History 1.1.1

Objective Students will learn the importance of considering

physiographic factors in shaping history. Students will get an idea of some of the significant

physical features of the Indian subcontinent, and how they have shaped Indian political, and socio-economic conditions.

In 327 BC, the Greek conqueror Alexander of Macedonia crossed the Hindukush, the great rampart of mountains in his attempt to enter into India. He used the common pass used by Timur and also by Chengiz Khan. The formidable Greek army subjugated a significant part of the north western subcontinent along the Indus Valley. But continuous warfare in an alien terrain and Alexander's lack of knowledge about its unique geography came in the way of further conquest. He had no cartographers to depend on and the uncertainty of the terrain unnerved his soldiers. The Indian heartland lay bare against one of the world's mightiest conquerors.The subcontinent of India stretching from the Himalayas to the seas was known in ancient Hindu sources as Bharatvarsha, or the land of Bharata the great mythological king. The name India was applied to the

country by the Greeks, which was a derivative of the word Hindu appearing in ancient Persian epigraphs.

The geographical influence on Indian history is an integral part of most university curricula, but in recent years, geography or physiography has stopped featuring in the academic debates in Indian history. The neglect of geography is obvious in the works of modern historians and in the methodologies that social scientists have used for studying the colonial period.

When we talk about the influence of physical factors, one school of thought would say that geographical determinism only emphasizes the impact of physical factors on civilization, society or cultural development. But there are historians who consider geography important enough in the study of history. The academic world has gradually felt the impact of their work. The inclusion of geography in historical works or semi historical works first started in India when the Gazetteers were being written in the late 19th century. But geography was shown as a completely separate compartment with the factors of geography, not being portrayed as having any influence on historical events. The same format was followed even in the early twentieth century, in the wake of nationalism except for one or two scholars. One of them

was H. Blochmann who wrote a book on the contributions of geography to the history of Bengal in which he almost followed the Gazetteers except for a few lines here and there. By that time the Annales School had started in France. Scholars like Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre started the journal called Annales and included not only geography but physical geography geology, and sociology to the interpretation of history.Some historians of Ancient India have taken up the study of geographical factors, of whom D.D. Kosambi was the first to integrate geography closely into the study of pre-history and ancient history. Romila Thapar, D. N. Jha, and Shireen Ratnagar have also woven geographical aspects into historical narratives. Geographically the sub continent has been divided into four major physiographic regions--the Northern Mountains, the northern or Indo-Gangetic Plains, the Deccan Plateau region with South India, and the Southern Coastal Plains. The Northern Mountains include the Hindukush, Suleiman and Kirthar Ranges in the North-west and the Himalayas in the North and North East. The Himalayas form an uninterrupted chain of mountains, thus giving rise to the popular notion of historical isolation of India by a natural wall. But this idea has been contested from time to time, as the Himalayas had the Khyber, Gomal, and the Bolan passes in the west, while in the east too there are passes

between Tibet and Nepal (Nathu la, Jelepla), which were used for religious, cultural and trade purposes throughout the centuries. The passes in the North-west were used primarily for invasions into India by invaders ever since the Aryans came, till the time the British arrived by sea. The Himalayas shielded India from the cold Arctic winds of Central Asia and Siberia preserving the tropical nature of the country. In spite of the existence of the passes accessibility to the Indian land mass was never easy. According to historians, it deterred large scale invasions from the northern side. The mountains provided an intermediate border zone for India on the one side and China and Central Asia on the other, This abode of snow and celestial beings of the Hindu and Buddhist pantheon was never easily accessible, and was largely insulated from the political, social and economic life of the plains. The mountain zones were occasionally under the political and military control of the empires of the North, under Asoka, Harsha and the Mughals. But control was ceremonial rather than effective. These stretches of Himalayan territories never came under the complete political control of any Indian entity until the period of British rule.The northern Indo-Gangetic Plains have been fed by big rivers and their tributaries, which received a perennial supply of water from the northern glaciers. The glaciers

