Interact with History

YOU are living in a country in which the government benefits a small, wealthy class

and ignores the demands of the vast majority. Thousands of poor peasants and workers have few rights. The government has failed to tackle economic, social, and political problems. Various

In 1920, Mohandas K. Gandhi

revolutionary groups are all clamoring for change. Some groups call for a violent overthrow of the government. Others believe in battling injustice and achieving change through nonviolent methods, such as peaceful strikes and protests.

In the late 1920s, Communist became the leader ofthe leader Mao Zedong believed independence movement to revolution would solveHow do you resist free India of British rule. China's problems.

oppressive rule­with violent

or nonviolent action?

• What situations might provoke some people to take violent steps to achieve change?

• What strengths would a person need to remain nonviolent in the face of violent attacks?

• How might armed and powerful opponents respond to groups committed to nonviolent action?

• Which strategy-violence or nonviolence-would prove more successful and bring more lonq­lasting consequences? Why?

388 Chapter 14

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As a class, discuss these questions. In your discussion, consider what you have learned about the strategies revolutionaries used to accomplish change in other countries, such as France, the United States, Brazil, Mexico, Haiti, and so on.

As you read about the revolutions in Russia and China and the independence movement in India, see which strategy was used and rate its effectiveness for achieving change.

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Ale.xan?er IIIuse to mamtam his authority

" over the Russian people?

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SETTING THE STAGE The Russian Revolution was like a firecracker with a velYlong fuse. The explosion came in 1917. Yet the fuse had been burning for nearly a century. The cruel, oppressive rule of most 19th-centmy czars caused widespread social unrest for decades. Anger over social inequalities and the ruthless treatment of peasants grew. The czars' unfair governing sparked many violent reactions. Army officers revolted in 1825. Hundreds of peasants rioted. Secret revolutionary groups formed and plotted to overthrow the government. In 1881, student revolutionaries were angry over the slow pace of political change. They assassinated the reform-minded czar, Alexander II. Russia was heading toward a full-scale revolution.

i I

Alexander III Upholds the Autocracy In 1881, Alexander III succeeded his father, Alexander II, to the throne and halted all reforms in Russia. Like his grandfather, Nicholas I, Alexander III clung to the principles of autocracy, a government in which he had total power. Alexander III was determined to strengthen "autocracy, orthodoxy, and nationality." Anyone who questioned the absolute authority of the czar, worshiped outside the Russian Orthodox Church, or spoke a lan­guage other than Russian was tagged as dangerous.

To wipe out revolutionaries, Alexander III used harsh measures. He imposed strict censorship codes on published materials and writ­ten documents, including private letters. His secret police carefully watched both secondary schools and universities. Teachers had to '.'.-

I,

send detailed reports on every student. Political prisoners were exiled i ·'1,

to Siberia, a region of eastern and central Russia. To establish a uniform Russian culture, Alexander III oppressed 'Iii " ;Ii

other national groups within Russia. He made Russian the official Ian­ :1:;. guage of the empire and forbade the use of minority languages, such as HII'

Polish, in schools. Alexander made Jews the target of persecution. He sub­ 11

jected them to new laws that encouraged prejudice. Jews could not buy land !ll1-;or live among other Russians. Universities set strict quotas for Jewish students. >!:.\.:cn::' __'-c.. n' U"

A wave of pogroms-organized violence against Jews-broke out in many parts of Alexander III turned Russia into a policeRussia. Police and soldiers stood by and watched Russian citizens loot and destroy state, teeming with

Jewish homes, stores, and synagogues. spies and informers.

Nicholas II Resists Change When Nicholas II became czar in 1894, he announced, "The principle of autocracy will be maintained by me as firmly and unswervingly as by my lamented father [Alexander III]." Nicholas stubbornly refused to surrender any of his power. His trust in the tradition of Russian autocracy blinded him to the changing conditions of his times. Yet the sweeping forces of change would override his pledge to preselve the czarist rule of Russia's past.

Revolution and Nationalism 389

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SPOTLIGHTON The Trans-Siberian

Railway TheTrans-Siberian Railway ran about5,800 milesacrossthe vast area of Siberia, from Moscowto the city of Vladivostok onthe Sea of Japan.Like the transcontinental railroad in the United States (built from 1863 to 1869). the Trans­

I Siberian Railway was constructed I' over difficult terrain and completed! in sections.

To celebrate the opening of the Trans-Siberian Railway, Czar Nicholas II had thejewelry firm of Faberqe create a golden Easteregg (shown below) for Czarina Alexandra. The inscription on the silver band encircling the egg reads, "Great Siberian

Railway, 1900." Hidden . inside the egg is a

wonderful surprise-a miniature replica of a

II train studded with precious .gems. Thetiny engine is

! I '.1 ' actually a wind­

up toy that can pull the cars attachedto it.

Economic Growth and Its Impact The number of factories more than doubled between 1863 and 1900. In spite of this, at the beginning of Nicholas II's reign, Russia lagged behind the indus­trial nations of western Europe. In the 1890s, Sergey Witte (VYEET.tyih), the czar's most capable minister, launched-a pro­gram to move the country forward. Through higher taxes and for­eign investments, Witte helped finance the buildup of Russian industries. Witte's steps also boosted the growth of heavy industry, particularly steel. By around 1900, Russia had become the world's fourth-ranking producer of steel. Only the United States, Germany, and Great Britain produced more steel.

Witte also pushed for the building of the great Trans-Siberian Railway-the world's longest continuous rail line. With the help of British and French investors, work began in 1891. The Trans­Siberian Railway was completed in 1904. It connected European Russia in the west with Russian ports on the Pacific Ocean in the east.

The Revolutionary Movement Grows Rapid industrialization also stirred discontent among the people of Russia. The growth of factories brought new problems. Among these problems were gruel­ing working conditions, miserably low wages, and child labor. Trade unions were outlawed. Still, exploited laborers who worked in facto­ries and built the railway lines organized strikes. Workers were .I

unhappy with their low standard of living and lack of political power. The gap between rich and' poor was enormous.

Amid the widespread unrest of work:ei5ahd'Qt~er members of Russian society, various revolutionary movements began to grow. They also competed for power. The group that \,rould eventually succeed in establishing a new government in Russia followed the views of Karl Marx. These revolutionaries believed that the industrial class of workers

would overthrow the czar. The industrial class would then form "a'dictatorship of the proletariat." In such a state, the workers would rule.

In 1903, Russian Marxists split into two groups over revolutionary tactics. The Mensheviks (MEHN·shull·vihks) wanted a broad base of popular support for the revolu­tion. The Bolsheviks (som.shuh.vihks) supported a small number?f committed revo­lutionaries willing to sacrifice everything for radical change. The major leader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (OOI.YAH.nuh£). He

adopted the name of Lenin. He had an engaging personality and was an excel­lent organizer. He was also ruthless. These traits would ultimately help him

gain command of the Bolsheviks. In the early 1900s, Lenin fled to western Europe to avoid arrest by the czarist regime. He maintained contact with

other Bolsheviks. Lenin then waited until he could safely return to Russia.

Crises at Home and Abroad The revolutionaries would not have to wait long to realize their visions. Between 1904 and 1917, Russia faced a series of crises. These events showed the czar's weakness and paved the way for revolution.

The Russo-Japanese War In the late 1800s, Russia and Japan were imperialist powers. They both competed for control of Korea and Manchuria. The two nations signed a series of ~greements over the territories, but Russia broke them. In retalia­tion, Japan attacked the Russians at Port Arthur, Manchuria, in February 1904.

Though Russian soldiers and sailors went confidently to war, the Japanese defeated them. News of repeated losses sparked unrest at home and led to revolt in the midst

, I of the war. 390 Chapter 14

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Vocabulary minister: person in charge of anarea of government, such asfinance.

THINK THROUGH HISTORY B~Analvzing

Causes Why did industrialization in Russia lead tounrest?

Background Karl Marx, a 19th­century German philosopher, argued thattheworkers of theworld would one day overthrow therul­ing class and share equally in society's wealth.

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Bloody Sunday: The Revolution of 1905 On January 22,1905, about 200,000 d: il!

workers and their families approached the czar's Winter Palace in St. Petersburg. iPThey carried a petition asking for better working conditions, more personal freedom, II!

ir and an elected national legislature. Nicholas II was not at the palace. His generals and police chiefs were. They ordered the soldiers to fire on the crowd. Between 500 and

111,000 unarmed people were killed. Russians quickly named the event "Bloody Ii

Sunday." Lenin called the incident a "dress rehearsal" for the later revolution that would usher in a Communist regime. .

Bloody Sunday provoked a wave of strikes and violence that spread across the country, Though Nicholas still opposed reform, in October 1905 he reluctantly promised more freedom. He approved the creation of the Duma (ooo-mu h)-Russia's first parliament. The first Duma met in May 1906. Its leaders were moderates whoVocabulary

constitutional wanted Russia to become a constitutional monarchy similar to mona rchy: a form of Britain. Hesitant to share his power, the czar dissolved the Duma government inwhich

after ten weeks. Other Dumas would meet later. Yet none would asingle ruler heads the state and shares have real power to make sweeping reforms. authority withelected lawmakers. World War I: The Final Blow In 1914, Nicholas II made the fate­

ful decision to drag Russia into World War 1. Russia, though, was unprepared to handle the military and economic costs. Russia's weak generals and poorly equipped troops were no match for the

f German army. Bp.fore a year had passed, more than 4 million ~:' f Russian soldiers had been killed, wounded, or taken prisoner.

German machine guns mowed down advancing Russians by thef1 H thousands. Defeat followed defeat. As in the Russo-Japanese War, d V Russia's involvement in World War I revealed the weaknesses of ';

czarist rule and military leadership. [1 In 1915, Nicholas moved his headquarters to the war front. FromPIi there, he hoped to rally his discouraged troops to victory. His wife,

iI- Czarina Alexandra, ran the government while he was away. She i~ ignored the czar's chief advisers. Instead, she continued to fall under

I the influence of the mysterious Rasputin (ras·PYOO·tihn)-a self­'.~ described "holy man." He claimed to have magical healing powers. 'tt Background

Hemophilia isa rare Alexis, Nicholas and Alexandra's son, suffered from hemophilia, a {~ b.lood disease in life-threatening disease. Rasputin seemed to ease the boy's symp­,Which blood failsto

toms. To show her gratitude, Alexandra allowed Rasputin to make ,~iot. Adeep cutmay

,,ired.

". !ding.:;-(#use uncontrollable key political decisions. He opposed reform measures and obtained

powerful positions for his friends. He spread corruption throughout the royal court. In 1916, a group of nobles murdered Rasputin. They feared his increasing role in government affairs.

Meanwhile, the war was destroying the morale of Russian troops. Soldiers mutinied, deserted, or ignored orders. On the homefront, food and fuel supplies were dwindling. Prices were wildly inflated. People from all classes were clamoring for change and an end to the war. Neither Nicholas nor Alexandra proved capable of tackling

kground , these enormous problems. ' :tersburg was ed Petrograd 4because the The March Revolution

HISTORYMAKERS

Rasputin 1872-1916

Borna peasant in Siberia, Rasputin became a religious teacher, although hewas never ordained as a priest. Thesinister monk seemed to cast a hypnotic spell on people, especially Czarina Alexandra and her ailing son. Rasputin's reputation for having mysterious powers followed himto his grave.

In December 1916, a small group of young aristocrats plotted his assassination because hewas reportedly taking control of the government. They luredhimto a mansion and fed him poisoned cakes. The poison apparently had no effecton Rasputin's extraordinary strength. The conspirators then shot himseveral times. Assuming hewas finallydead, theythrew him in the Neva River. Whenhisbodywas discovered threedays later, doctors confirmed the cause of hisdeath­drowning.

