implementation of fire safety management in high-rise buildings
TRANSCRIPT
THE ESSENTIAL ASPECTS OF
FIRE SAFETY MANAGEMENT
IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
PRASHANT A/L THARMARAJAN
A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Science (Construction Management)
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
MAY 2007
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to address my sincere appreciation to my thesis
supervisor, Prof. Dr. Muhd. Zaimi bin Abdul Majid for his guidance, advice and
invaluable assistance in achieving the success of this thesis.
I would also like to take this opportunity to extend my gratitude to the staff of
Petronas Twin Towers and Kuala Lumpur Tower, in particular to the Safety
Department staff for their cooperation and assistance while conducting this
research.
I would also like to thank my fellow colleagues of MIA7 for their assistance and
guidance throughout the duration of this thesis.
Last but not least, I would like to dedicate my heartfelt appreciation to my family
for their invaluable support towards the success of this thesis.
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ABSTRACT
Quite often if not always, it is the occupants for no mistake of their own who fall
victim to fire. Besides damage to their belongings and property, some occupants are
burned to death for not knowing what to do in the event of fire. Even though high-
rise buildings are provided with the most sophisticated fire safety features,
assurance of safety to building occupants is questionable and held in doubt. Fire
outbreaks occur as a result of “human factors”, such as carelessness, negligence or
simply a lack of fire safety awareness. In response to this, fire safety management
has become an integral aspect in the daily operations of high-rise buildings. This
study presents the results of the investigation on fire safety management in high-rise
buildings. The objectives of the study are to identify the aspects of fire safety
management that influences fire safety of high-rise building users; to establish the
most critical of these aspects; and to identify methods to improve fire safety of
high-rise building users. The methodology for conducting the study involved
literature review, data collection and analysis of results using the Average Index
Method. The process of data collection involved obtaining primary data from the
respondents by conducting questionnaire surveys at the selected building case
studies. From this study, it is determined that the three most critical aspects of fire
safety management are the education and training of high-rise building users in fire
safety; the implementation of fire and evacuation drill procedures; and to provide
clear signage indicating exit routes and location of fire safety equipment. The three
best methods to improve fire safety of high-rise building users are to ensure that
flammable materials are stored in a safe area; to conduct more educational and
training programs for users; and to ensure that there are clear or “glow in the dark”
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signage indicating exit routes and location of fire safety equipment. It is hoped that
this study will provide some useful insight on the important aspects of fire safety
management and thus, help guide high-rise building users to safeguard both their
life and property.
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ABSTRAK
Kebanyakan masa, penghuni bangunan tinggi merupakan mangsa-mangsa
kebakaran bukan atas kesalahan mereka sendiri. Selain daripada mengalami
kerosakan harta benda, mereka turut menjadi mangsa maut akibat daripada
ketidaksedaran tentang langkah-langkah yang patut diambil sekiranya berlaku
kebakaran. Walaupun bangunan-bangunan tinggi dilengkapi dengan peralatan
keselamatan kebakaran yang serba canggih, namun keselamatan para penghuni
tidak dapat dijamin sepenuhnya dan masih menjadi persoalan dan diragukan.