have changed the northern landscape of the mountains by creating deep ravines, reducing elevations or opening up meadows at high altitudes. Geologically, the northern plains have been formed by the filling in of earlier seas. These rivers are a blessing to cultivators as they bring in fertile silt and help irrigation. But sometimes they wreak havoc by causing floods in the fertile Indo-Gangetic Plains. The earliest human settlements originated here as established by the discoveries of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa. The Vedic culture that arrived with the Aryans also flourished here. The main rivers, the Indus and the Ganges and their tributaries served as an easy means of communication. They also became one of the main instruments of empire building by facilitating the transportation of armies. The topography of Northern India was used effectively in battles, the most famous of which was the First Battle of Panipat in 1526. Jadunath Sarkar has shown how Babur had marshalled his forces against Ibrahim Lodi here. On his left was a dry nullah and on his right was the town of Panipat which left the Afghans with no alternative but to charge straight and come face to face with the canons placed strategically by Babur (this was the first time that canons were used in India).The rivers sometimes served as political and cultural boundaries. A prominent example was Orissa that lay between the Mahanadi and the Godavari rivers. The

history of urbanization of North India definitely had a connection with rivers, with pre-industrial towns like Hastinapur, Pataliputra and Prayag being mostly situated near rivers. Some scholars of urbanization have tried to show that the towns in India were always on the banks of rivers. This is not entirely true as there were some towns like Vijaynagar,- one of the largest towns in medieval India- which were not river centric. Vijaynagar was at quite a distance from the Tungabhadra river and was in the midst of rocky mountains. Delhi presents another example, about which Prof. Athar Ali had written an excellent article. He has shown that Delhi was at first located at the foot of the Aravalli Mountains, which was convenient for the Muslims because they needed protection. But as the population began to grow, Delhi had to be shifted because there was insufficient water in the mountains, except for rain water. This necessitated the gradual shift of the town towards the Jamuna river, a process that took practically three centuries. Athar Ali has thus clearly pointed to the role played by geographical factors behind the shifting of the city. Studies have shown that the Gangetic plains initially had dense forests, which had to be cleared away for human habitation. The fact that the Indus and Ganges plains were covered with monsoon forests is corroborated by the fact that tigers and rhinoceroses have been depicted on

Harappan seals. The Indus civilization evolved around the Indus river basin and was totally dependent on the river. We have Indus seals which have boats engraved on them, which prove beyond doubt that the people carried out trading activities using this river for transportation. On the one hand this civilization flourished because of the river and on the other, we find that one of the factors responsible for its decline was because of inundations caused by the river. Even at the time that Alexander came (326 BC), the area was swampy and marshy and received lots of rain. It was by no means the dry area that it is now. Therefore it was habitable during some period of time, while it sometimes became very inhospitable on account of regular inundation of the Indus. The Harappan people built embankments along the banks of the Indus with burnt bricks to protect themselves from floods, for which they needed timber (to burn bricks). Timber cutting gradually led to deforestation, and scanty rainfall thus affecting the civilization adversely. Thus once again we realize the role played by the river so far as the Indus settlements were concerned. The Northern Plains were not uniformly fertile. The Thar desert of Rajasthan and the semi arid region surrounding it did not allow much cultivation. Like in other desert areas across the globe caravan routes originated here mainly for trade purposes. Small centres emerged along these routes giving birth to

towns, some of which became agriculturally viable with time. The plateau region of peninsular India, also known as the Deccan, slopes gradually from west to east. Its western wing runs parallel to the Arabian Sea. The Krishna and the Tungabhadra rivers divide the table land into two parts- the Deccan plateau region and the deep south of India, which have played somewhat different roles in history.The South of the Vindhyas had a relatively different culture from that to the north of the Vindhyas. This may have been because there was not much interaction between the people inhabiting the south of the Vindhyas, and the people who came from the North-west, who preferred to settle in the north Indian plains. The Dravidians in the south had their own characteristics and culture and the penetration level might not have been extensive. That does not indicate that there were no connections whatsoever between the areas to the north and south of the Vindhyas. There have been migrations but it remained minimal and slow, mainly owing to physical barriers. Here again we are provided with indications of how geographical factors did influence the course of history.The history of the Deccan developed a distinct and completely separate political identity of its own, only occasionally converging with that of North India. The