Rasputin's death threw the czarina into shock, His prediction haunted her: "If I die or you desert me,in six months you will loseyour

ilt.

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alname seemed In March 1917, women textile workers in Petrograd led a citywide strike. Soon after­:~,.~an. In1924.',

ward, riots flared up over shortages of bread and fuel.,,,Nearly200,000 workers swarmed ewas to Leningrad. the streets. At first the soldiers obeyeaoioers1<lsn60t the rioters but later sided with

.the name them. The soldiers fired at their commanding officers and joined the rebellion. Larg:lersburg was

crowds gathered, shouting "Down with the autocracy!" and "Down with the war!" ,7e

Revolution and Nationalism 391

1

The Czar Steps Down The local protest exploded into a general uprising-the March Revolution. It forced Czar Nicholas II to abdi­cate his throne. A year later revolutionaries executed Nicholas and his family. The czarist rule of the Romanovs, which spanned over three centuries, had finally collapsed. The March Revolution suc­ceeded in bringing down the czar. Yet it failed to set up a strong government to replace his regime.

Leaders of the Duma established a provisional govenlment, or _ temporary government. It was eventually headed by Alexander Kerensky. His decision to continue fighting the war cost him the sup­

THINK THROUGH HISTORYport of both soldiers and civilians. As the war dragged on, conditions C. Making

DNA Solves the inside Russia worsened. Angry peasants demanded land. City work­ Inferences Why did Mystery of Anastasia ers grew more radical. Social revolutionaries, competing for power, Kerensky"s decision to

Forabout 65 years afterthe execu­ continue fighting theformed soviets. Soviets were local councils consisting of workers, tion of Czar Nicholas II and hisfamily, warcost him thesup­

peasants, and soldiers. In many cities, especially Petrograd, the sovi­a woman named Anna Anderson portof the Russian claimed thatshe was the Grand ets had more influence than the provisional government. people?

Duchess Anastasia, the czar's sole Lenin Returns to Russia The Germans launched their own surviving daughter (circled above).

According to Anna, shemanaged "secret weapon" that would erode the provisional government's to esca peherassassins. authority. They arranged Lenin's return to Russia after many years of

Anna's regal manners and exile. The Germans believed that Lenin and his Bolshevik supporters detailed knowledge aboutthe

would stir unrest in Russia and hurt the Russian war effort. Traveling Romanov family convinced many that shewastellingthe truth. Others in a sealed railway boxcar, Lenin reached Petrograd in April 1917.

•I believed she was a fraud seeking ,, personal gain. Anna heldfast to her , The Bolshevik Revolutionstoryuntil herdeath in 1984.

In 1993, scientists finallysolved Lenin and the Bolsheviks recognized their opportunity to seize , the 75-year-old mystery. Prince Philip power. They soon gained control of the Petrograd soviet, as well as

of Britain is a living descendant of . , '~ the soviets in other major Russian cities. By the fall of 1917, peopleCzarina Alexandra. Scientists

compared his DNA to Anna in the cities were rallying to the call, "All power to the soviets." Anderson's. The DNAproved that Lenin's slogan-"Peace, Land, and Bread"-was gaining widespread Anna wasnota blood relative of the appeal. Lenin decided to take action. Romanovs. Instead, shecarried the DNAof Polish peasants. The Provisional Government Topples In November 1917, without

warning, Bolshevik Red Guards made up of armed factory workers stormed the Winter Palace in Petrograd. They took over government offices and arrested the leaders of the provisional government. The Bolshevik Revolution was over in a mat­ter of hours. Kerensky and his colleagues disappeared almost as quicldy as the czarist regime they had replaced.

Causes and Effects of Two Russian Revolutions ~~_ ~~~~.c:-~_~-~:::;:.r==__ _

Causes Russian Revolutions of 1917 Effects

• Widespread discontentamong all • Abdication of Czar Nicholas "Civilwar (19'18-1920) classes of Russian society • Failure of provisional • Czar and his family killed-end

• Agitationfrom revolutionaries government of cza rist rule

• Weak leadership of Czar Nicholas II • Growing power of soviets • Peace with Germany under~ Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)• Defeat in Russo-Japanese War (1905) • Lenin's returnto Russia • Bolshevik control of government• BloodySunday (1905) • Bolshevik takeoverunder Lenin • Russian economy in ruins • Losses in WorldWar I i

• Strikes and riots

SKI LL BU I LDE R: Interpreting Charts 1. Based on the chart, form a generalization about why the Russian Revolutions occurred. 2. What similarities exist between the causes of the Revolution and the effects?

392 Chapter 14

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GEOG,RAPHY SKILLDUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Region What was the extent (north to south, east to west) of the Bolshevik

territory in 1919? 2. Region What european countries wers no longer within R/I~~iiln bonnderies

by 1922 because of the Brest-Utovsk treaty?

THINK THROUGH HISTORY D. Identifying PrOblems What

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problems did Lenin and the Bolsheviks face after the revolution?

Bolsheviks in Power Lenin's next step was tackling the problems he inherited from czarist rule. Within days after the Bolshevik takeover, Lenin ordered that all farmland be distributed among the peasants. Lenin and the Bolsheviks gave control of factories to the workers. The Bolshevik government also siened a truce with Germany to stop all fighting on the east­ern war front and began peace talks.

In March 1918, Russia and Germany signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The price of peace was costly. Russia surrendered a large chunk of its territory to Germany and its allies. The humiliating terms of this treaty higgered widespread anger among many Russians. They objected to the Bolsheviks and their policies.

Civil War Rages in Russia Still recovering from their painful losses of land to Germany, the Bolsheviks now faced a new challenge-stamping out their enemies at home. Their opponents formed the White Army. The revolutionary leader Leon Trotsky, who helped negotiate the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, expertly commanded the Bolshevik Red Army. From 1918 to 1920, civil war raged in Russia. Several Western nations, in­cluding the United States, sent military aid and forces to Russia to help the White Army.

Russia's civil war proved far more deadly than the earlier revolutions. Around 15 million Russians died in the three-year struggle and in the famine that followed. The destruction and loss of life from fighting, hunger, and a worldwide flu epidemic left Russia in chaos.

, ,

In the end the Red Army triumphed and finally crushed all opposition to Bolshevik rule. The victory showed that the Bolsheviks were able both to seize power and to maintain it. Yet in the aftermath of the civil war, Lenin and the Bolsheviks faced over­whelming problems.

Duringthe Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. these Petrograd workers seizedan armored car from the provisional government's forces.

Revolution and Nationalism 393

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1lenin Restores Order !

War and revolution destroyed the Russian economy. Trade was at a standstill. Industrial production dropped and many skilled workers fled to other countries..Lenin, who helped mastermind the Bolshevik Revolution, shifted his role. He tJi\ed to reviving

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HISTORYMAKERS

V. I. Lenin 1870-1924

A brilliant student, Lenin enrolled in law school as a young man but was expelled for taking part in a student protestmeeting. In 1887, whenhe was 17, his brother, Alexander, was hanged for plotting to kill the czar. Legend has it that this eventturned Lenin into a revolutionary.

Though Alexander's execution influenced Lenin, Lenin already harbored 'feelings against the gov.ernm~9t. Bythe early 1900s, he1l1110ned.1o overthrowthe czar. After 1917, Russians revered him asthe "Fatherof the Revolution."

Following Lenin's death in 1924, the government placed his tomb in Red Square in Moscow. Hispreserved body, encased in a bulletproof, glass-topped coffin, is still on display. ManyRussians, though, favor moving Lenin's corpse awayfrom public view.

394 Chapter 14

the economy and restructuring the government. j E

New E~onomic Policy In March 1921, Lenin launched the New Economic Policy (NEP) by temporarily putting aside his plan for a state-controlled economy. Instead, he resorted to a small-scale version of capitalism. The reforms under the NEP allowed peasants to sell their surplus crops instead of turning them over to the government. Individuals could buy and sell goods for profit. The government kept control of major industries, banks, and means of communication, but it let some small factories, businesses, and farms operate under private ownership. Lenin also tried to encour­age foreign investment.

Political Reforms The many different nationalities within Russia had always posed an obstacle to national unity. Communist leaders THINK THROUGH HISTORY

E. Makingalso saw nationalism as a threat to unity and party loyalty. To keep Inferences Whatnationalism in check, Lenin organized Russia into several self-gov­ steps didthe

erning republics under the central government. In 1922, the country Communist govern­

was named the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), in honor ment take to prevent nationalism fromof the councils that helped launch the Bolshevik Revolution. Each threatening the new

republic was controlled from the new capital-Moscow. state created by the The Bolsheviks also renamed their party the Communist Party. Russian Revolution?

The name came from the Writings of Karl Marx. He had used the word communism to describe the classless society that would exist after workers had seized power. In 1924, the Communists created a constitution based on socialist and democratic principles. In reality, the Communist Party held all the power. Lenin had established a dictatorship of the Communist Party, not "a dictatorship of the proletariat," as Marx had promoted.

Thanks partly to the new policies and to the peace that followed the civilwar, the USSR slowlyrecovered. By 1928, the country's farms and factories were producing as much as they had before World War 1.

Lenin did not live to see this recovery. He had several strokes and spent the last 18 months of his life as a semi-invalid. His death in 1924 opened a power struggle for control of the party and the coun­try. Youwill learn about the outcome of this struggle in Section 2.

1. TERMS & NAMES 2. TAKING NOTES 3. EVALUATING DECISIONS 4. ANALYZING THEMES

Identify Create a time line likethe one Whatdo you think were Czar Revolution Whywas Lenin's • pogrom belowto showsignificant events Nicholas II'sworst errors in leadership crucialto the success • Trans-Siberian Railway during the last phases of czarist judgment during his rule? Why? of the Russian Revolution? • Bolsheviks rule and the beginning of THINK ABOUT THINKAB(lliT• V. I. Lenin Communist rule. • the czar's militarydecisions • Lenin's personal traits • Duma • the politicaloutcome of "Bloody • hisslogan-"Peace, Land, and• Rasputin Sunday" Bread"• provisional • his role in organizing thegovernment Bolsheviks • soviet • his role after the Revolution

Writea paragraph explaining one of these events in more detail.

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i• totalitarianism i• command

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economy • collective farm ~··eI.·.. ··l~i:ztU;~~~t~ • kulak ~

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SETTING THE STAGE Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin were among Lenin's revolu­tionary supporters. They both helped create the Soviet state. After Lenin died, these two men became bitter rivals for control of the Communist Party. The outcome of this struggle would determine the future course of the Soviet Union. Stalin, Lenin's suc­cessor, would aim at dramatically transforming the government and controlling every

Background While inexile, Trotsky pUblished articles and books criticizing Stalin's regime. In

\ 1940, Stalin's agents~! murdered Trotsky

inMexico.

.aspect of citizens' lives.

Stalin Becomes Dictator Joseph Stalin was a quiet man who rarely received much public notice. During his early days as a Bolshevik, he changed his name from Dzhugashivili (joo-guhsh-VliEl.oyih) to Stalin, which means "man of steel" in Russian. The name fit well. Stalin was cold, hard, and impersonal. Lenin, unsure of his successor, began to distrust Stalin. Lenin believed that Stalin was a dangerous man. Shortly before Lenin died, he wrote, "Comrade Stalin has concentrated enormous power in his hands, and I am not sure that he always knows how to use that power with sufficient caution."

From 1922 to 1927, Stalin began his ruthless climb to the head of the government. In 1922, as general secretary of the Communist Party, he worked behind the scenes. He shrewdly moved his follow­ers into strategic government offices. By 1924, he had placed many

, of his supporters in key positions. By 1928, Stalin was in total corn­

mand of the Communist Party. Trotsky, forced into exile in 1929, was no longer a threat. Stalin now stood poised to wield absolute power as a dictator.

