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http://ltr.sagepub.com/ Language Teaching Research http://ltr.sagepub.com/content/14/1/77 The online version of this article can be found at: DOI: 10.1177/1362168809346509 2010 14: 77 Language Teaching Research Ya-Fen Lo among EFL college students in Taiwan Implementing reflective portfolios for promoting autonomous learning Published by: http://www.sagepublications.com can be found at: Language Teaching Research Additional services and information for http://ltr.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Email Alerts: http://ltr.sagepub.com/subscriptions Subscriptions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav Permissions: http://ltr.sagepub.com/content/14/1/77.refs.html Citations: What is This? - Feb 3, 2010 Version of Record >> at UNIV MASSACHUSETTS BOSTON on November 7, 2014 ltr.sagepub.com Downloaded from at UNIV MASSACHUSETTS BOSTON on November 7, 2014 ltr.sagepub.com Downloaded from

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Page 1: Implementing reflective portfolios for promoting autonomous learning among EFL college students in Taiwan

http://ltr.sagepub.com/Language Teaching Research

http://ltr.sagepub.com/content/14/1/77The online version of this article can be found at:

 DOI: 10.1177/1362168809346509

2010 14: 77Language Teaching ResearchYa-Fen Lo

among EFL college students in TaiwanImplementing reflective portfolios for promoting autonomous learning

  

Published by:

http://www.sagepublications.com

can be found at:Language Teaching ResearchAdditional services and information for    

  http://ltr.sagepub.com/cgi/alertsEmail Alerts:

 

http://ltr.sagepub.com/subscriptionsSubscriptions:  

http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.navReprints:  

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http://ltr.sagepub.com/content/14/1/77.refs.htmlCitations:  

What is This? 

- Feb 3, 2010Version of Record >>

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Page 2: Implementing reflective portfolios for promoting autonomous learning among EFL college students in Taiwan

LANGUAGETEACHINGRESEARCH

Implementing reflective portfolios for promoting autonomous learning among EFL college students in Taiwan

Ya-Fen LoNational Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences

AbstractThis article depicts challenges for students and teachers involved in developing a reflective portfolio to promote autonomous learning in Taiwan. One hundred and one students in a Taiwan university completed their individual portfolio projects. A pre-course questionnaire, post-course self-evaluation, and the instructor’s field notes were the data collection tools. The pre-course questionnaire results showed the students had neither experience of compiling portfolios nor knowledge of autonomous learning. The teacher could not let all decision-making power go to such inexperienced students. Instead, the teacher’s role needed to alternate between decision-maker, facilitator and resource person to help the students learn to be autonomous. The students’ major tasks were to manage their time and learning, and develop the critical thinking skills considered inadequately taught in Asia. The portfolio enabled the students to engage in multi-domain learning and to practise autonomous learning. The students’ awareness of autonomous learning was thus enhanced. Pedagogical suggestions are made for improving the effectiveness of portfolios for promoting autonomous learning.

Keywordsportfolio, autonomous learning, critical thinking, EFL, Taiwan

I IntroductionPortfolios have been used extensively in such professions as architecture and photogra-phy as systematic collections of work selected for the purpose of presentation or evalua-tion. Since the 1980s increasing numbers of practitioners in English as a foreign language

Corresponding author Ya-Fen Lo, National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences, 415 Chien Kung Road, Sanmin District, Kaohsiung City 807, Taiwan. Email: [email protected]

Language Teaching Research14(1) 77–95

© The Author(s) 2010Reprints and permission: http://www. sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermission.nav

DOI: 10.1177/1362168809346509http://ltr.sagepub.com

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(EFL) have adopted the concept and implemented it in their teaching. An extended collection of scholarly research and practitioners’ reports has now documented the bene fits of portfolios and supported their use in EFL classrooms (Padilla, Aninao, & Sung, 1996; Hamp-Lyons & Condon, 2000; Delett, Barnhardt, & Kevorkian, 2001; Allen, 2004; Nunes, 2004). The benefits, as summarized by Delett et al. (2001, p. 559), are that port-folios provide ‘a portrait of what students know and what they can do, offer a multidi-mensional perspective of student progress over time, encourage student self-reflection and participation, and link instruction and assessment’.

This learner-centred approach encourages learners to actively participate in every aspect of their learning, including setting goals, selecting materials and strategy, and assessing outcomes. The tenets of self-reflection, self-direction, and self-evaluation embedded in the portfolio process promote autonomous learning, which is regarded as an important educa-tional goal by EFL teaching professionals (Chan, 2001). The skills of autonomous learning are valuable for EFL learners who are likely to continue language learning after school education. However, academics have raised the question of whether autonomous learning can be applied universally without considering contextual differences (F. Jones, 1995; Pen-nycook, 1997; Schmenk, 2005). They maintain that the autonomy-based pedagogies used in Western culture need to be appropriately contextualized to fit into Asian culture.