South Indian dynasties like the Pallavas, Cholas, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas, thrived in the geographical isolation of South India. In course of time the north came to represent Aryan culture in India while the south became the cradle of Dravidian culture. The central Indian mountain ranges, the Vindhyas and Satpuras formed a physical barrier that historians say, prevented rulers of north India from completely subjugating the south. Even if they conquered these lands, it was difficult for these Northern rulers to hold onto them for a long time.Of the Turko-Afghan Sultans, Alauddin Khilji, was the first to plan and carry out the conquest of the South. He then made the southern states his subsidiaries, which were required to pay annual tribute and even provide him with soldiers when called for. But these states never came under the direct rule of Delhi. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq another sultan came to Daulatabad, desiring to set up a new capital there, for which he ordered the transfer of every resident of Delhi,-lock, stock and barrel- to proceed to the southern capital. But his scheme met with insurmountable problems, and had to be abandoned after some years. This capital was not situated in the heart of India, leading to problems in controlling the northern territories. Daulatabad was no doubt impregnable, surrounded by hills on all sides and offered protection from Mongol invaders, but Muhammad Bin Tughluq had to

go back due to the negative fallout of the plan. Aurangzeb died after having spent twenty five years in the Deccan trying to subdue the Deccan sultanates, Bijapur, Golconda, and Ahmadnagar. He stayed put here neglecting his administration in the north, which had disastrous consequences for the Mughal Empire. The North-western tribes, like the Afridis and Yusufzais, became turbulent, and there were a succession of revolts against Mughal rule, which reached a point of no return so far as Aurangzeb was concerned. In fact conducting warfare in the Deccan was never easy for the North Indian kings as was demonstrated clearly in the Maratha-Mughal conflict. The Marathas enjoyed the advantage of knowing the topography of the Deccan very well, and used this to their advantage in guerilla warfare against the Mughal army which kept suffering losses. The Maratha armed bands were small and light as they did not even carry food, depending on plunder to serve their needs, while the Mughal army was large and cumbrous and found it impossible to inflict much damage on their adversaries who never took recourse to set types of battle. The peninsular region of India with its eastern and western coasts had a strong history of maritime activities. Arikamedu (near Pondicherry), Masulipatnam (Andhra Pradesh), Poompuhar (at the mouth of the Cauvery), and Mamallapuram (Tamil Nadu), were some of the significant

ports in the east. The eastern coast with its ports served core areas like the Ganges delta, Kalinga (Orissa), the deltas of the Godavari and Krishna and the Coromandel coast. These core areas were often the nuclei of kingdoms like that of the Cholas who had maritime ambitions and economies. The ports in the western coast were based in the core areas of the Indus delta, Saurashtra, Konkan and Malabar. These ports served important kingdoms of western India like that of the Maratha Peshwas in the late medieval period. The eastern coast was an important route from north to south for movements connected with military and religious motives. Rajendra Chola and his army came all the way to Bengal along the eastern coastal route, ostensibly for the purpose of taking back with him the waters of the holy Ganga. He marched via the Deccan, the Eastern Ghats, Orissa, and Midnapore into Bengal and returned with the holy water of the Ganges. But a section of his army, found Bengal to be so arable, fertile, and comfortable to live, that they stayed back. On his return to the Chola kingdom Rajendra Chola constructed a new capital which he called Gangaikondaicholapuram to commemorate his visit to the Ganges in Bengal, which in those days was considered an insuperable feat for any South Indian ruler. The sections of the army that he left behind later became the Sena rulers of Bengal. It was by the same route that Buddhism spread

from eastern India to South India and Sri Lanka. The ruins of Buddhist stupas along the eastern coast serve to corroborate this development.