Stalin Builds a Totalitarian State Lenin and Trotsky promoted a worldwide Communist revolution. Stalin, however, focused on Russian development. He coined the phrase "socialism in one country" to describe his aims of perfecting a Communist state in Russia. To realize his vision, Stalin would transform the Soviet Union into a totalitarian state.

The term totalitarianism describes a government that takes total, centralized state control over every aspect of public and private life. Totalitarian leaders, such as Stalin, appear to provide a sense of secu­rity and to give a direction for the future.

Totalitarianism challenges the highest values prized by Western democracies-reason, freedom, human dignity, and the worth of the individual. As the chart on the next page shows, all totalitarian states share basic characteristics.

HISTORYMAKERS

; ,IJoseph Stalin 1879-1953

Stalin was born in bitter poverty in Georgia, a region in southern Russia. Unlikethe well-educated and cultured Lenin, Stalinwas roughand crude.

Despite having millionsof Russians killed,Stalintried to create a myth that hewas the country's father andsavior. Stalin glorifiedhimselfasthe symbol of the nation. He encouraged people to think of him as "The Greatest Genius of All Times and Peoples." 'II

Manytowns, factories, and streets in the SovietUnion were named for Stalin. A new metal J was called Stalinite. An orchid ,J was named Stalinchid. Children standing before their desks every morning said, "ThankComrade Stalinfor this happy life."

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increased from 25,000 in 1927 to 483,000 in 1938.

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Dictatorship and - Exercises absolute authority One-Party Rule • Dominates the government

• Helps unitepeople.toward meeting shared goalsor realizing a common vision - Encourages people to devote their unconditional loyaltyand uncritical support to the regime • Becomes asynibOl of the government

Ideology (setof beliefs) • Justifiesgovernment actions • Glorjfies the aims of the state

- business -Iabor • housing • education.•.. i~~~~~~:r:~~~~'Ali{·;·· • familylife • youth groups • religion • the arts

State Control Over the • Demands total obedience to authority and personal sacrifice for the good of the state Individual • Denies basic liberties

- Relies onmass communication, such as radios, newsreels, and loudspeakers, to'~:~~~~;etth~fl~~Y . spread propaganda • Builds up advanced militaryweapons

Organized Violence • Uses force, suchas police terror, to crushall opposition • Targets certain groups, such as national minorities and political opponents, asenemies

SKI L L BU I LD ER: Interpreting Charts 1. Based on the chart, how are individuals in a totalitarian state molded into obedient citizens?

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2. How would your life change if you lived in a totalitarian state? L-

Other totalitarian governments besides the Soviet Union emerged in the twentieth century In the 1920s and 1930s, two other European dictators-Hitler in Germany and Mussolini in Italy-were shaping their visions of a totalitarian state. After Communists formed the People's Republic of China in 1949, Mao Zedong used tactics similar to Stalin's to establish totalitarian control. The North Korean dictator Kim 11 Sung ruled over a totalitarian Communist state from 1948 to 1994.

By 1928 Stalin began taking great strides to build a totalitarian state. He had achieved personal power and was ready to begin overhauling the economy

CASE STUDY: Stalinist Russia

Stalin Seizes Control of the Economy While Lenin's New Economic Policy (NEP) was a mixture of free enterprise and state control, Stalin's economic policies involved total state control. His plans called for a command economy-a system in which the government made all economic deci­sions. Under this system, political leaders identify the country's economic needs and determine how to fulfill them. To modernize the Soviet state, Stalin ushered in revo­lutions in industry and agriculture.

An Industrial Revolution In 1928, Stalin outlined the first of several Five-Year Plans for the development of the. Soviet Union's economy The government would take Thenumberof drastic steps to promote rapid industrial growth and to strengthen national defense. tractors in the

Stalin announced, "We are fifty or a hundred years behind the SovietUnion

advanced countries. \Ve must make good this distance in ten ~7ears. Either we do it or we shall be crushed."

The Five-Year Plans set impossibly high quotas, or numerical goals, to increase the output of steel, coal, oil, and electricity. To reach these targets, the government limited production of consumer goods. As a result, peo­ple faced severe shortages of housing, food, clothing, and other necessary goods.

Under Stalin's totalitarian regime, the government controlled The Buildup of theevery aspect of the worker's life. Officials chose the workers, Soviet Economyassigned them jobs, and determined their working hours. Workers needed the police's permission to move. The secret police were INDUSTRY

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iready to imprison or execute those who did not contribute to the 150 i

• CoalSoviet economy. These forceful means of making the Soviet Union -;;;

~ 120 Production a modem industrial nation took a great toll on people's personal 'E

:§ 90lives. Many families andmaniages broke up. <Il

Stalin's grim methods, however, also produced fantastic eco­ ..e" 60

nomic results. Although most of the targets of the first Five-Year E" Cll 30 :i: _~•• SteelPlan fell short, the Soviets made impressive gains. A second plan, II'"

o _~_T=--"" Productionlaunched in 1933, proved equally successful. From 1928 to 1937, 1928 1933 1938

I II Iindustrial production increased more than 25 percent. 1st Five- 2nd Five-Year Plan Year Plan

An Agricultural Revolution Stalin's agricultural revolution was AGRICULTUREalso successful-and far more brutal-than his industrial revolution.

35In 1928, the government began to seize over 25 million privately owned farms in the USSR. It combined them into large, govern­ ~ 30

Background ment-owned farms, called collective farms. Hundreds of families ~ E 25

Many peasants had worked on these farms, producing food for the state. The govern­ g only recently won .J!! 20

IVment expected that the modem machineryon the collective farms their own land. For e • Livestock centuries. they had would boost food production and reduce the number of workers. ~ 15

struggleu ugQi,,~[ the Peasants resisted fiercely. Many killed livestock and destroyed nobles. Nowthey crops in protest. Stalin used terror and violence to force peasants were forced to submit toyetanother land­ to work on collective Farms. Soviet secret police herded them onto lord-the Soviet collective farms at the point of a bayonet. Between 5 million and 50 I. government. 10 million peasants died as a direct result of Stalin's agricultural

revolution. Millions more were shipped to Siberia. ] • Wheat 140 )'Resistance was especially strong among kulaks, a class of

:::l 30wealthy peasants. The Soviet government decided to eliminate ~ A ITHINK THROUGH HISTORY them. Thousands were executed or sent to work camps. ~ 20" \..I

A.Summarizing By 1938, more than 90 percent of all peasants lived on collec­ :i: What methods did tive farms. Agricultural production was on the upswing. That year 10 Stalin use to bring 1928 1933 1938

the country produced almost twice the wheat than it had in 1928 I II I'f~ agriculture under 1stFive- 2nd Five-

state control? before collective farming. Year Plan Year Plan Source: European Historical StatisticsJ

] Weapons of Totalitarianism .~' To dominate an entire nation, Stalin, like other totalitarian lead­:i .~ ers, devised methods of control and persuasion. ~j

Police Terror Dictators of totalitarian states use terror and vio­; lence to force obedience and to crush opposition. Stalin began

building his totalitarian state by destroying his enemies-real.I.¥ and imagined. Stalin's secret police used tanks and armored cars

to stop riots. They monitored telephone lines, read mail, and planted informers everywhere. Even children told authorities about disloyal remarks they heard at home. The secret police arrested and executed millions of so-called traitors.

Vocabulary In 1934, Stalin turned against members of the Communist Party. He launched the Purge: a systematic Great Purge-a campaign of terror. It was directed at eliminating anyone who eltOrt toeliminate threatened his power. Thousands of old Bolsheviks who helped stage the Revolution atargeted group

\, ofpeople. in 1917 stood trial. They were executed for "crimes against the Soviet state." The state had the authority to punish even the most minor acts. The police arrested

the director of the MoscowZoo because his monkeys got tuberculosis. The police

PATTERNS OF CHANGE,

SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Graphs 1. How many more metric tons of

coal were produced in 1938 than in 1928?

2. What do the graphs show about the contrast between the progress of industry and live­stock production under Stalin's first Five-Year Plan?

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SPOTLIGHTON 1984

George Orwell wrote the chilling novel 1984 in response to the threat of two totalitarian regimes. They were Communist Russia under Stalin andNazi Germany under AdolfHitler. Thenovel depicts a frightening world in which personal freedom and privacy have vanished. The sinisterslogan "Big Brother Is Watching You" appears every­where. Even citizens' homes have television cameras that constantly survey their behavior.

Orwell intended hisnovel, published in 1949, as a warning, notas a prophecy. He sounded an alarm about a worldthat a totalitarian state could create through modern technology. For millions of people in theSoviet Union and Nazi Germany, the world of totalitarianism was notfiction. It wasterrifying fact.

themselves were not above suspicion, especially if they did not arrest their quotas of "criminals." Every family came to fear the mock on the door in the early morning hours, which usually meant the arrest of a family member.

When the Great Purge ended in 1939, Stalin had gained total con­trol of the Soviet government and the Communist Party. Historians estimate that he was responsible for 8 million to 13 million deaths.

Indoctrination and Propaganda Totalitarian states rely on indoctrination-instruction in the government's beliefs-to mold people's minds. Party leaders in the Soviet Union lectured workers and peasants on the ideals of communism. They also stressed the importance of sacrifice and hard work to build the Communist state. State-supported youth groups trained future party members.

Totalitarian states also spread propaganda-biased or incomplete information used to sway people to accept certain beliefs or actions.

Soviet newspapers and radio broadcasts glorified the achieve­ments of communism, Stalin, and his economic programs.

Under Stalin, art also was used for propaganda. In 1930, an editorial in the Communist Party newspaper Pravda explained the purpose of art: "Literature, the cinema, the arts are levers in the hands of the proletariat which must be used to show the masses positive models of initiative and heroic labor." Socialist realism was an artistic style that praised Soviet life and Communist values. Yevgeny Yevtushenko, a Russian poet, described this form of artistic expression:

A VOICE FROM THE PAST Blankly smiling workers and collective farmers looked out from the covers of books.. Almost every novel and short story had a happy ending. Painters more and more often took as their subjects state banquets, weddings, solemn public meetings, and parades. YEVGENY YEVTUSHENKO, A PrecociousAutobiography

Censorship Many Soviet writers, composers, and other artists also fell victim to offi­cial censorship. Stalin would not tolerate individual creativity that threatened the con­formity and obedience required of citizens in a totalitarian state. The government also controlled all newspapers, motion pictures, radio, and other sources of information.

Religious Persecution Communists aimed to replace religious teachings with the ideals of communism. Under Stalin, the government and the League of the Militant Godless, an officially sponsored group of atheists, spread propaganda attacking reli­gion. "Museums of atheism': displayed exhibits to show that religious beliefs were mere superstitions. Yet many people in the Soviet Union still clung to their faiths.

The Russian Orthodox Church was the main target of persecution. Other religious groups also suffered greatly. The police destroyed magnificent churches and syna­gogues; and many religious leaders were killed or sent to labor camps.

Comparing Revolutions In its immediate and long-term effects, the Russian Revolution was more like the French Revolution than the American Revolution. The American Revolution expanded English political ideas into a constitutional government that built on many existing structures. In contrast, both the French and Russian revolutions attempted to destroy existing social and political structures. Revolutionaries in France and Russia used violence and terror to control people. France eventually became a constitutional monarchy, but the Russian Revolution established a totalitarian state that lasted for decades.

THINK THROUGH HISTORY B. Evaluating What effect didStalin's Great Purge have on thenation?

THINK THROUGH HISTORY C. Making Inferences What forms of artdid Stalin encourage?

Vocabulary atheists: people who donotthink there isa god.