Kerapkali, kebakaran berpunca daripada kelalaian, kecuaian, ataupun
ketidaksedaran tentang keselamatan kebakaran. Dengan demikian, pengurusan
keselamatan kebakaran telah menjadi suatu aspek penting dalam operasi harian
bangunan tinggi. Kajian ini menggambarkan keputusan tentang penyiasatan
terhadap pengurusan keselamatan kebakaran dalam bangunan tinggi. Tujuan kajian
ini dijalankan adalah untuk mengenalpasti aspek-aspek pengurusan keselamatan
kebakaran dalam bangunan tinggi; mengenalpasti aspek-aspek yang paling kritikal;
dan mengenalpasti kaedah-kaedah untuk menaikkan taraf keselamatan kebakaran
demi kebaikan penghuni bangunan tinggi. Methodologi bagi melaksanakan kajian
ini merangkumi rujukan bahan literatur, pengumpulan data dan analisis data melalui
Kaedah Indeks Purata. Proses pengumpulan data merangkumi pengumpulan data
primer daripada responden dengan menjalankan soal selidik di tapak lokasi kajian
kes bangunan yang terpilih. Melalui kajian ini, didapati bahawa tiga aspek yang
paling kritikal tentang pengurusan keselamatan kebakaran adalah; pendidikan dan
latihan keselamatan penghuni bangunan tinggi; implementasi prosedur-prosedur
latihan kebakaran; dan penyediaan papan tanda yang jelas menunjukkan jalan
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keluar dan lokasi tempat penyimpanan peralatan kebakaran. Juga didapati bahawa
tiga kaedah yang paling baik untuk menaikkan taraf keselamatan kebakaran
penghuni adalah; menyimpan bahan-bahan mudah terbakar di tempat yang selamat;
menjalankan lebih banyak program-program latihan untuk meningkatkan kesedaran
penghuni tentang keselamatan kebakaran; dan memastikan papan tanda “keluar’
yang dipaparkan boleh dilihat dengan jelas dalam keadaan gelap. Diharapkan kajian
ini dapat memberikan panduan yang bermanfaat tentang aspek-aspek penting dalam
pengurusan keselamatan kebakaran dan dengan demikian, dapat menjadi pedoman
untuk para penghuni bangunan tinggi untuk menyelamatkan harta benda dan juga
nyawa manusia yang tak ternilai.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
ABSTRACT iv
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xiii
LIST OF FIGURES xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xvii
LIST OF APPENDICES xviii
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Background 1
1.3 Problem Statement 3
1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study 4
1.5 Scope of the Study 5
1.6 Research Methodology 5
1.7 Summary of Chapters 8
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2 INTRODUCTION TO FIRE RISK IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS 2.1 Introduction 10
2.2 The Development of High-Rise Buildings 10
2.3 Three Generations of High-Rise Buildings 12
2.3.1 First Generation 13
2.3.2 Second Generation 13
2.3.3 Third Generation 14
2.4 Fire Life Safety of High-Rise Buildings vs Low-Rise Buildings 15
2.5 Risk of Fire in High-Rise Buildings 16
2.6 Risk of Death Due to Fire in High-Rise Buildings 18
2.7 Common Definition of Fire Safety Terms 20
2.8 Fire Regulations 21
2.8.1 Uniform Building By-Law (UBBL) 1984 22
2.8.2 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
Codes and Standards 22
2.8.3 Fire Services Act 1988 23
2.8.4 Hazardous Material HAZMAT Code and Guide 23
2.9 Summary 23
3 CHARACTERISTICS AND EFFECTS OF FIRE 3.1 Introduction 25
3.2 Nature of Fire 25
3.2.1 Pyrolisis 26
3.2.2 Combustion 27
3.2.3 Ignition 28
3.3 Sources of Fire Hazards in High-Rise Buildings 29
3.3.1 Hazards of Materials 29
3.3.1.1 Wood and Wood-Based Products 30
3.3.1.2 Plastics 31
3.3.1.3 Textiles 32
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3.3.1.4 Liquids 33
3.3.1.5 Gases 33
3.3.2 Sources of Oxidants 34
3.3.2.1 Oxygen in Air 34
3.3.2.2 Chemically Bound Oxygen 35
3.3.3 Sources of Heat Energy 36
3.3.3.1 Electrical Heat Energy 36
3.3.3.2 Chemical Heat Energy 37
3.3.3.3 Mechanical Heat Energy 38
3.4 Causes of Fire in High-Rise Buildings 38
3.4.1 Fire Ignition 39
3.4.2 Faulty Electricity 39
3.4.3 Smoking 40
3.4.4 Arson 40
3.4.5 Cooking 41
3.4.6 Renovations 42
3.4.6.1 Minor Renovations 42
3.4.6.2 Major Renovations or Remodeling 43
3.5 Effects of Fire and Fire Products 44
3.5.1 Effects of Fire on People 44
3.5.2 Effects of Fire on Property 46
3.5.3 Effects of Smoke 47
3.5.4 Effects of Fire Gases 48
3.5.5 Effects of Heat and Flame 49
3.6 Human Behaviour in Fire Emergencies 51
3.7 Summary 52 4 FIRE SAFETY MANAGEMENT IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
4.1 Introduction 53
4.2 Fire Safety Management in High-Rise Buildings 53
4.3 Preventive Management 54
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4.3.1 Education and Training 55
4.3.1.1 Occupant Training 55
4.3.1.2 Floor Warden Training 56
4.3.1.3 Building Emergency Staff Training 56
4.3.2 Inspection of Electrical Installation 57
4.3.3 Renovation Precaution and Inspection 57
4.3.4 Pest Control Programme and Good Housekeeping Practices 58
4.3.5 Signage 58
4.3.6 Inspection, Operation and Maintenance of Fire
Safety Equipment 58
4.3.7 Fire and Evacuation Drill Procedures 59
4.4 Emergency Response Management 60
4.4.1 Building Emergency Procedure Manual 60
4.4.2 Emergency Response Team 61
4.4.3 Fire Identification and Notification 62