Maritime contact between the western coast and west Asia, dates back to the third millennium B.C. with the overseas contacts between the Indus cities and Mesopotamia. The western coast has been home to a number of trading communities like Christians, Parsees, Arabs and Jews. Another geographical formation relating to the coastal islands off the coast of Kerala and Sri Lanka, like Lakshadweep, Minicoy and Maldives, has attracted the interest of scholars, These islands bore the fury of the incoming monsoons and were used as outposts for traders sailing in both directions. It is believed that along with the Himalayas, the sea contributed towards making India into a distinct geographical entity.

The physical features thus protected southern India from prevented recurrent invasions. This was largely responsible for its separate identity, culture and heritage. Ironically, the European colonial powers took the sea routes to gradually establish their authority and perpetrate it for over three centuries. In 1857 when the Mutiny took place the rebels did not come from the sea, nor did they

come from the hills, they were inside. But what the English did, was that they ensured that the three ports of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, were not affected, so that they could bring in troops if required from Burma, Persia, China as well as from England, very quickly by sea. If the rebels had occupied those ports, then there would have been a problem. This instance serves to display the important role played by the sea in Indian history. Physiography has not only influenced social and political formations but has significant contributions in shaping the identity of the people. The importance of geography lies in the fact that it serves to shape the lives and habits of people living in different regions of the same country. Geographical conditions determine the types of flora and fauna of a particular area thus molding the food habits and culture of the people who inhabit that place. What India and its people represent today may not have been possible without its unique physiography.

SUMMARY

Geographical factors play an important role in the history of mankind, although there is a tendency among some historians to ignore its significance. Each country has different geophysical characteristics that have influenced the course of historical developments to a large extent, thus making knowledge of geography essential for students of history. The existence of rivers has facilitated the growth of civilizations, while at times, widespread deforestation has led to the onset of arid conditions, thus leading to abandonment of such areas. Again in India the presence of the Vindhyas has resulted in the development of relatively different cultures in the north and south of India. Geographical factors have indeed shaped the identities of different people, along with their food habits,

mode of dress, and cultural rites and customs. Political power equations as well as the conquest patterns of rulers have always been dictated by physiographic considerations. Thus it makes history more interesting if we can relate its progress through the ages with the influence of geographical factors and features.

M C Q. Complete 1. Ancient Hindu sources referred to India as 1) Hindusthan 2) Sindhu 3) Bharatvarsha

2. The inclusion of geography in historical works in the nineteenth century began with 1) H. Blochmann 2) The Gazetteers 3) R. C. Majumdar

3. The Annales school started in 1) England 2) Spain 3) France

4. Which state lay between the Mahanadi and the Godavari? 1) Orissa 2) Andhra 3) Bihar

5. The first Battle of Panipat took place in

1)1556 2) 1526 3) 1765

6. Originally Delhi was located at 1) The foot of the Vindhyas 2) The foot of the Aravalli mountains 3) The foot of the Garhwal range

7. What is the plateau region of peninsular India known as? 1) The Thar 2) The Kutch 3) The Deccan

8. Which mountain range serves as a dividing line between the north of India and the south? 1) Vindhyas 2) Aravalli 3) Eastern Ghats

9. Who was the first Turko-Afghan Sultan to conquer south India? 1) Balban 2) Alauddin Khalji 3) Firuz Tughluq

10. The desert in Rajasthan is named 1) Thar 2) Gobi 3) Sahara

F A Q

1. What was the main difficulty that Alexander of Macedon faced in India ?

In spite of all his successes elsewhere which earned him the epithet of ‘Great’ Alexander was unable to penetrate into the heartland of India. The main problem faced by him and his army was that the terrain was completely unknown to them. There were no cartographers at that time so he met with uncertainty at every step.

2.What are the principal mountain ranges to the north of India? To the north-west part of India are the Hindu Kush, Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges, while to the north and north-east lie the Himalayan range.

3. Were the mountains in the north of India impregnable ?The mountains did provide a shield against any large army, but there were passes which provided invaders with the opportunity of entering India. There were the Khyber, Gomal and Bolan passes in the north-west, while Nathula and Jelepla were the important passes in the north-east.