Propaganda Through Art Low-cost printing techniques made socialist realism

posters an important form of propaganda in the Soviet Union. People might not listen to the radio or go to propaganda films. However, if they left their houses, they could not avoid viewing the posters plastered on buildings and walls in every town.

Images of energetic laborers, such as the special groups called "shock brigades," urged Soviets to work harder. Portraits glorifying Stalin were also popular subjects of Soviet posters.

The slogan on this poster reads, "Young Communists [are] theShock Brigade ofthe Five-Year Plan."

The slogan on the above poster reads, "DaV

i ~ laborers and Young

Communists-Join the Tractor Shock Brigades

'!it: ~1 for Spring Sowing."

This profile ofStalin is imposed on a shadowy image of Lenin. Miniature portraits ofother Communist leaders trail offinthebackground.

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Comparing How do the Soviet posters resemble the billboards of modern-day advertisers? Support your answerwith examples,

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Revolution and Nationalism 399

they would make great sacrifices in exchange for progress.

This Soviet woman worked in a textile factory during Stalin's regime.

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Daily Life Under Stalin Stalin's totalitarian rule revolutionized Soviet society. Women's roles greatly expanded. People became better educated and mastered new technical skills. The dramatic changes in people's lives had a downside, though. As servants of a totalitarian state,

Soviet Women With the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, women won equal rights. After Stalin became dictator, women helped the state-controlled economy prosper. Under his Five-Year Plans, they had no choice but to join the labor force in increas­ing numbers. Young women performed the same jobs as men. Millions of women worked in factories and built dams and roads.

Given new educational opportunities, women prepared for careers in engineeIing and science. Medicine, in particular, attracted many women. By 19.50, they made up 7.5 percent of Soviet doctors.

Soviet women paid a heavy price for their nsing THINK THROUGH HISTORY status in society. Besides their full-time jobs, they D.Evaluating What

were responsible for housework and child care. were thepros and cons of women's newMotherhood was also considered a patriotic duty in totalitarian regimes. Soviet women roles in Soviet society

were expected to provide the state with future generations of loyal, obedient citizens. under Stalin?

Education Under Stalin, the government controlled all education-from nursery schools through the universities. Schoolchildren learned the virtues of the Communist Party. College professors and students who questioned the Communist Party's inter­pretations of history or science risked losing their jobs or faced imprisonment.

Education was not merely indoctrination. Stalin's economic plans created a high demand for many skilled workers. University and technical training became the key to a better life. As one young man explained, "If a person does not want to become a collective farmer or just a cleaning woman, the only means you have to get something is through education."

By the mid-1930s, Stalin had forcibly transformed the Soviet Union into a totalitar­ian regime and an industrial and political power. He stood unopposed as dictator and maintained his authority over the Communist Party. He also ushered in a period of' total social control and rule by terror, rather than constitutional government. His network of laws and regulations guided every aspect of individual behavior.

Like Russia, China would fall under the influence of Karl Marx's theories and Communist beliefs. The dynamic leader Mao Zedong would pave the way for trans­forming China into a totalitarian Communist state, as you will read in Section 3.

Section E)Assessment

1. TERMS & NAMES 2. TAKING NOTES 3. CONTRASTING 4. THEME ACTIVITY Identify Create a chart like the one below How dototalitarian states and Economics Role-play an • JosephStalin listing theweapons of total­ constitutional governments differ? industrialworker in a steel mill.a • totalitarianism itarianism. Cite examples from Sta­ peasant on a collectivefarm, or a THINK ABOUT • command economy linist Russia for eachmethod shown. student at a technical school.• the chart explaining the key • collective farm iWeapons I Examples I Write a secret journal entry traits of totalitarianism • kulak I Police Terror describing what your life is like • what you have learned about• GreatPurge Propaganda underStalin's economic plans.constitutional government in the • socialist realism I Censorship United StatesIReligious Persecution i • what you learned aboutthe

Which method do youthink was SovietConstitution on ,Jage 394 most influential in maintaining Stalin's totalitarian rule? Why?

···4()o CHAPTER 14

SETTING THE STAGE In the early 1900s, China was ripe for revolution. China had faced years of humiliation at the hands of outsiders. Foreign countries controlled China's trade and economic resources. Many Chinese believed that modernization and nationalism held the country's keys for survival. They wanted to build up the army and navy, to construct modern HISTORY MAKER S factories, and to reform education. Yet others feared change. They , ,i

believed that China's greatness lay in its traditional ways.

Nationalists Overthrow Qing Dynasty Among the groups pushing for modernization and nationalization was the Kuomintang (xwou-mihn-Tz.Nfr), or the Nationalist Party. Its first grcat leader, Sun Yixiun (soon yee-shyahn), was a physician who had spent many years in the United States. In 1912, Sun's Revolutionary Alliance, a forerunner of the Kuomintang, succeeded in overthrowing the last emperor of the Qing dynasty. The Q~Ilg had ruled China since 1644.

Shaky Start for the New Republic In 1912, Sun became presi­dent of the new Republic of China. He held the post for just six weeks. Sun hoped to establish a modem govemment based on the "Three Principles of the People": (1) nationalism-an end to foreign control, (2) people's lights-democracy, and (3) people's livelihood­economic security for all Chinese. Sun Yixian considered nationalism vital. He said, "The Chinese people ... do not have national spirit. Therefore even though we have four hundred million people gathered together in one China, in reality, they are just a heap of loose sand." i~

~ Despite his lasting influence as a revolutionary leader, Sun lacked the

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authority and the military support to secure national unity. Sun turned over the presidency to Yuan Shikai (yoo-ahn shee-ky), a

powerful general. Yuan quickly betrayed the democratic ideals of the revolution. By 1913, he was ruling as a military dictator. His actions tj· sparked local revolts. Even Yuan's own generals refused to fight the rebels. After Yuan died in 1916, chaos reigned. China remained divided and Sun's Kuomintang powerless. Civil war broke out as one

Vocabulary rival group battled another. Sun tried to reorganize his Kuomintang. warlotd: powerful Real authority, though, fell into the hands of provincial warlords. Theymilitary leader. ruled territories as large as their armies could conquer.

As always during times of unrest, the Chinese peasants suffered most. Warlord armies terrorized the countryside. They pillaged and looted everywhere. Roads and bridges fell into disrepair, and crops were destroved, Famine took the lives of millions. This was the situa­

.' tion in China as World War I was being waged in Europe.

Sun Yixian 1866-1925

A traditional Chinese proverb says that knowing what to do is easier than doing it. Sun Yixian disagreed. "Knowledge is difficult;" he said. "Action is easy." .:>'-,

Sun led an action-filled life. He traveled, orqenized. and plotted tirelesslyto bring down the Qing dynasty. Aware of Sun's activity and influence, Qing officials tracked him down in London. They kidnapped him and held him prisoner. Theyplanned to shiphim backto China, where he faced probable execution. ,

,,,,.Sun would meet his death, he ,I!

said,by "first having my ankles :;t~ ,crushed in a vise and broken by

a hammer, myeyelids cut off, and l~;t( ,

:finally being chopped up into small fragments sothat none could claim my mortal remains." Sun's British friends helped him escape his captors. The episode made him world-famous as a leader of the revolution in China. SunYixian is still known as the "father of modern China."

Revolution and Nationalism 401 I..

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World War I Spells More Problems In 1917, the government in Beijing, hoping for an Allied victory, declared war against Germany. For China's participation, some leaders mistakenly believed that the thankful Allies would return control of China to the Chinese. Under the Treaty of Versailles, however, the Allied leaders gave Japan the territories and privileges that had previously belonged to Germany.

The May Fourth Movement When news of/the Treaty of Versailles reached China, outrage swept the country. On May 4, 1919, over 3,000 angry students gathered in the center of Beijing. "Down with the European imperialists!" they shouted. "Boycott Japan!" Mao Zedong (MOW dzuh-dahng), a young schoolteacher who had studied at Beijing University, supported the student protesters. He would later become China's greatest revolutionary leader, sometimes called "The Great Helmsman."

The demonstrations spread to other cities and exploded into a national movement. It was called the May Fourth Movement, Workers, manu­facturers, shopkeepers, and profession­als joined the cause. Though not officially a revolution, these demonstra­tions showed the Chinese people's commitment to the goal of establishing a strong, modern nation. Sun Yixian and members of the Kuomintang also shared the aims of the movement. But they could not strengthen central rule on their own. Many young Chinese intellectuals turned against Sun Yixian's beliefs in Western democracy in favor of Lenin's brand of Soviet communism.

The Communist Party in China In 1920, small groups of young intellectuals were meeting in Shanghai and Beijing University to discuss Marx's revolutionary beliefs. They viewed the Soviet Union under Lenin as a model for political and economic change. In 1921, a group met in Shanghai to organize the Chinese Communist Party. Mao Zedong was among its founders.

Lenin Befriends China While the Communist Party was forming, Sun Yixian and his Nationalist Party set up a government in south China. Like the Communists,

Sun became disillusioned with the Western democracies that refused to support his struggling government. Sun decided to ally the Kuomintang with the

newly formed Communist Party. Sun used ·Lenin's blueprint for organizing his part)' along Bolshevik lines. Sun hoped to unite all the revolutionary

. groups for common action. After Western governments failed to aid Sun, he accepted an offer from

the Soviets. Lenin preached worldwide revolution. He seized the opportufiity to help China's Nationalist government. In 1923, Lenin began sending military advisers and equipment to the Nationalists in return for allowing the Chinese Communists to join the Kuomintang. Several Chinese Nationalist leaders traveled to Moscow for militarv training.

Nationalists and Communists Clash After Sun Yixian died in 192.5, Jiang [ieshi (jee-ahng jee·shee), formerly called Chiang Kai-shek, headed the Kuomintang. Jiang was the son of a middle-class merchant. Many of Jiang'S followers were bankers and

Student protesters

gathered at Tiananmen Square

in summer 1919.

This portrait of Mao Zedong was taken

around 1919. when

he was a young revolutionary.

Vocabulary helmsman: person whosteers a ship.

THINK THROUGH HISTORY A. Identifying

Problems What problems didthe newRepublic of China face?

Background Jiang was Sun's brother-in-law and military assistant

:' .. ~ 402 Chapter 14 I'i;'·

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THINK THROUGH HISTORY B.Contrasting How did Mao's vision of revolution differ from Lenin's?

businesspeople. Like Jiang, they feared the Communists' goal of creating a socialist economy modeled after the Soviet Union's.

At first, Jiang put aside his differences with the Communists. Together Jiang's Nationalist forces and the Communists successfully fought the warlords. Soon after­ward, though, he turned against the Communists.

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In April 1927, Nationalist troops and armed gangs moved into Shanghai. They killed many Communist leaders and trade union members in the city streets. Similar killings took place in other cities. The Nationalists nearly wiped out the Chinese Communist Party. Its few survivors went into hiding.

In 1928, Jiang became president of the Nationalist Republic of China. Great Britain and the United States both formally recognized the new government. The Soviet Union, as a result of the Shanghai massacre, did not. Jiang's treachery also had long-term effects. The Communists' deep-seated rage over the massacre erupted in a civil war that would last until 1949.

Peasants Align Themselves with the Communists Jiang had promised democ­racy and political rights to all Chinese. Yet his government became steadily less democratic and more corrupt. It launched programs to modernize and develop the cities. However, Jiang did nothing to improve the life of China's rural peasants. As a result, many peasants threw their support to the Chinese Communist Party. To enlist the support of the peasants, Mao divided land that the Communists won among the local farmers. .