Past studies in Asian EFL contexts have indeed found a variety of problems in using portfolios in language learning (Rea, 2001; Kuo, 2003; Yang, 2003; Chen, 2004; Lo, 2007). However, little is known about the problems faced by teachers and students at the different steps of implementing portfolios. Identifying the problems at each step can guide teachers to offer timely help for learners. In addition, little has been done to investigate the power of portfolios to promote autonomous language learning. Thus, this article sets out to depict the challenges for Taiwanese students and teachers involved in a process of developing a reflective portfolio to promote autonomous learning. Understanding the problems can help us explore the pedagogy that can be contextualized for this local setting.

II Literature reviewThe concept of learner autonomy has been adopted in the field of language learning since the 1970s (Littlewood, 1999). It has been defined as the learner’s ability to take charge of his/her own learning (Holec, 1981). Although highly valued in the USA and Europe, some scholars have argued that the appropriateness of autonomy-based pedago-gies needs to be examined as they are not culture-free (F. Jones, 1995; Pennycook, 1997; Schmenk, 2005). They have maintained that autonomy is essentially an idea from a West-ern culture that values independence, emancipation, and democratic individualism. Learn-ers in countries that value collectivism and have a shorter history of democracy, such as those with Confucian Heritage Cultures (CHC), may find the concept difficult to incorpo-rate into their learning (F. Jones, 1995; Chan, 2001). Researchers have argued that auton-omy-based pedagogies should be contextualized in local settings where culture and environment might hamper the acquisition of the skills and knowledge needed for auton-omy development (Ho & Crookall, 1995; Schmenk, 2005), and they call for more research to investigate such pedagogies (Schmenk, 2005).

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Past research in foreign language learning has shown portfolios to be an effective means to integrate pedagogy, learning, and evaluation as well as to promote critical thinking and learner autonomy (Delett, et al., 2001; Banfi, 2003; Yang, 2003; Allen, 2004). Emerging research on portfolio implementation in Asian contexts has reported similar positive effects of portfolios to those in Western research (Chen, 1999, 2004, 2005; Kuo, 2003; Yang, 2003; Ikeda & Takeuchi, 2006). Nevertheless, problems spe-cific to Asian contexts have also been reported. Asian EFL students have perceived the critical reflection required in producing portfolios to be confusing and difficult (Rea, 2001; Kuo, 2003; Chen, 2004; Lo, 2007). Part of the reason may be the lack of individual voice from Asian EFL students accustomed to a structured learning envi-ronment (Harklau, 1994; Atkinson, 1997; Stapleton, 2002). Researchers have also found that Asian EFL students had difficulties in managing time and learning materials, due to their lack of experience in producing portfolios (Kuo, 2003; Yang, 2003). This indicated that Asian EFL students needed training in developing skills of managing their autonomous learning. Asian EFL students were also said to be less aware of the concept of autonomous learning (Yang, 2003; Lo, 2007). They tended to view learn-ing as an end-product rather than a process and did not understand that the process was also a part of learning (Lo, 2007).

Asian contexts might therefore present challenges for teachers attempting to use portfolios to promote autonomous language learning. In CHC culture, students presum-ably submit to teacher authority. Traditionally, teachers dominate the classroom, respon-sible for choosing teaching methods, overseeing student learning and proper behaviour, and evaluating student learning (Chan, 2003). As learner autonomy has been increas-ingly promoted, more teachers are aware of the benefits of shifting their roles from deci-sion-makers to facilitators. However, studies have shown that teachers in Asian contexts seem to face greater challenges (derived from cultural differences and environmental constraints) than their Western counterparts when they try to relinquish power to stu-dents. Teachers in Western contexts might encounter similar challenges, but cultural influences such as an orientation toward collectivism and higher acceptance of power and authority (Littlewood, 1999) pose greater difficulty for teachers in the Asian con-texts. The study environment in Asia, heavily dominated by standardized entrance exam-inations, certainly does not help as it puts greater pressure on both teachers and students. Chen (2004) reported high school teachers in her study in Taiwan struggling to balance performance-based portfolio assessments and traditional standardized tests. Some stu-dents in her study questioned the benefits of portfolios as they did not appear helpful for their performance in standardized tests.

Similarly, Chan (2003) found the pressured study environment in Hong Kong affected teachers’ attitudes toward autonomous learning. The 41 English teachers in her study felt more comfortable making the majority of language learning decisions for their students because it could save time and cost in the particular environment. Interestingly, in her earlier study, Chan (2001) found the 20 Hong Kong students she interviewed held a posi-tive attitude towards autonomous learning approaches and welcomed the opportunity to participate in the learning process. The gap suggested that an examination of the con-straining factors in the environment was needed to understand why the teachers were less motivated to develop learner autonomy (Chan, 2003). Although Chan (2001) found the

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students seemed ready for autonomy, they were cautious as they had no skills or relevant knowledge. They expected teachers to hold different roles such as ‘resource person’, ‘instructor’, and ‘facilitator’ (p. 510). Chan (2003) concluded that learner autonomy in Hong Kong could not be encouraged if support was not offered by teachers.