4. What prevented many of the northern Indian rulers from attacking the south ?Rulers of the north of India (both in the ancient and medieval periods), hesitated to undertake the conquest of the south, primarily because crossing the Vindhyas and

Satpura ranges with their armies proved to be a deterrent. They also realized the difficulty of maintaining control, and administrating the southern areas.

5. What is the significance of the Himalayas, so far as India is concerned ?The Himalayas have provided certain advantages to India and her people. It has shielded Indian plains from the icy cold Arctic winds, it has served to deter large invasions, and it has provided a border zone between India and China and Central Asia.6 What is the link between geographical factors and human habitat ?The separate identities, cultures and habits of a community of people living in a particular region are largely influenced by geographical factors. People of desert areas have different food habits from those living in coastal areas. The difference in flora, fauna, and climates dictate how the culture, heritage and identity of any particular community develops. This shows that the study of history is further enriched if it is studied in tandem with geo-physical factors.7. What is known as Gangaikondaicholapuram? Gangaikondaicholapuram was the name of the new capital that Rajendra Chola built after his return from

Bengal. He chose this particular name in order to commemorate his bringing of holy water from the Ganges.8. What was the significance of the passes in Indian history?These passes in the mountain ranges in the north of India were corridors of communication. Contacts with central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan, through the passes date back to the third millennium BC. There was a historical continuity of peoples entering northern India, like the Indo-Aryans, Greeks, Parthians, Sakas, Kushanas, Hunas and Turks. The most regular movements were those of herders and trading caravans.9. Describe the Indus river system.The Indus rises beyond the Himalayas, flows north through a furrow in the mountains and then turns towards the south-west and enters the plains. The middle Indus is the area of confluence of the Indus, and its major tributaries,- Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej and Beas- that flow from the northern Himalaya through the Punjab plains. The lower Indus culminates in the Delta.10.Which main rivers form the Ganges river system?The names of some of the important rivers that join the Ganges on its long journey to the sea are, the Yamuna, Sarayu, Gomati, Ghagra Gandak, Bhagirathi and Brahmaputra.

BIBLIOGRAPHYThapar, Romila, ‘Early India from the origins to AD1300’ Penguin Books.Subba Rao, S ‘The Personality of India’.Chattopadhyaya, B.D, ‘A Summary of Historical Geography of Ancient India’.Singh,Upinder, ‘A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India’ Pearson Longman.

GLOSSARYCartography: The drawing of maps of countries with all its physical features.Mythology: Traditional stories about imaginary ancient characters or things, that form part of the beliefs of a group or country, but are not founded on fact.Physiography: A study of the physical features and phenomena of nature.Topography: The features of a place, the position of its rivers, mountains roads etc.Guerilla warfare: A form of irregular warfare, by small groups of fighters using hit and run tactics like, ambushes, raids and sabotage, with an element of surprise.Macedonia: An ancient Greek state in the northern part of the Greek peninsula.

Plateau: A plateau or table land, is an area of high land consisting of relatively flat terrain.Battle of Panipat: The battle that took place between Babur and the Delhi Sultan Ibrahim Lodi in 1526.The victory of Babur marked the end of the Turko-Afghan Sultanate and the establishment of Mughal rule in India.Aravalli Mountains: This is a range of mountains in western India and eastern Pakistan. It runs for approximately 800 kms. from north-east to south-west India, across the states of Rajasthan, Haryana, and Gujarat.Marathas: They were the inhabitants of Maharashtra, who under the leadership of Shivaji, challenged the power of the Mughal power, and went on to establish an empire. Maratha opposition was one of the causes of the downfall of the Mughal Empire.

ASSIGNMENT

1. What is the connection between geography and history?

2. What are the main physiological features of the Indian subcontinent?

3. How has the Himalayan range affected the subcontinent?

4. Discuss the significance of the mountain passes in the north-west and north-east, in the history of India.

5. Trace the development of a separate cultural identity in the southern part of India.