Communist leader Mao Zedong had survived Jiang's bloody rampage by fleeing to the countryside. He had already begun to develop his own brand of communism. Lenin had shown that a Marxist revolution could take place in a largely rural country, but he had based his organization in Russia's cities. Mao envisioned a different setting. He believed he could bring revolution to a rural country where the peasants could be the hue revolutionaries. He argued his point passionately in 1927:

A VOICE F. ROM THE PAS T The force of the peasantry is like that of the raging winds and driving rain. It is rapidly ind'easingin violence. No force can stand in its way. The peasantry will tear apart all nets which bind it and hasten along the road to liberation. They will bury beneath them all forces ofimperialism, militarism, corrupt officialdom, village bosses and evil gentry. MAO ZEDONG,.quoted in A History of World Societies

Civil War Rages in China By 1930, Nationalists and Communists were fighting a bloody civil war. Mao and other Communist leaders established

grueling LongMarchto safetyin western China.

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themselves in the hills of south-central China. Mao referred to this tactic of taking his revolution to the counti:yside as "swimming in the peasant sea." He recruited the peasants to join his Red Army. He then trained them in guerrilla warfare. Nationalists attacked the Communists repeatedly but failed to drive them out.

The Long March In 1933, Jiang gathered an army of at least 700,000 men. Jiang's army then surrounded the Communists' mountain stronghold. Outnum­bered nearly six to one,

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GEOGRAPHY SKI LLBU I LDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Movement What was the course of the Long March, in terms of

direction, beginning in Riujan and ending near Yan'an? 2. Region What geographic barriers did Mao's forces face during

the Long March?

they faced defeat. In 1934, the !

Communist forces fled. They began a hazardous, 6,000-mile-Iong journey called the Long March. Over the next year, the Communists kept only a step ahead of Jiang's forces.

Mao's Red Army crossed many rivers and climbed over mountain ranges. They fought several major bat­tles and faced minor skirmishes almost every day. They also crossed miles of swampland. They had to sleep sitting up, leaning back-to-back in pairs, to keep from sinking into the mud and drowning.

The chase lasted more than a year. About 100,000 people began the march. From 10,000 to 30,000 reached safety in northwestern China, beyond the reach ofJiang's forces.

Mao and the other Communist sur­vivors settled in caves in northwestem China. Despite the discouraging tum of events, they quickly gained new THINK THROUGH HISTORY

followers. Meanwhile, as civil war between Nationalists and Communists

C. Recognizing Effects What were theresults

raged, Japan invaded China. of the Long March?

Japan's Invasion Suspends the Civil War In 1931, as Chinese fought Chinese, the Japanese watched the power struggles with rising interest. Japanese forces took advan­tage of China's weakening situation. They invaded Manchuria, an industrialized province in the northeast palt of China. This attack Signaled the onset ofWorld War II in Asia.

In 1937, the Japanese launched an all-out invasiori of China. Massive bombings of villages and cities killed thousands of Chinese. The destruction of farms caused many more to die of starvation. By 1938, Japan held control of a large part of China.

The Japanese threat forced an uneasy truce between Jiang's and Mao's forces. The Background civil war gradually ground to a halt as Nationalists and Communists temporarily united The truce between

Communists andto fight the Japanese. Jiang further agreed to promote changes outlined in Sun Yixians Nationalists lasted

"Three Principles of the People"-nationalism, democracy, and people's livelihood. As throughout World you will leam in Section 4, similar principles were also serving as a guiding force in War I!.

India and Southwest Asia.

Section 0 Assessment

1. TERMS &

Identify

NAMES

• Kuomintang • Sun Yixian • Mao Zedong • May Fourth Movement • Long March

2. TAKING NOTES

Make a chart like the one below to compare and contrastJiang Jieshi and Mao Zedong.

I lfii11g Mao II-;cPa-rty------j1 -"------:----

IKey Supporters I , Reforms I !Military Actions I

3. RECOGNIZING EFFECTS

What influence did foreign nations haveon China from 1912 to 1938? Support your answerwith details fromthe text.

THINK ABOUT • the outcome of the Treaty of

Versailles • the roleof the SovietUnion • the temporary truce during the

Chinese civil war

4. ANALYZING 'rHEMES

Revolution What caused the Communist revolutionary movement in China to gain strength?

THINK ABOUT • Jiang'sgovernment and policies • the SovietUnion's influence • the conditions of rural peasants • Mao's role and c.chievements

i' ! 404 Chapter 14 ; ~

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Background Unlike Europeans, Asians, including

• Indians, viewed World War I as acivil waramong the feuding nations ofEurope.

Vocabulary dissent difference ofopinion.

SETTING THE STAGE The end of World War I stirred nationalist activity in India, Turkey, and some Southwest Asian countries. The British Empire, which controlled India, began to show signs of cracking.

Indian Nationalism Grows Indian nationalism had been growing since the mid-1800s. Many upper-class Indians who attended British schools learnedEuropean views of nationalism and democracy. They began to apply these political ideas to their own country. Well-educated Indians began to resent tl1P: two centuries of British rule.

Two groups formed lo rid India of foreign rule: the Indian National Congress, or Congress Party, in 1885, and the Muslim League in 1906. Though deep divisions existed between Hindus and Muslims, they found common ground. They shared the heritage of British rule and an understanding of democratic ideals. These two groups both worked toward the goal of national independence.

World War I Heightens Nationalist Activity Until World War I, the vast majority of Indians had little interest in nation­alism. The situation changed as over a million Indians enlisted' in the British army. In return for their service, the British government promised reforms that would eventually lead to self-government. Indian leaders bided their time. They expected to make gains once the war was over.

Later in the war, Indian demands led to the declaration in Parliament favoring the "increasing association of Indians in evelY branch of the administration, and the gradual devel­opment of self-governing institutions." To many Indians, these political reforms signaled that Indians would gain a greater voice in government and ultimately achieve their goal of self-rule.

In 1918, Indian troops returned home from the war. They expected Britain to fulfill its promise. Instead, they found themselves once again treated as second-class citizens. Radical nationalists carried out acts of violence to show their hatred of British rule. To curb dissent, in 1919 the British passed the Rowlatt Act. This law allowed the government. to jail protesters without trial for as long as two years. To Western-educated Indians, denial of a trial by jury. violated their individual rights. Violent protests against the act flared in the Punjab, the Indian province with the greatest number of World War I veterans.

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Revolution and Nationalism 405

Amritsar Massacre To protest the Rowlatt Act, around 10,000 Hindus and Muslims flocked to Amritsar, the capital city of the Punjab, in the spring of 1919. At a huge fes­tival, they intended to fast and pray and to listen to political speeches. A small group of nationalists were also on the scene. The demonstration, especially the alliance of Hindus and Muslims, alarmed the British.

Most people at the gathering were unaware that the British government had banned public meetings. However, General Reginald Dyer, the British commander at Amritsar, believed they were openly defying the ban. He ordered his troops to fire on the crowd without warning. The shooting lasted ten minutes. British troops killed nearly 400 Indians and wounded about 1200.

News of the slaughter sparked an explosion of anger across India. Almost overnight, millions of Indians changed from loyal British subjects into revolutionaries and nation­alists. These Indians demanded independence.

H'ISTORYMAKERS

I.

.;.~... " .\\' Mohandas K. Gandhi

1869-1948 From 1893 to 1914, Gandhi worked as a lawyer in SouthAfrica, where

.. I· he fought racial prejudice against . ': Indians.Shortly after his arrival,

Gandhi bought a first-class ticket ( and boarded a train. A white I· II conductor ordered Gandhi to move

to the third-class coach, reserved for Indians. But Gandhi refused. The conductor forced Gandhi off the train at the.next station.

To honor Gandhi's act of resistance, SouthAfrican president Nelson Mandela recoqnized him with a special freedom award in April 1997. Mandela declared,

Today we are righting a century-old wrong. This station, once one of the world's most notorious symbols of discrimination, intolerance, and oppression, today proclaims a message of dignity restored.... Gandhi's magnificent example of per­

I .. sonal sacrifice and dedication I I _~

in the face of oppression was 'II I

,, I one of his many legacies to i r our country and the world..:

406 Chapter 14

Gandhi's Principles of Nonviolence The massacre at Amritsar set the stage for Mohandas K. Gandhi (GAHN·dee) to emerge as the leader of the independence move­ment. He began to form his social and political ideas during the mid-1880s before he attended law school in England. Gandhi's new strategy for battling injustice evolved from his deeply religiOUS approach to political activity. His teachings blended ideas from all of the major world religions, including Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. The Indian poet Rabindranath Tagore described him as "this great soul in a beggar's garb." Gandhi attracted millions of fol­lowers. Soon they were calling him the Mahatma (muh-Ha.H'I'muh), meaning "Great Sou!."

When the British failed to punish the officers responsible for the killings at the Amritsar massacre, Gandhi urged the Indian National Congress to follow a policy of noncooperation with the British government:

A VOICE-FROM THE PAST This is in essence the principle of nonviolent noncooperation. It fol ­lows therefore that it must have its root in love. Its object should not be to punish the opponent or to inflict- injury upon him. Even while noncooperatlnq with him, we must make him feel that in us he has a friend and we should try to reach his heart by rendering him human­itarian service wherever possible.

. MOHANDAS K. GANDHI, quoted in Gandhi the Man

Civil Disobedience Gandhi developed the principle of satyagraha (SUH·tyah.grah.ha), or "truth-force." In English, satyagraha is called passive resistance or civil disobedience-the deliberate and public refusal to obey an unjust law. Gandhi wrote, "Complete civil dis­obedience is a rebellion without the element of violence ... One perject civil resister is enough to win the battle of Right and Wrong." In 1920, under Gandhi's influence, the Congress Party endorsed civil disobedience and nonviolence as the means to achieve independence.

Gandhi launched his campaign of civil disobedience to weaken the British government's authority and economic power. He called on Indians to refuse to do the following: buy British goods, attend government schools, pay British taxes, and vote in elections. Gandhi staged a successful boycott of British cloth, a source of wealth for the

Background The Punjab is located in northwest India.

THINK THROUGH HISTORY A. Recognizing Effects What changes resulted from the Amritsar massacre?

Vocabulary boycott: a refusal to buy

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Background The spinning wheel isthesymbol on the Indian flag.

THINK 1HRIIUI;H HISTORY B.Making Inferences How did the Salt March repre­

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British. He urged all Indians to weave their own cloth. Gandhi himself devoted two hours each day to spinning his own yarn on a simple handwheel. He wore only home­spun cloth and encouraged Indians to follow his example, As a result of the boycott, the sale of British cloth in India dropped sharply.

Throughout 1920, the British arrested thousands of Indians who had participated in strikes and demonstrations. Gandhi's weapon of civil disobedience took an eco­nomic toll on the British. They struggled to keep trains running, factories operating, and overcrowded jails from bursting. Despite Gandhi's pleas for nonviolence, protests often led to riots. In 1922, rioters attacked a police station and set several officers on fire.

The Slow March to Independence In 1930, Gandhi organized a demonstration to defy the hated Salt Acts. According to these British laws, Indians could buy salt from no other source but the government. They also had to pay sales tax on salt. To show their opposition, Gandhi and his followers walked about 240 miles to the seacoast. There they began to make their own salt by collecting seawater and letting it evapo­rate. This peaceful protest was called the Salt March.

Soon afterward, some demonstrators planned a march to a site where the British government processed salt. They intended to shut this saltworks down. Police officers with steel-tipped clubs attacked the demonstrators. An American journalist was an eyewitness to the event. He described the "sickening whacks of clubs on unpro­tected skulls" and people "writhing in pain with frac­tured skulls or broken shoul­

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ders." Still the people continued to march peacefully, refusing to defend themselves against their attackers. Newspapers across the globe carried the journalist's story, which won worldwide support for Gandhi's independence movement.

More demonstrations took place throughout India. Eventually, about 60,000 people, including Gandhi, were arrested.