4.4.4 Emergency Evacuation and Relocation 62
4.5 Systems to Enhance Fire Life Safety 65
4.6 Summary 68
5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
5.1 Introduction 70
5.2 Research Methodology 71
5.3 Literature Review 72
5.4 Building Case Studies 72
5.4.1 Petronas Twin Towers 73
5.4.1 Kuala Lumpur Tower 75
5.5 Data Collections 76
5.5.1 Questionnaire Design 77
5.6 Analysis of Data 79
5.6.1 Questionnaire Measure 81
5.7 Summary 83
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6 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
6.1 Introduction 84
6.2 Results and Analysis 85
6.2.1 Background Information of Respondents 86
6.2.1.1 Race Group of the Respondents 86
6.2.1.2 Age Group of the Respondents 87
6.2.1.3 Gender of the Respondents 89
6.2.1.4 Highest Level of Education of the Respondents 90
6.2.1.5 Current Employment Level of the Respondents 91
6.2.1.6 High-Rise Buildings Usage Frequency of the
Respondents 93
6.2.1.7 High-Rise Buildings Usage Purpose of the
Respondents 94
6.2.2 Results of the Questionnaire Survey 96
6.2.2.1 The Aspects of Fire Safety Management that
Influences Fire Safety of High-Rise Building
Users 96
6.2.2.2 The Most Critical Aspects of Fire Safety
Management that Influences Fire Safety of
High-Rise Building Users 97
6.2.2.3 The Methods to Improve Fire Safety of
High-Rise Building Users 98
6.3 Findings and Discussion 99
6.3.1 Respondents Background 99
6.3.2 First Objective 100
6.3.3 Second Objective 101
6.3.4 Third Objective 102
6.4 Other Suggestions 105
6.5 Summary 106
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7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 Introduction 107
7.2 Conclusions 107
7.2.1 First Objective 108
7.2.2 Second Objective 108
7.2.3 Third Objective 109
7.3 Recommendation for Further Studies 109
REFERENCES 110
Appendix A 115
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Summary of Fires for Apartments (NFPA) 17
2.2 Summary Fires of by Occupancy Type in 1995 18
(Offices, Hospitals and Hotels) (NFPA)
2.3 Summary of High-Rise Building Fires in US by Year 19
(1994 – 1996)
2.4 Summary of High-Rise Fires in US by Occupancy Class 20
(1994 – 1996) (NFPA)
3.1 International Fire Deaths in 1983 44
5.1 The Aspects of Fire Safety Management that Influences
Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users 80
5.2 Methods to Improve Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users 80
6.1 Usable and Rejected Questionnaire Responses 85
6.2 Race Group of the Respondents 86
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6.3 Age Group of the Respondents 88
6.4 Gender of the Respondents 89
6.5 Highest Level of Education of the Respondents 90
6.6 Current Employment Level of the Respondents 92
6.7 High-Rise Buildings Usage Frequency of the Respondents 93
6.8 High-Rise Buildings Usage Purpose of the Respondents 95
6.9 The Aspects of Fire Safety Management that Influences
Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users 96
6.10 The Most Critical Aspects of Fire Safety Management that
Influences Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users 97
6.11 The Methods to Improve Fire Safety of High-Rise
Building Users 98
6.12 The Aspects of Fire Safety Management that Influences
Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users (Descending Order) 100
6.13 The Methods to Improve Fire Safety of High-Rise
Building Users (Descending Order) 103
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
1.1 Research Methodology Flow Chart 7
3.1 Triangle of Fire 26
5.1 Petronas Twin Towers 73
5.2 Kuala Lumpur Tower 75
5.3 Five Ordinal Measures of Likert’s Scale 79
6.1 Usable and Rejected Questionnaire Responses 85
6.2 Race Group of the Respondents 87
6.3 Age Group of the Respondents 88
6.4 Gender of the Respondents 89
6.5 Highest Level of Education of the Respondents 91
6.6 Current Employment Level of the Respondents 92
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6.7 High-Rise Buildings Usage Frequency of the Respondents 94
6.8 High-Rise Buildings Usage Purpose of the Respondents 95
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ANSI - American National Standards Institute
BOMA - Building Owners and Managers Association
FRDM - Fire and Rescue Department Malaysia
FRR - Fire Resistance Rating
HAZMAT - Hazardous Material
NFPA - National Fire Protection Association
NIOSH - National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health
OSHA - Occupational Safety and Health Administration
UBBL - Uniform Building By-Law
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LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Sample of Questionnaire Survey Form 115
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Overall, this study is focused on the aspects of Fire Safety Management that
influences fire safety of high-rise building users. Besides that, this study is also intended
to identify methods to improve fire safety of high-rise building users. In this chapter, the
basic elements of the study are presented. Basically, this chapter covers the
background, problem statement, aims and objectives, and scope of the study. The
research methodology involved in conducting this study is also briefly explained.