Yang’s study (2003) in Taiwan also reported that teacher guidance was important in helping students to develop autonomy. Portfolios were used to enhance students’ application of meta-cognitive strategies. However, the study suggested that not every student was ready for autonomous learning. The problems reported included time man-agement problems, learning attitude (laziness, lack of determination) and information management difficulties. For students who were less ready, teachers’ structured guid-ance became crucial. To integrate portfolios into autonomous learning, Yang (2003) suggested teachers should introduce the concept of autonomous learning to students, offer guidelines to help students develop their portfolios, and allow portfolio sharing and checking.

The findings from the emerging studies in Asian contexts indicate the following needs for Asian EFL students. (However, no simple generalization is intended here. Variations exist among Asian students.) First, to produce portfolios successfully, Asian EFL students may need more training in developing appropriate skills and knowledge. These include selecting materials, managing time, monitoring progress and finding resources. Second, Asian EFL students may need to better understand the concept of autonomous learning, which is increasingly valued but relatively less developed in Asian contexts. If Asian students become familiar with the concept and practice the needed skills, they may develop the capacity for what Littlewood (1999, p.75) calls ‘reactive autonomy’, learning to take their own initiatives. Third, teachers in Asian contexts whose students are novices in autonomous learning may face the challenge of negotiating their roles between being traditional decision-makers and facilitators. How to play their multiple roles to contextualize their pedagogy is a major task for teachers attempting to promote autonomous learning more effectively.

To summarize, in this descriptive study I depict the process of developing a reflec-tive portfolio in Taiwan. Past studies in Asian EFL contexts have revealed a variety of problems associated with using portfolios in language learning. However, little is known about the problems faced by teachers and students at the different stages of implementing portfolios. Identifying the problems at each step can guide teachers to offer timely help for learners. Understanding the problems can also provide insights concerning the extent portfolios can be used effectively to promote autonomous lan-guage learning in Taiwan and explore pedagogy that can be contextualized for the local setting.

The following research questions guided this study:

1. What challenges face students during the process of portfolio implementation in Taiwan?

2. What challenges face teachers during the process of portfolio implementation in Taiwan?

3. To what extent can portfolios be used to effectively promote autonomous lan-guage learning in Taiwan?

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III Method1 Background

This study aimed to take all aspects of educational decisions into account for solving prob-lems and improving the implementation of a portfolio project (Nunan, 1992, Levin & Green-wood, 2001). The project was implemented in the course, Journalistic English, offered in a national university in Taiwan during the fall semester of 2006. English language newspapers have been attractive as course material for EFL learners as they provide authentic learning content. Their broad coverage of diverse issues can improve learners’ general knowledge in an English-language context and facilitate the learning of vocabulary used in the real world (So, 2005). They also help to better prepare students for complex content demands both in higher education and in real life situations (Stoller, 1999). Besides, the ability to read and understand English language news is an important skill for the students, who can benefit from it for a lifetime (Fredrickson & Wedel, 1984; Bartel, 1994). Therefore, reading English lan-guage newspapers can be treated as a life-long learning activity for students, motivating them to engage in autonomous learning skills even after they leave education.

The course, required for English majors, was offered in two sections, both meeting for two hours every week. The total number of students from both sections was 101, all English majors. There were 15 males (14.9%) and 86 females (85.1%), with ages ranging from 22 to 24 years. The majority of them were juniors, with only a few seniors. I was the instructor of both sections, and also the researcher responsible for planning, conduct-ing, and reporting the study.

All students were required to complete the portfolio project, which accounted for 40% of their final grade. The data were collected from September 2006 to January 2007. At the end of the semester, all the students but one turned in their portfolios.

2 InstrumentsThe data were collected using pre- and post-course, self-evaluation questionnaires and weekly field notes kept by the researcher. The Chinese language pre-course questionnaires were administered at the beginning of the semester and later translated into English for this report (Appendix 1). The questionnaire consisted of seven closed-ended questions to probe the students’ newspaper reading habits, their perceived difficulties, and their habits for find-ing resources for understanding the news. At the completion of the portfolios, students were asked to complete a post-course student self-evaluation form. This investigated the students’ perceptions of portfolio and autonomous learning. Again, the self-evaluation form was writ-ten in Chinese, later translated into English for this report (Appendix 2).

The weekly field notes recorded my observations throughout the project, and included the students’ verbal and non-verbal feedback, problems or difficulties encountered, and my reflections.