Great Britain Grants India Self-Rule Gandhi and his followers gradually reaped the rewards of their civil disobedience cam­paigns and gained greater political power for the Indian people. In 1935, the British Parliament passed the Government of India Act. It provided local self-government and limited democratic elections.

With this act, India began movingtoward full independence from Great Britain. However, the Government of India Act also fueled mounting tensions between Muslims and Hindus. These two groups had conflicting visions of India's future as an independent nation. Indian Muslims, outnumbered by Hindus, feared that Hindus would control India if it won independence. In Chapter 18, you will read about the outcome of India's bid for independence.

Gandhi (standing in the centerwith his head bowed) led Indiansin the Salt' March.The demonstrators protested the British government's controlof salt sales.

Revolution and Nationalism 407

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Nationalism Spreads to Southwest AsiaUnresolvedProblems Just as the people of India fought to have their own nation after World War I, the people of Southwest Asia also launched indepen­Economic Issues in the

Developing World dence movements during this time. Each group in Southwest Asia Attempts at modernization can chose a different path toward nation building. bring unexpected difficulties. For The breakup of the Ottoman Empire and growing Western inter­example, in Persia, the leaderShah

est in Southwest Asia spurred the rise of nationalism in this region. Pahlavi wanted to improve health care.To do this, he hada very Turkey Becomes a Republic By the end of World War I, modern hospital constructed. The

Turkey was all that remained of the Ottoman Empire. It includedhospital hadthe mostup-to-date the old Turkish homeland of Anatolia and a small strip of landequipment and doctors trained in

Vienna and New York. However, the around Istanbul. hospital was a failure. Thefailure In 1919, Greek soldiers dealt a death blow to the Ottoman was caused by the lack of trained Empire. They invaded Turkey and threatened to conquer it. The nurses and orderlies to carry out Turkish sultan, weak and corrupt, was powerless to stop them. In doctors'orders andtechnicians to

1922, a brilliant commander, Mustafa Kemal (keh·MAHL), led servicethe modern equipment. Furthermore, the local population Turkish nationalists in overthrowing the last Ottoman sultan. A had little understanding of the ideas young woman who played a major role in the revolution described of sanitation and did not follow her strong nationalistic feelings: "I suddenly ceased to exist as an doctors' directions correctly. individual. I worked, wrote and lived as a unit of that magnificent

In anotheraction by the Shah, national madness." an8l0-milerailroad was constructed

In 1923, Kemal became the president of the new Republic of that bypassed all but two major cities and did not connectwith any Turkey, the first republic in Southwest Asia. He ushered in many neighboring country. sweeping reforms to achieve his goal of transforming Turkey into a See Epilogue, p. 599. modern nation. Kemal separated the laws of Islam from the laws of

the nation. He abolished religious courts and created a new legal sys­tem based on European law. Under Kemal, women gained more freedom. He granted women the right to vote and to hold public office. Kemal also launched government­funded programs to industrialize Turkey and to spur economic growth.

II

Persia Becomes Iran Before World War I, both Great Britain and Russia had I

established spheres of influence in the ancient countly of Persia. After the war, when Russia was still reeling from the Bolshevik Revolution, the British tried to take over all of Persia. This maneuver triggered a nationalist revolt in Persia. In 1921, a Persian army officer seized power. In 1925 he deposed the ruling shah.

Persia's new leader, Reza Shah Pahlavi (PaLuh-vee), like Kernal in Turkey, set out to modernize his country. He established public schools, built roads and rail­roads, promoted industrial growth, and extended women's rights. Unlike Kemal, Reza Shah kept all power in his own hands. In 1935, he changed the name of his country from Persia to Iran.

Saudi Arabia Keeps Islamic Traditions While Turkey broke with many Islamic tra­ditions, another new country held strictly to Islamic law. In 1902, Abd al-Aziz Ibn Saud (sall·00D), a member of a once-powerful Arabian family, began a successful campaign

' to unify Arabia. In 1932, he renamed the new kingdom Saudi Arabia after his family.I

Ibn Saud carried on Arab and Islamic traditions. Loyalty to the Saudi govemment was based on custom, religion, and family ties. Alcoholic drinks were illegal. Like Kemal and Reza Shall, Ibn Saud brought some modern technology, such as telephones and radios, to his country However, modernization in Saudi Arabia was limited to reli­giously acceptable areas.

Oil Resources Spur Economic Development While nationalism steadily emerged as a major force in Southwest Asia, the region's economy was also taking a new direc­tion. The rising demand for petroleum products in industrialized countries brought new oil explorations to Southwest Asia. During the 1920s and 1930s, European and American companies discovered huge oil deposits in Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and

408 Chapter 14

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THINK THROUGH HISTORY C.Comparing How were Kemal's leader­ship and Reza Shah's leadership similar?

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2. Region Based on the graph and map, what country was the fA Oil-producing regions leading producer of oil by 1938? Why?

Kuwait. Foreign businesses invested huge sums of money to develop these oil fields. Geologists later learned that the land around the Persian Gulf has nearly two-thirds of the world's known supply of oil.

This important resource led to rapid and dramatic economic changes and develop­ment. Saudi Arabia, for example, would soon become a nation of wealthy oil exporters. Yet oil proved to be a mixed blessing for Southwest Asia. Though oil brought huge profits, it also encouraged Western nations to try to dominate this region. Meanwhile, Western nations were about to face a more immediate crisis as power-hungry leaders seized control in Italy and Germany.

Section·OAssessment

1. TERMS & NAMES 2. TAKING NOTES 3. HYPOTHESIZING 4. THEME ACTIVITY

Identify Create a web diagram like the one What doyouthink a nation might Science and Technology • Mohandas K.Gandhi below. Showthe different forms of gain and loseby modernizing? Work in small groupsto research

t: • civil disobedience nationalism that developed in the products and consumer goodsTHINK ABOUT ~ • Mustafa Kemal Asian countries shown. made from petroleum. Create an• what positive changes occurredr illustrated list of itemsthat were in in Turkey and Iran

greatdemand in industrialized • why modernization was limited countries duringthe 1930s.Forms ofNationalism in Saudi Arabia

1906-1939 • why Kemal set rules for clothing • why Gandhi wore only

homespun cloth , In which of these countries did World War I trigger nationalist movements?

Revolution and Nationalism 409

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Background The term fascism was intended to recall memories of ancient Rome. InLatin, fasces isthe word fora bun­dle ofwooden rods tied around an ax handle-a symbol of authority forRoman officials.

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SETIING THE STAGE Many democracies, including the United States, Britain, and France, remained strong despite the economic crisis caused by the Great Depression. However, millions of people lost faith in democratic government In response, they turned to an extreme system of government called fascism.

Fascist Beliefs and Policies This new, militant political movement called fascism (FASH-IHZ· uhm) emphasized loyalty to the state and obedience to its leader. Fascists promised to revive the economy, punish those responsible for hard times, and restore national pride. Their message attracted many people who felt frustrated and angered by the peace treaties that followed World War I and by the Great Depression.

Unlike communism, fascism had no clearly defined theory or program. Nevertheless, most Fascists shared several ideas. They preached an extreme form of nationalism, or loyalty to one's country. Fascists believed that nations must struggle-peaceful states were doomed to be conquered. They pledged loyalty to an authoritarian leader who guided the state. In each nation, Fascists wore uniforms of a certain color, used special salutes, and held mass rallies.

In some ways, fascism was similar to communism. Both systems were ruled by dictators who allowed only their political party (one-party rule). Both denied individual rights. In both, the state was supreme. Neither practiced any kind of democracy. However, unlike Com­munists, Fascists did not seek a classless society. Rather, they believed that each class had its place and function. Communism claimed to be a dictatorship of the working class. In most cases, fascist parties were made up of aristocrats and industrialists, war veterans, and the lower middle class. Also, Fascists were nationalists, and Communists were internationalists, hoping to unite workers worldwide.

Mussolini Comes to Power in Italy Fascism's rise in Italy was fueled by bitter disappointment over the failure to win large territorial gains at the 1919 Faris Peace Con­ference. Rising inflation and unemployment also contributed to widespread social unrest Italy's upper and middle classes feared a Communist revolution, as in Russia. To growing numbers of Italians, their democratic government seemed helpless to deal with the coun­try's problems. They wanted a leader who would take action.

The Rise of Mussolini A newspaper editor and politician named Benito Mussolini boldly promised to rescue Italy by reviving its

HI~~TORYMAKERS

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1883-1945 :(IMussolini was a dazzling orator. Because hewas of modestheight, ! he usuallychose a location for his speeches where he towered above .'j

the crowds-often a balcony high above a public square. He then roused audiences with his emo­tional speeches and theatrical gestures and bodymovements.

Vowing to lead Italy "back to her ways of ancient greatness," Mussolini peppered his speeches with aggressive words such as "war" and "power."

Mussolini wantedto win supportfor an overseas empire in Africa anda militaristic state at home. So heoften usedsettings and symbols from the period of Italy's glory-the Roman Empire.

Years of Crisis 427

I

economy and rebuilding its armed forces. He vowed to give Italy strong leadership. Mussolini hadfounded the Fascist Party in 1919. At first, he failed to win widespread support. As economic conditions worsened, however, his popularity rapidly increased. Finally, Mussolini publicly criticized Italy's government. Groups of Fascists wearing black shirts attacked Communists and Socialists on the streets. This campaign of terror weakened his opponents. Because Mussolini played on the fear of a workers' revolt, he began to win support from the middle classes, the aristocracy, and industrial leaders.

In October 1922, about 30,000 Fascists marched on Rome. They demanded that King Victor Emmanuel III put Mussolini in charge of the government. The king decided that Mussolini was the best hope for his dynasty to survive; so he let Mussolini form a government. Thus, after widespread violence and a threat of armed uprising, Mussolini took power "legally." At the time, a foreign diplomat described him as "an actor, a dangerous rascal, and possibly slightly off his head."

II DOuce's Leadership Mussolini was now II Duce (ihl DOO·chay), or the leader. He abolished democracy and outlawed all political parties except the Fascists. Secret police jailed his opponents. Government censors forced raclio stations and publications to broadcast or publish only Fascist doctrines. Mussolini outlawed strikes. He sought to control the economy by allying the Fascists with the industrialists and large landowners.

O!

Adolf Hitler 1889-1945

Like Mussolini, Hitler could manipu­late huge audiences with his fiery oratory. Makingspeeches was crucial to Hitler. He believed: "All greatworld-shaking events have been broughtabout... bythe spoken word!"

Because he appeared awkward andunimposing, Hitler rehearsed his speeches. tJsually he began a speech in a normal voice. Suddenly, he spoke louder as his angergrew.Hisvoice roseto a screech, and his hands flailed the air.Then he would stop, smooth his hair, and look quite calm.

In the 1930s, a foreign diplomat described Hitler: "... he was all violence ... with a fierce energy readyat no provocation to pull downthe universe.... [His] face was the face of a lunatic."

428 Chapter 15

Under his leadership, Italy became the model for Fascists in other countries. However, Mussolini never had the total control achieved by Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union or Adolf Hitler in Germany.

Hitler Takes Control in Germany When Mussolini became clictatorof Italy in the mid-1920s, Adolf Hitler was a little-known political leader whose early life had been 0

marked by clisappointment. Born in a small town in Austria in 1889, he dropped out of high school and failed as an artist. When World War I brokeont, Hitler found a new heginning. He would flght to defend Germany and crush its opponents. He volunteered for the German army and was twice awarded the Iron Cross, a medal for bravery.

The Rise of the Nazis At the end of the war, Hitler settled in Munich. In early 1920, he joined a tiny right-wing political group .• This group shared his belief that Germany had to overturn the Treaty of Versailles and combat communism. The group later named itself the National Socialist German Workers' Party, called Nazi for short. Its policies, supported by people in the middle and lower middle classes, formed the Gennan brand of fascism known as Nazism. The party adopted the swastika, or hooked cross, as its symbol. The Nazis also set up a private militia called the storm troopers or Brownshirts.

