planner and retailer by turn, he now teaches and researches in the areas of retailinternationalisation, retail innovation and entrepreneurship, retail planning and development andretailing and technology. He has published and spoken widely on all these subjects. JonathanReynoldsfirst joined Oxfordto work with UK retailer Tescoon theapplication of newforms of ICTand e-commerce, following time spent at the University of Edinburgh, with Coca-Cola, and at theUniversity of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. He has spent time as Visiting Professor at the Amos TuckSchool of Business Administration at Dartmouth College.

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email protected] visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints

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