3 The process of developing and implementing the portfolio projectThe project was implemented in seven steps (Figure 1), developed according to the course objectives and my observations from the field notes as the class proceeded. These

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were mainly of the problems or difficulties the students encountered. I found that several measures were needed to respond to their problems. For instance, some students were concerned about whether they could discipline themselves and manage their time to fin-ish the project on time. To respond to this and other concerns, I took some measures to help them monitor their own progress and summed up these measures as the sixth step: monitoring student progress. Because some of their concerns were unexpected, this step was developed as the class moved along. The details of the process and the results of each step are presented in the results section.

IV Results and discussion1 The processStep 1: Analysing the pre-course questionnaire data: Ninety-six students returned the pre-course questionnaire (a return rate of 96.3%). (All descriptive statistics in this article were generated using SPSS for Windows.) The results showed only 7% of the students read newspapers regularly. None had experience of compiling portfolios. The results of Question 3 showed that the major reasons for not reading English newspa-pers regularly included: inability to understand the content because of poor English proficiency (27.5%), not being interested (19.6%), inability to solve encountered prob-lems (19.6%), and lack of time (14.7%). The results indicated that their greatest concern

Deciding the portfolio format

Developing objectives

Establishing assessment criteria

Preparing the students

Monitoring the progress

Portfolio assessment

Analyzing the data from the pre-course questionnaires

Figure 1 The process of developing and implementing the portfolio project

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was the fear they might be unable to understand the newspapers. They attributed their concern to poor English proficiency and inability to solved encountered problems. Lack of interest was the other major factor. It would be a challenge for the instructor to raise the students’ interest in reading newspapers.

Question 4 probed attitudes toward English newspapers as a language learning tool. Although the students did not read English newspapers, they recognized their potential ben-efits for increasing reading ability (50%), expanding vocabulary pool (47.1%), and enhanc-ing writing ability (20.6%). The participants generally perceived newspapers as a potentially valuable means for improving language skills. The results were encouraging for an instruc-tor facing the challenge of raising student interest in reading newspapers, as they revealed that most held a positive view of newspapers, and so were probably ready to be motivated.

As the results of Question 5 demonstrated, the major factors that would motivate the students to read newspapers were related to language skills. One was to improve reading ability (44.2%), and the other was to increase vocabulary (41.2%). If they could find ways to solve problems, then 35% said they would be motivated to read newspapers. Broadening their world view (33.5%) was the fourth most cited reason to motivate the students to read newspapers, reflecting their special attractiveness as authentic language learning materials.

The difficulties bothering the students most were vocabulary (41.2%), professional knowledge (38.2%), background information (38.2%), and idiom (34.2%). The results of Question 6 reflected the nature of newspapers that covered a great variety of issues that would broaden the participants’ world views. Nevertheless, they were concerned whether they would be able to understand the information and the diverse vocabulary and idioms used in news reports.

When asked in Question 7 what resources they used to solve difficulties, all selected dictionaries (including on-line dictionaries) as the primary source for help, followed by internet search engines (95.1%), friends (70.3%), and teachers (45.6%). The results were consistent with previous findings that the internet was crucial for helping stu-dents understand news articles (Lo, 2007). Generally, the students were sufficiently competent to use search engines, but needed the skills for evaluating information more efficiently and critically.

In summary, the results showed that the students generally had positive attitudes toward newspapers despite having no previous experience of reading them, and were aware of the possible benefits of English newspapers for their language learning. Their awareness indicated English newspapers might be an effective medium to motivate them to learn. Portfolios could be used as tools to get students starting reading newspapers.

The results also demonstrated that none of the students had any experience of compil-ing portfolios. Previous research (Kuo, 2003; Yang, 2003) has reported that Asian students encountered difficulties in producing portfolios due to lack of experience. The teachers’ structured guidance was therefore essential (Yang, 2003). To guide the students through the process of producing the portfolio, I, as instructor, decided to establish a more struc-tured plan rather than leave all control to the students, who might feel confused. There-fore, I became a partial decision-maker for them. However, I was also a facilitator in promoting autonomous learning whose main responsibility was to guide them through the process. The two roles alternated at different steps of the process.

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Step 2: Deciding the portfolio format: For me to be both a partial decision-maker and a facilitator, I needed to structure my guidance more initially, and then gradually relinquish decision-making control to the students. I provided a structured portfolio for-mat for them to follow, mainly how it should be produced and the process of doing it, including the percentage of final grade the portfolio accounted for, the number of entries for each portfolio, and the elements for each entry. They had total control over the con-tent of the news they read.

Therefore, I started as a decision-maker. During the first class meeting, I briefly intro-duced the purpose of the portfolio project, and the fact that it would account for 40% of their final grade. Each student could select six news articles from any section of an Eng-lish newspaper. I provided an entry form to help them follow the format (Appendix 3). Each form was to be attached to the original news article. Since the portfolio was a reflective one, the most important element was the students’ reflection, where they were advised to express their thoughts and ideas regarding the issues reported in each article. Each article should also be accompanied by a vocabulary log to keep track of new words they had learned. They were advised to record the problems/difficulties they were unable to solve, so that the instructor might offer help. Each entry should include a copy of the article and a separate sheet recording their problems, if any, and their reflections. All six entries should be compiled in a folder and handed in at the end of the semester.