Within a short time, Hitler's success as an organizer and speaker led him to be chosen der Fuhrer (duhr FYURuhr), or the leader, of the

Theswastika, which means "well-being" in Sanskrit, was an ancientgood-luck symbol."Forms of it had been used by Hindus, Buddhists. early Christians, andNative Americans.

"Heil Hitler!" Hitler Youth members salutetheir Fiihrer at a rally in the 1930s. Hitler skillfully used mass rallies to generate enthusiasm.

Nazi paIi)'. These skills also helped make the Nazis a growing political force. Inspired by Mussolinis march on Rome, Hitler and the Nazis plotted to seize power in Munich in 1923. The attempt failed, and Hitler was arrested. He was hied for treason, but sympa­thetic judges sentenced him to only five years in prison. He served less than nine months.

While in jail, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf (My Stnlggle). This book set forth his beliefs and his goals for Germany. It became the blueprint, or plan of action, for the Nazis. Hitler asserted that the Cermans, especially those who were blond and blue-eyed­

THINK THROUGH HISTORY whom he incorrectly called "AIYaI1S"-Were a "master race." He declared that non­B. Summarlzing Aryan "races-c-suclr as Jews, Slavs, and Gypsies-were inferior or subhuman. He called What were the key the Versailles Treaty an outrage and vowed to regain the lands taken from Gennany. Ideas and goals that

Hitler also declared that Germany was overcrowded and needed more lebensraum, orHitler presented in Mein Kampf? living space. He promised to get that space by conquering eastern Europe and Russia.

After leaving prison in 1924, Hitler revived the Nazi party. Most Germans ignored him and his anglY message until the Depression ended the nation's brief postwar recovery. When American loans stopped, the German economy collapsed. Factories ground to a halt and banks closed. Nearly six million people, about 30 percent of Ger­many's work force, were unemployed in 1932. Civil unrest broke out. Frightened and confused, Germans now turned to Hitler, hoping for security and firm leadership.

Hitler Becomes Chancellor The Nazis had become the largest polit­ical party by 1932. Conservative leaders mistakenly believed they could control Hitler and use him for their purposes. In January 1933, theyVocabulary

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~ in Germany. Thus Hitler Came to power legally. Soon after, General Erich Ludendorff, a former Hitler ally, wrote to Hindenburg:

A VOICE FROM THE PAST By naming Hitler as Reichschancellor, you have delivered up our holy F~therland to one of the greatest [rabblerousers] of all time. I ,olemnly [pred~ct] that thi.s ac~urs~d man .will plu~ge our Reich into the abyssand bring our nation into inconceivable misery. ERICH LUDENDORFF, from a letter to President Hindenburg, February 1,1933

Once in office, Hitler acted quickly to strengthen his position. He ;' ~ called for new elections, hoping to win a parliamentary majority. Six ;Ij days before the election, a fire destroyed the Reichstag building where ~t parliament met. The Nazis blamed the Communists. By stirring up

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fear of the Communists, the Nazis and their allies won a slim majority. With majority control, Hitler demanded dictatorial, or absolute,

power for four years. Only one deputy dared to speak against the result­ing Enabling Act. Hitler used his new power to tum Cermany into a totalitarian state. He banned all other political parties and had oppo­nents arrested. Meanwhile, an elite, black-uniformed unit called the SS (Schutzstajfel, or protection squad) was created. It was loyal only to Hitler. In 1934, the SS arrested and murdered hundreds of Hitler's enemies. This brutal action and the tenor applied by the Gestapo, the Nazi secret police, shocked most Cermans into total obedience.

The Nazis quickly took command of the economy. New laws banned

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THINK THRl1UGH HISTORY strikes, dissolved independent labor unions, and gave the government .Making . authority over business and labor. Hitler put millions of Cermans to work. They con­: .,Inferences Why did

··~ermans at first structed factories, built highways, manufactured weapons, and served in the military. As a 'Support Hitler? result, unemployment dropped from about 6 to 1.5 million in 1936.

The Fuhrer Is Supreme Hitler wanted more than just economic and political power­he wanted control over every aspect oJqel111an life. To shape public opinion and to win

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chancellor: the prime advised President Paul von Hindenburg to name Hitler chancellor. minister incertain Only Hitler, they said, could stand up to the strong Communist party ····~~·r;':'~~countries. k

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Fascism to Argentina /1 Juan Peron served as Argentina's

II'I president from 1946 to 1955 and I

again in 1973 and 1974. The two ·1'tyears he spentin Europe before d

WorldWar II greatlyinfluenced his ~ ;,

strong-man rule. '''1 A career armyofficer, Peron Iii

went to Italy in 1939 for military lif III

training. Hethen served at the iI Argentine embassy in Rome. A visit !Ito Berlin gave Peron a chance to I' see Nazi Germany. The ability of Hitler andMussolini to manipulate IItheir citizens impressed Peron.

When Peron himself gained power, he patterned hismilitary 11

dictatorship 011 thatof the European IjLFascists. Like them, he restrained his I:opponents through press censorship and suppression of civil rights. But j~,'henever achieved the same total r ~: _

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praise for his leadership, Hitler turned the press, radio, literature, painting, and film into propaganda tools. Books that did not conform to Nazi beliefs were burned in huge bonfires. Churches were forbidden to criticize the Nazis or the government. Schoolchildren had to join the Hitler Youth (for boys) or the League of German Girls. Hitler was greatly influenced by

Social Darwinism. He believed that a continuous struggle brought victory to the strong. He twisted the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche to support his use of brute force to maintain power and his glorification of war.

Hitler Makes War on the Jews Hatred of Jews, or anti-Semitism, was a key part of Background The term anti­'Nazi ideology. Although Jews were less than one percent of the population, the Nazis

The 1936 Olympics The 1936 Summer Olympics were held in Berlin, Nazi Germany's capital. Hitler built a new$30million stadium for the Games. To hidefrom the world his persecution of Jews, hetook down all anti-Semitic signs in Berlin.

Priorto the Olympics' opening, Hitlerannounced that the Games would showthe world Aryan superi­ority and the inferiorityof Jews and blacks. Hitler's plan failed, however, in part because of the successes of

I, African-American runner Jesse Owens. A sprinter andlong jumper, Owens won four gold medals.

When Owens or otherblack -1 athletes won medals, Hitler left the

reviewing stand. He did notwantto .! ... h ,~ be seen congratulating them. I

I

Semitism isderivedused them as scapegoats for all Cermanys troubles since the war. This from the fact that the led to a wave of anti-Semitism across Gennany. Beginning in 1933, the earliest Jews were

Nazis passed laws depriving Jews of most of their rights. Violence Semites (people who spoke a Semiticagainst Jews mounted. On the night of November 9, 1938, Nazi mobs language).

attacked Jews in their homes and on the streets and destroyed thou­sands of Jewish-owned buildings. This rampage, called Kristallnacht (Night of the Broken Glass), Signaled the real start of the process of eliminating the Jews from German life. (See Chapter 16.)

Other Countries Fall to Dictators While Fascists took power in Italy and Germany, the nations formed in eastern Europe after World War I also were falling to dictators. The parliamentary governments that had been set up in these coun­tries rarely lasted. In Hungary in 1919, after a brief Communist regime, military forces and wealthy landowners joined to make Admiral Miklos Horthy the first European postwar dictator. In Poland, Marshal Joseph Pilsudski (pihl.SOOT.skee) seized power in 1926. In Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, and Romania, kings turned to strong-man rule. They suspended constitutions and silenced foes. In 1935, one democracy, Czechoslovakia, remained in eastern Europe.

Elsewhere in Europe, only in nations with strong democratic tradi­tions-i-Britain, France, and the Scandinavian countries-did democracy survive. With no

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I democratic experience and severe economic problems, many Europeans saw dictatorship as the only way to prevent instability. Although all of these dictatorships restricted civil rights, none assertedcontrol with the brutality of the Russian Communists or the Nazis.

By the mid':'1930s:; the powerful nations of the world were split into two antagonis­I

tic camps-democratic and totalitarian. And to gain their ends, the Fascist dictator­. i .. \ . ships had indicated a willingness to use military aggression.

J , 11

I, 1. TERMS Be NAMES 2. TAKING NOTESI

Drawa chart like the one below. Compare Mussolini and Hitlerby

3, DRAWING CONCLUSIONS 4. THEME ACTIVITY

Why did a movement likefascism Power and Authority Reread and leaders like Mussolini and the History Makerson pages 427 Hitlercome to powerduring a and 428. What biases in the period of crisis? speeches of Mussolini are

I mentione.d? What techniques did THINK ABOUT each leaderuseto appear

I • what problems Italy and powerful and capable to their Germany faced listeners?• political traditions in each

country • the stateof the world at the time

Identify • fascism • Benito Mussolini • Adolf Hitler • Nazism • Mein Kampf • lebensraum

430 Chapter 1.5

completing the chart.

Method of taking power

Style of leadership

I Handling of II economic crisis

Goals

Hitler Mussolini

Were thetwo more alikeor different? Explain why.

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Background The control ofthe government by the mil­itary had centuries-old roots inJapanese his­tory. The shoguns had been military leaders.

1IIIixTHROUGH HISTORY A. Comparing Compare themili­tarists inJapan with the European Fascists.

SETTING THE STAGE By the mid-1930s, Germany and Italy seemed bent on military conquest. The major democracies-Britain, France, and the United States-were distracted by economic problems at home and longed to remain at peace. The Soviet Union was not committed to either camp. With the world moving toward war, many people pinned their hopes for peace on the League of Nations.

World Drifts Toward War As fascism spread in Europe, a powerful nation in Asia moved toward a similar system. Following a period of reform and progress in the 1920s, Japan fell under military rule.

Democracy Struggles in Japan During the 1920s, the Japanese government became more democratic. In 1922, Japan Signed an international treaty agreeing to respect China's borders. In 1928, it Signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact renounc­ing war. Japan's parliamentary system had several weaknesses, however. Its constitution put strict limits on the powers of the prime minister and the cabinet. Most importantly, civilian leaders had little control over the armed forces. 'Military lead­ers reported only to the emperor.

Militarists Take Control of Japan As long as Japan re­mained prosperous, the civilian government kept power. When the Great Depression struck in 1930, the government was blamed. Military leaders gained support and soon won control of the country. Unlike the Fascists in Europe, the militarists did not try to establish a new system of government. They wanted to restore traditional control of the government to the military. Instead of a forceful leader like Mussolini or Hitler, the militarists made the emperor the symbol of state power.

Keeping Emperor Hirohito as head of state won popular support for the army leaders who ruled in his name. Like Hitler and Mussolini, Japan's militarists were extreme nation­alists. They wanted to solve the country's economic problems by foreign expansion, They planned a Pacific empire that included a conquered China. The empire would provide Japan with raw materials and markets for its goods. It would also give Japan room for its rising population.

Japan Invades Manchuria Japanese businesses had invested heavily in China's north­east province, Manchuria. It was an area rich in iron and coal. In 1931, the Japanese anny seized Manchuria, despite objections from the Japanese parliament. The army then set up a puppet government. Japanese engineers and technicians began arriving in large numbers to build mines and factories.

Victorious Japanese troops marchthrough the streets after occupying Manchuria in 1931.

Years of Crisis 431

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Haile Selassie 1892-1975

Haile Selassie, the emperor of Ethiopia, belonged to a dynasty that traced its rootsbackto King Solomon andthe Queen of Sheba.'j When hebecame emperor in 1930,

I -. I hewas hailed as the 111th descen­dant of Solomon and Sheba to rule.