After the announcement, the students began to express their concerns. Some worried that the six-entry workload was too heavy. They were concerned about the time con-straint and their ability to complete the project. Some suggested the portfolio be divided into two parts, with the first two entries turned in by mid-term. Since they had no previ-ous experience, they were also concerned whether their work would meet the required standard. If I could read the first two entries and provide feedback, they could improve their remaining four entries for the final assessment. That could also relieve the stress of turning in all six entries together at the end of the semester, and I could spread the burden of grading. After a brief discussion I agreed with their suggestion.

My field note recorded the students’ reactions after I explained the project. Their great concern about their ability to manage their time properly was consistent with the previ-ous studies that time management was a problem for Asian students doing extended projects (Yang, 2003; Chen, 2005). I perceived their awareness of their weakness in time management to be an indication of the meta-cognitive ability they needed for autono-mous learning.

Step 3: Developing objectives: After the format was decided, I explained the con-cept of autonomous learning and how I would use portfolios to facilitate it. To help them own their learning, I explained that they needed to identify the objectives they would achieve by completing their portfolios. Therefore, I invited them all to write three objec-tives on pieces of paper, which I collected and tallied.

The most commonly noted objective was to use the portfolio to expand vocabulary (76%). The second was to use portfolios as an opportunity to develop the habit of reading English newspapers (68%). The other objectives included: to improve their writing, become autonomous learners, expand their world views, engage critical thinking skills, and become aware of the resources useful for solving problems. Although I had briefly explained the

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concept of autonomous learning and the purpose of using portfolios to facilitate autonomous learning, the objectives related with autonomous learning identified by the students – to become autonomous learners, engage critical thinking skills, and become aware of the resources useful for solving problems – appeared at the bottom of the list. After showing the students the tally of their objectives, I reminded them of the importance of the objectives related to autonomous learning and asked them all to keep those objectives in mind.

The concept of autonomous learning was clearly still new to the students at this point. My task was to continue reminding them of it and to prepare them for completing both the project itself and the tasks of autonomous learning.

Step 4: Establishing assessment criteria: At this point I was again a facilitator, invit-ing the students to constitute the assessment criteria both so that they would have standards to follow, and also own this aspect of the process. Being fully aware of the criteria, they could have a better understanding of them and hopefully follow them more closely.

After class discussion, they identified the following criteria: (1) completeness (origi-nal news articles, entry forms, reflections, and vocabulary logs) (30%), (2) content of reflection (50%), (3) grammar (20%). The greatest percentage was allocated to the con-tent of reflection since the project was a reflective portfolio. I also added the due dates to the criteria, to stress the importance of turning in their products on time. Since they were concerned about their time management ability, due dates became an important rein-forcement. We all agreed that no late work would be accepted.

My field notes recorded that the discussion regarding assessment raised great interest. More voiced their concerns than in the previous two class activities, namely deciding the format and establishing objectives. They were undoubtedly very much concerned about their grades. However, by asking them to set up the criteria, the students became more con-cerned about how their work would be graded. They began asking questions such as what percentage for each criterion and what constituted a good reflection. By asking these ques-tions, the students engaged in conversation that helped them to be better informed about the instructor’s expectations, which in turn helped them to complete the task more efficiently.

Step 5: Preparing the students: The pre-course questionnaires results indicated that the students had little or no contact with English newspapers. To prepare them for the task, I taught the skills they needed. In the pre-course questionnaires, dictionaries (includ-ing on-line versions) and the internet were the two sources the students would use for solving problems they might encounter while reading English newspapers. Hence, I started by teaching them how to conduct internet searches and how to select and evaluate information they might need. Thus they could retrieve and evaluate the reliability of the information more efficiently. I also introduced them to several multi-source dictionaries that were especially beneficial for understanding the background information in news stories, and to conducting library searches for useful databases.

My instruction also covered the structure of English news writing and the style of news editing, reading skills such as identifying main ideas, skimming, and reading for detailed information. To keep students motivated, I chose news reports as examples for students to read and discuss in class. Topics that might raise their interest included edu-cational issues, music, and fashion.

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When the students were asked to establish assessment criteria, they were not clear about what constituted a good reflection. They were taught to write a brief summary of news reports to demonstrate their understanding of the content, and then to begin their reflection. I taught them that a good reflection should involve critical thinking rather than just descrip-tion of their thoughts and ideas. To think critically was to analyse, synthesize and evaluate the news reports, and then present their reflection in a logical and coherent fashion.

Step 6: Monitoring progress: Before the first due date, week six, I used class meetings to inquire about students’ concerns and to keep them on track. Since previous research indicated that students had time management difficulties, I encouraged them to produce a schedule of mini deadlines for each entry. Thus, they could keep track of their progress and complete all six entries within the deadline.

All the students turned in their first two portfolio entries on time. I browsed the selected news, answered the students’ questions, and finally evaluated their reflections. Thirty-nine students (39%) listed 71 questions, of which 76% were vocabulary and idiom related. Compound words seemed to bother them most as they could not find the definitions from their Chinese/English dictionaries. Besides, I found they tended to look for Chinese definitions, which were relatively limited as explanations. Some students raised questions related to background information, some asked about the comprehen-sion of certain sentences or news segments.

After reading the first two entries, I shared my observations with the students and advised them to look for English definitions of vocabulary rather than just Chinese ones. I re-emphasized the advantages of on-line multi-resource dictionaries to look for answers they needed, including background information.

I also noticed that the majority of their reflections tended to present a summary of the news rather than their reflection, or to present a summary longer than their reflection. Some offered only a summary and no reflection. I reminded them that, for a reflective portfolio, reflection was more important than a mere summary.

The reading and grading load was enormous, as was that of answering students’ ques-tions. For questions I could not answer, I had to spend time locating answers as well. I found it impossible to answer all the questions in writing. For the majority of questions regarding vocabulary, I simply asked the students to find answers again from a diction-ary. For background questions that could be answered with on-line resources, rather than provide answers directly I told them to look into the related resource. For comprehension questions that needed explanations, I provided individual answers orally. The students expected me to be the resource person. However, I perceived the students had to be more responsible for their own learning.

After returning the first two entries, I continued to use class meetings to inquire whether they encountered any problems. Again, I stressed the importance of setting mini-deadlines for themselves to manage their time properly.

Step 7: Portfolio assessment: The final portfolios included all six news entries. All projects but one were turned in on time, and all had six entries with all the require-ments. Forty-four questions were asked in the second part of the portfolios, down from 71. Most were still about vocabulary and idioms, but the percentage fell from 76% to

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52%. The results perhaps indicate that the students had become more efficient in finding answers from the resources.

The content of their reflections in the second-half of the portfolios had improved in terms of the evidence of reflection. None of them offered only a summary; all included their reflection. However, the length and the quality of their reflections varied greatly. The top 20% were able to provide analytical and logical reflection, while the bottom 20% provided only a couple of sentences to record their thoughts and ideas.

Despite the greatly reduced number of questions, the reading and grading load was still very heavy. To meet the administration’s deadline for submitting final grades, I was forced to write short comments and had no time to correct grammatical errors. The six entries I had insisted on to establish the habit of reading newspapers had become a massive burden for me. It was clear that I needed to consider possible solutions for easing the workload if I planned to use portfolios in future. Possible solutions are provided in the conclusions.

2 Post-course student self-evaluationThe post-course self-evaluation questionnaire was divided into two parts: six Likert-scale, closed-ended questions about student perceptions of autonomous learning; and two open-ended questions probing their perception of the portfolio project and their suggestions for improvement (Appendix 2). Ninety-nine students (98%) returned their questionnaires.

The results of the first part showed that the majority (86%) of the students had gained awareness of the concept of autonomous learning (Table 1). Most (88.2%) had also become aware of the process of autonomous learning. The third item received the highest approval rate from the students, with 94.9% of them agreeing that they had become more aware of the resources available. Questions 4–6 received relatively low ratings. Among them, Question 4 received the lowest rating with more than one-third of the students reporting difficulties with critical reflection. While the majority agreed that they had

Table 1 Students’ perceptions of autonomous learning

Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly agree disagree

1. I became aware of the concept 28.6 57.4 9.1 4.9 – of autonomous learning

2. I became aware of the process 33.7 54.5 6.3 5.5 – of autonomous learning

3. I became aware of the resources 33.5 61.4 5.1 – – for understanding English news

4. I was able to reflect on the 21.2 45.2 16.9 16.7 – issues critically

5. I was able to evaluate my 20.3 51.8 16.3 11.6 – own portfolio

6. I am able to plan my future 22.1 56.8 10.2 10.9 – learning projects

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become aware of autonomous learning, close to 20% were unsure about it and 10.9% denied they could now plan their future learning.

The results showed a consistent tendency for Questions 1 to 3, indicating the students had gained a basic understanding of autonomous learning, including its concept, process, and ways to search for related resources. However, they showed greater variation in their responses to Questions 4 and 5, regarding their meta-cognitive abilities in reflecting, assessing and planning their learning.

The first question in the second part probed student perceptions of the project. The second asked them for suggestions for improvement.

The analysis of the first question showed the portfolios enabled students to engage in multi-domain learning (Chen, 2004), including (1) cognitive, (2) affective, (3) social, and (4) meta-cognitive domains (Table 2).