I Five yearsafter hetookthe throne, his country was invaded byt, Italy. Selassie was forced into exile.

I On June30,1936, he appeared--j

before the League of Nations to plead for its help.

was themajor weak­aggression, but it had no power to enforce its decisions. Japan ness of the League

ignored the protests and withdrew from the League in 1933. of Nations?'Why'

Japan Invades China Four years later, a border incident touched off a full-scale war between Japan and China. On July 7,1937, the Japanese and the Chinese exchanged shots at a railroad bridge near Beijing. Japanese forces then swept into northern China. Despite having a million soldiers, China's army led by Jiang Jieshi was no match for the better equipped and trained Japanese.

Beijing and other northern cities as well as the capital, Nanjing (for­merly Nanking), fell to the Japanese in 1937. Japanese troops killed tens of thousands of captured soldiers and civilians in what was called "the rape" of Nanjing. Forced to retreat, Jiang [ieshi set up a new cap­ital at Chongqing. At the same time, Chinese Communist guerrillas led by Mao Zedong continued to fight in the conquered area.

Mussolini Attacks Ethiopia The League's failure to stop the Japanese encouraged Mussolini to plan aggression of his owu. Mussolini dreamed of building a colonial empire in Africa like that of Britain and France. He bitterly complained that Britain and France had left only "a collection of deserts" from which to choose.

Ethiopia was one of Africa's four remaining independent nations. The Ethiopians had successfully resisted an Italian attempt at con­quest during the 1890s. To avenge that defeat, Mussolini ordered a massive invasion of Ethiopia in October 1935. The spears and swords of the Ethiopians were no match for Italian airplanes, tanks, guns, and poison gas. In May 1936, Mussolini told a cheering crowd that "Italy has at last her empire ... a Fascist empire."

The Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie urgently appealed to the League for help. Although the League condemned the attack, its

Hewarned League members that • members did nothing. Britain continued to let Italian troops and if theyfailed to impose military sanc­ supplies pass through the British-controlled Suez Canal on their way tionson Italy, "God and history will to Ethiopia. By giving in to Mussolini in Africa, Britain and France remember yourjudgment. ... It is us hoped to keep peace in Europe. today. It will beyou tomorrow." The League did notheed hiswarning. Hitler Defies Versailles Treaty Hitler had long pledged to undo

the Versailles Treaty. Among its provisions, the treaty limited the size of Germany's army. In March 1935, the Fuhrer announced that Germany would not obey these restrictions. In fact, Germany had already begun rebuilding its armed forces. The League issued only a mild condemnation. Banners throughout Germany announced, "Today Germany! Tomorrow the World!"

Aggression in Europe and Asia. 1930-1939

~~

1930 . 1939

ISeptember 1931 Japan ~ October 1935 Italy March 1938 Germany invades Manchuria. attacks Ethiopia. annexes Austria.

432 Chapter 1.5

The League's failure to stop Germany from rearming convinced Hitler to take even greater risks. The treaty had forbidden German troops to enter a 30-mile-wide zone on either side of the Rhine River. Known as the Rhineland, it formed a buffer zone between Germany and France. It was also an important industrial area. On March 7, 1936, German troops moved into the Rhineland. Stunned, the French were unwilling to risk war. The British urged appeasement, giving in to an aggressor to keep peace.

Hitler later admitted that he would have backed down if the French and British had challenged him. The German reoccupation of the Rhineland marked a tuming point in the march toward war. First, it strengthened Hitler's power and prestige within Germany. Cautious generals who had urged restraint now agreed to follow him. Second, the balance of power changed in Germany's favor. France and Belgium were now open to attack from German troops. Finally, the weak response by France and Britain encouraged Hitler to speed up his military and territorial expansion,

Hitler's growing strength convinced Mussolini that he should seek an alliance with Germany. In October 1936, the two dictators reached an agreement that became known as the Rome-Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany also made an agreement with Japan. Germany, Italy, and Japan came to be called the Axis Powers.

Civil War Erupts in Spain Hitler and Mussolini again tested the will of the democracies of Europe in the Spanish civilwar. Spain had been a monarchy until 1931, when a repub­lic was declared. The government, run by liberals and socialists, held office amid many

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crises. In July 1936, aD11Y leaders, favoring a Fascist-style government, joined General Francisco Franco in a revolt. Thus began a civilwar that dragged on for three years.

Hitler and Mussolini sent troops, tanks, and airplanes to help Franco's forces, ~hich were called the Nationalists. The armed forces of

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i around which an object rotates. Hitler and Mussolini expect­edtheir alliance to become theaxis around which Europe would rotate,

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TheSpanish artistPablo Picasso painted Guernica shortly after Nazi planes destroyed the ancientBasque city of Guernica in 1937. The air attackskilled a thousand people. oneoutof every eight

Analyzing Visuals How does Picasso's use of image and color depictthe horrorsof the Spanish Civil War? .. SEE SKILLBUILDER ~ HANDBDDK. PAGE R20

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Research Research the civil war in Bosnia. Collect differenttypes of visuals that showthe horrorof

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that war. Describe yourselections.'

residents. At left.a mother cries overherdead child. In the center. a horse screams anda soldierlies dead. At right.a woman falls from a burning house. The canvas is huge-11 feet highand25feet long.

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the Republicans, as supporters of Spain's elected government were known, received THINK THROUGH HISTORY little help from abroad. The Western democracies remained neutral. Only the Soviet C. Summarizing

What foreign coun­Union sent equipment and advisers. An International Brigade of volunteers f~n tries were involved in

the Republican side but had little chance against a professional army. Early in~ the Spanish Civil Republican resistance collapsed. Franco became Spain's Fascist dictator. War?

Western Democracies Fail to Halt Aggression Instead of taking a stand against Fascist aggression in the 1930s, Britain and France repeaLedly made concessions, hoping to keep peace. Both nations were dealing with serious economic problems as a result of the Great Depression. In addition, the horrors of World War I had created a deep desire to avoid war. Allowing Hitler and

. Mussolini small territorial gains seemed a small price to pay for peace. .

United States Follows an Isolationist Policy Many Americans resisted aeeeptillg the nation's new position as a world leader. Isolationism-the belief that political ties to other countries should be avoided-won wide support. Isolationists argued that entry into World War I had been a costly error. They were determined to prevent a repeat of this mistake. Beginning in 1935, Congress passed three Neutrality Acts. These laws banned loans and the sale of arms to nations at war. The isolationists ,I

I i believed this action would keep the United States out of another foreign war.

The German Reich Expands On November 5,~Hitler announced to his advis­ Background ers his plans to absorb Austria and Czechoslovakia into the Third Reich (ryk), or According to Hitler,

there were threeGerman Empire. The Germans would then expand into Poland and Russia, Hitler's great German

first target was Austria. The Treaty of Versaillesprohibited Anschluss (AHN·SHLUS), empires. They were or a union between Austria and Germany. However, many Austrians supported unity theHoly Roman

Empire; the Germanwith Germany. In March 1938, Hitler sent his army into Austria and annexed it. Empire of 1871-1918;

France and Britain ignored their pledge to protect Austrian independence. and theThird Reich, Hitler next turned to Czechoslovakia. After World War I, Czechoslovakia had devel­ ruled by the Nazis.

oped into a prosperous democracy with a strong army and a defense treaty with France. The Third Reich, Hitler believed, would lastAbout 3 million German-speaking people lived in the western border regions of 1,000 years.'I Czechoslovakia called the Sudetenland. (See map, page 433.) This heavily fortified area

I I! formed the Czechs' main defense against Germany. The Anschluss raised pro-Nazi

feelings among Sudeten Germans. In September~, Hitler demanded that the Sudetenland be given to Germany The Czechs refused and asked France for help.

,

434 Chapter 1.5

THINK THROUGH HISTORY D. Recognizing Effects What were the effects of isola­tionism and appeasement?

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'.,. TERMS & NAMES

Identify • appeasement • Axis Powers • Francisco Franco • isolationism • Third Reich • Munich Conference

Britain and France Again Choose Appeasement France and Britain were prepar­ing for war when Mussolini proposed a meeting of Germany, France, Britain, and Italy in Munich, Germany. The Munich Conference was held on September 29, ~. The Czechs were not invited. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain ~l~ved that he could preserve peace by giving in to Hitler's demand. The next mom­ing, a tense world learned that the crisis was over. Britain and France agreed that Hitler could take the Sudetenland. In exchange, Hitler pledged to respect Czechoslovakia's new borders.

Chamberlain's policy of appeasement seemed to have prevented war. \\Then he returned to London, Chamberlain told cheering crowds, "I believe it is peace for our time." Winston Churchill, then a member of the British Parliament, strongly disagreed. He opposed the appeasement policy and gloomily warned of its consequences.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST We are in the presenceof a disaster of the first magnitude.... we have sustained a defeat without a war.... And do not suppose that this is the end.... This is only the first sip, the first foretaste of a bitter cup which will be proffered to us year by year unless, by a supreme recov­ery of moral health and martial vigor, we arise again and take our stand for freedom as in the olden time. WINSTON CHURCHILL, speech before the House of Commons, October 5, 1938

Less than six months after the Munich meeting, Hitler's troops took Czechoslovakia. Soon after, Mussolini seized nearby Albania. Then Hitler demanded that Poland return the former German port of Danzig. The Poles refused and turned to Britain and France for aid. Both countries said they would guarantee Polish independence. But appeasement had convinced Hitler that neither nation would risk war.

Nazis and Soviets Sign Nonaggression Pact Britain and France asked the Soviet Union to join them in stopping Hitler's aggression. Negotiations proceeded slowly. The two democracies distrusted the Communist govemment, and Stalin resented having been left out of the Munich Conference. As the Soviet leader talked with Britain and France, he also bargained with Hitler. The two dictators reached an

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Aggression in the Persian Gulf

After World War II, the Munich Conference of 1938 became a symbol for surrender. Leaders of democracies vowed neveragain to appease a ruthless dictator. U.S. President George Bush used Munich as an example when responding to aggression in the persian Gulfin 1990.

When troops of Iraqidictator Saddam Hussein invaded nearby Kuwait, the United States responded to Kuwait's call for help byforming a coalition of forcesto fight the Persian Gulf War. In explaining why,Bush noted how Britain's Neville Chamberlain failed to help Czechoslovakia afterHitler claimed the Sudetenland. Bush said:

The world cannot turn a blind eye to aggression. You know the tragic consequences when nations, confronted with aggression, choose to tell themselves it is no concern of theirs, "just a quarrel [as Chamberlain said] in a faraway country between people of whom we know nothing."

agreement. Once bitter enemies, fascist Germanvand--c0lnQl~mist Russia now publicly committed never to attack one another. On Au t 23, 1939, nonaggression pact was signed. As the Axis Powers moved unchecked at the e the decade, the whole world waited to see what would happen next. War appeared inevitable.

.Section 0 Assessment

2. TAKING NOTES

Trace the movement of Japan fromdemocratic reformin the 1920s to militaryaggression in the 1930s by supplying the events following the dates Shown onthe time line below.

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130

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What eventwasthe most significant? Why?

3. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS

Review Germany's aggressive actions after Hitlerdefied the

, Versailles Treaty byrebuilding Germany's armed forces.At what pointdo youthink Hitlerconcluded that he could-take anyterritory without being stopped? Why?

THINK ABOUT • Hitler's goals • responses ofthe democracies to

hisstatements and actions • the role of the League of Nations

4. ANALYZING THEMES

Power and Authority After World War I,many Americans became isolationists. Do you recom­mend thatAmerica practice isola­tionism today? Whyorwhy not?

THINK ABOUT • America's role asworld leader • the global economy • America's domestic problems • the economic and political goals

of other countries

Years of Crisis 435

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