While most perceived no need to change the format of the project, 23 students (23%) made suggestions. The most common was that students should be given more specific guide-lines about how to incorporate critical thinking in their reflection. Their responses echoed the findings of previous research that the development of critical thinking skills was not simply an automatic by-product. Students need to be taught, especially Asian students who lack the training to engage in critical thinking (Davidson & Dunham, 1997; Liaw, 2007).

V Conclusions and recommendationsThis article reports on a study depicting challenges for students and teachers involved in the process of developing a reflective portfolio in Taiwan. The discussion is not intended to be

Table 2 Students’ perceptions of the portfolio project in four domains

Cognitive domain:1. Broadening vocabulary pool2. Identifying the structure of English news reporting3. Organizing ideas4. Improving English composition 5. Keeping abreast of current issues6. Learning different cultures7. Broadening world views 8. Identifying resources for solving problems

Affective domain:1. Keeping a positive attitude for learning English through reading English newspapers2. Developing an interest in reading English newspapers3. Enjoying sharing ideas with the instructor and peers4. Having a sense of accomplishment

Social domain: Having opportunities to discuss news reports with their peers Meta-cognitive domain: Being aware of their personal strengths and weaknesses in learning

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extrapolated to non-Asian contexts. However, it has provided insights into using portfolios as a pedagogical approach to promote autonomous learning in an Asian EFL context.

The study was guided by three questions:

1. What are the difficulties students face during the process of portfolio implementa-tion in Taiwan?

2. What are the difficulties teachers face during the process of portfolio implementa-tion in Taiwan?

3. To what extent can portfolios be used to effectively promote autonomous lan-guage learning in Taiwan?

The students in this study seemed to have no specific difficulties at the beginning steps of the process. Like students in past studies (Kuo, 2003; Yang, 2003), this group also had no experience in producing portfolios, and little or no prior knowledge of autonomous learning. Therefore, they acted passively and expected the instructor to make learning decisions for them. If I, the instructor, left all decision-making to the students, the students might feel disoriented. My task was to involve the students in the learning activities, allowing them to became aware of the concept and practice the steps needed for autonomous learning. It was crucial for me to alternate my roles between decision-maker and facilitator.

After the students were taught the needed skills, their next task was to manage their time properly and monitor their progress. I considered myself a facilitator to help them monitor themselves. I provided advice, reminders, and graded the first part of the portfo-lio to make sure their products were on track. The students also tended to rely on me as a resource person who would provide answers for their questions. However, I found most questions could be solved by students themselves if they could find answers from varied resources. Student involvement in the process of locating answers was essential to auton-omous learning. The number of questions asked was greatly reduced in the second part of the portfolios, suggesting that their reliance on me was diminished.

The greatest challenge for me was to finish grading in a limited time and to offer stu-dents suggestions for them to make improvements for their final products. The quantity of portfolio entries seemed to help students become accustomed to reading newspapers, yet the workload was enormous for me.

The content of reflection remained a challenge for some students throughout. While some reflections were analytical, some seemed to have trouble incorporating critical thinking into their reflections. Whether the problem was caused by the language barrier (A. Jones, 2005) or by Asian cultural factors (Harklau, 1994; Atkinson, 1997; Stapleton, 2002) has not been explored here. However, the students’ suggestions indicate they needed more instruction in critical thinking. A. Jones (2005) suggests that instructors attempting to promote critical thinking need to make expectations clear to the students for the particular task and carefully connect their teaching to the task. Students can then have a better understanding of the expectation of critical thinking within the discipline.

The third question addressed the extent to which portfolios can be used effectively to promote autonomous language learning in Asian contexts. Judging from my students’ feed-back, the portfolios were somewhat useful in helping them become autonomous. Certainly, the portfolio project helped them become aware of the concept of autonomous learning, the

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learning process, the available resources, and to engage them in using the skills. The portfo-lios also enhanced their use of some meta-cognitive strategies critical for autonomous learn-ing. However, gains in critical thinking and evaluation were not evident here. Critical thinking skills, as discussed previously, need to be taught in relation to more explicit expec-tations specific to the task of producing a reflective portfolio. Similarly, evaluation also needs to be made more explicit. Although I had invited the students to establish the assess-ment criteria, they were not involved in the actual assessment process itself. Instructors may need to involve students in peer assessment to allow them to practise evaluation skills.

A further consideration on evaluation is that students need to be aware of the broader concept of evaluation in autonomous learning. Traditionally, students in Asian contexts view learning as an end-product. However, autonomous learning is process oriented rather than product oriented. Process is a part of learning. Therefore, evaluation should include learner evaluation of the end-product as well as of what they have learned in the process, such as new skills and awareness. In fact, the students’ awareness of their prob-lems or personal weaknesses was evidence of evaluation.

In conclusion, a reflective portfolio can be useful in enhancing student language learning in Taiwan. It enables students to engage in multi-domain learning and develop a holistic approach to language learning. It also allows learners to practise autonomous learning skills. However, where the evidence shows that students have little experience in producing portfolios and lack knowledge of autonomous learning, teachers in Asian contexts may need to design constructive activities and create more opportunities for students to participate in the process. If this is done, students may truly benefit from using portfolios to develop learner autonomy.

The study has shown some of the potential benefits of portfolios. They encouraged students to engage in multi-domain learning, and were also effective in facilitating some of the skills needed for autonomous learning. However, to better promote autonomous learning their effectiveness needs to be improved by changing some of the practices used here. First, instruction in critical thinking is needed for students unfamiliar with it. Fur-thermore, the specific expectations of tasks involving critical thinking should be made clear to students. Peer evaluation should be incorporated into pedagogy to allow students to practise the skills needed for self-evaluation and the criteria for assessing portfolios need to be specific and made known to the students.

The last but certainly not the least issue to be addressed is, as demonstrated here, the heavy grading workload for teachers using portfolios. There are some possible ways of reducing this workload. First, reduce portfolio entries to a number that teachers can man-age, depending on their time and energy. Second, pair, instead of individual, portfolios would both halve the number to be graded and encourage peer check and review (Yang, 2003). This approach also encourages peer discussion, an important aspect of social learn-ing. Third, if individual portfolios are adopted, teachers may use peer review, engaging students to check grammar, providing answers for comprehension questions, and sharing their thoughts on issues. This activity not only reduces teacher workload, it also encour-ages students to find answers from a valuable source: their peers. This process is, again, a part of autonomous learning.

Through the depiction of the process, I have became aware of the challenges as well as the opportunities of using portfolios in this particular Asian context: Taiwan. The

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results are not for blanket generalization, as there are great variations among Asian stu-dents, but I am confident that the suggestions raised in this study can be of value for teachers in other Asian contexts. For me, the study provided an opportunity to reflect on my practice in a systematic manner, and to ground my teaching in theory and in research. Furthermore, applying the results to improve my practice was motivating and satisfying. Ultimately, both the students and I benefited.

This study has led me to ponder on more issues related with autonomous learning, critical thinking and peer review. I have again used reflective portfolios for my new Journalistic English course, this time with less grading but much more thinking and investigation. I am sure my students and I will continue to benefit from the understand-ings gained from implementing reflective portfolios.

Acknowledgement

The author is very grateful to Dick Allwright for his insightful comments and valuable guidance on earlier versions of this article.

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Please answer the following questions by checking your answer in the corresponding box. (You can select more than one answer for questions 3–7)

1. Have you produced any reflective portfolios in your previous English courses? □ Yes □ No

2. Do you read English newspapers regularly? □ Yes □ No □ Sometimes3. The major reasons that prohibit you from reading English newspapers regularly are: □ Poor English proficiency □ Lack of ability to solve encountered problems □ Lack of access to English newspapers (including online newspapers) □ Lack of time □ Lack of interest □ No necessity □ Other reasons (please explain) __________________________________

4. In your opinions, what language skills can be improved by reading English newspapers?

□ Extending vocabulary pool □ Improving reading comprehension □ Improving writing ability □ Improving speaking ability5. What will motivate you to read English newspapers? □ Extending vocabulary pool □ Improving reading comprehension □ Improving writing ability □ Improving speaking ability □ Increasing knowledge □ Broadening world views □ Understanding different perspectives □ Others (please explain) __________________________________

6. What difficulty will bother you most when you read the English newspapers? □ Do not understand the subject knowledge □ Do not understand the vocabulary/terminology □ Do not know the background information of the article □ Do not understand the idioms and slang □ The sentence structures are too complicated to understand. □ Others (please explain) ______________________________________

Appendix 1 Pre-course questionnaire

(Continued)

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7. What resources will you use to help you solve the encountered difficulties when you read English newspapers?

□ Use search engines on the Internet to find answers/explanations. □ Check the dictionary (including on-line dictionary) □ Check data bases available in the school library. □ Check books. □ Consult with friends. □ Consult with teachers. □ Other (please explain) ______________________________________

Appendix 1 (Continued)

Appendix 2 Post-course students’ self-evaluation form

A. Please read the following statements and check your answer in the corresponding box.

Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly agree disagree

1. I became aware of the concept □ □ □ □ □of autonomous learning

2. I became aware of the process □ □ □ □ □of autonomous learning

3. I became aware of the □ □ □ □ □resources for understanding English news

4. I was able to reflect on the □ □ □ □ □issues critically

5. I was able to evaluate my □ □ □ □ □own portfolio

6. I am able to plan my future □ □ □ □ □learning projects

B. Please answer the following questions.

1. What are the benefits of completing this reflective portfolio?2. In what way can the portfolio projects be improved?

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Write down the date, headline and source of the news article (copy the article and attach it to the entry form)

Headline: ___________________________________________________________________

Date: _________________________Source: _________________________________

Problems/difficulties that have not been solved:

What have you learned from reading the article? (Your thoughts and ideas)

Appendix 3 Portfolio entry form

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