Lastly, a summary of all the chapters in this study are presented.
1.2 Background
Fire can be a useful tool, but it can also be a deadly nightmare. As the old
proverb states, it is a good servant but a bad master. Fire has always fascinated and
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frightened us. Without fire, civilization would be radically different. In fact, it might
not even exist. However, the cost of fires which get out of control is high, and an
average of two to three people die in fires each day in the United Kingdom.
Furthermore, according to the High Rise Fire Safety report in the city of Phoenix, every
year there are about 7000 fire outbreaks in high-rise office buildings.
Some of the most notable fires recorded in history dated back to as early as the
year 1136. The towns of London, Bath and York suffered severe fire damage. The
Great Fire of London in 1666 destroyed four-fifths of the city before finally being
brought under control. In more recent times, the First Interstate Tower fire on the 4th of
May, 1988 in Los Angeles resulted in the death of a building engineer and smoke
inhalation by many of the 40 people inside the building at the time of the fire. In
addition to this, the fire outbreak in The One Meridian Plaza on the 23rd of February,
1991 in Philadelphia resulted in the death of three fire fighters due to smoke inhalation
and destroyed eight floors of this 38-storey high-rise building. Thus, it can be seen how
important it is to have proper fire safety management to prevent history from repeating
itself.
Human interest in fire safety probably dated back from the discovery and
employment of fire. Primitive man used heat for cooking, warming and lighting his
dwelling with the inherent risk that misuse or accident in his control of fuel might
precipitate disaster. The obvious benefits of numerous friendly uses of heat energy are
often overshadowed by the enormous destructive power of fires. Today, as in primitive
society, that risk has not been eliminated despite the apparent sophistication of modern
living. With the development of habitations, attitudes towards fire safety have also
developed. There is continuous interest in understanding the causes of such perils and
in devising means of their elimination or reduction.
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The threat of fire is always present in high-rise commercial office buildings and
can be particularly dangerous to building occupants. As stated by The Merritt Company
(1991), “The most critical exposures in high-rise structures include fire, explosion, and
contamination of life-support systems such as the air and potable water supply. These
threats can be actuated accidentally or intentionally and can quickly develop into
catastrophic proportions because of the rapid propagation of fire, smoke and
contaminants”. Despite the fact that fires are rare occurrences (Kruse, 1993), everyone
working in a high-rise building must be ready to act quickly in the event of an
occurrence. This is due to the fact that in a fire emergency, the first three to four
minutes are crucial. The timely handling of a fire emergency, according to sound
procedures established well before the incident ever occurs, can prevent the emergency
from becoming a catastrophe.
In conclusion, fire is a potentially life altering threat in any high-rise building
and can create an even worse situation if there is no prior preparation for such an event.
By conforming to the codes and requirements from the authorities, following sensible
preventive actions and adequately training building occupants, security personnel and
facility staff in proper response to fire emergencies, the overall threat of fire and fire
related damages can be greatly reduced.
1.3 Problem Statement
Quite often if not always, it is the occupants for no fault of their own who fall
victim to fire. Besides damage to their belongings and property, some occupants are
burned to death for not knowing what to do in the event of fire. The tragedy cannot be
compensated in monetary terms. Therefore, it is essential that the occupants of high-
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rise buildings educate themselves as to what are the necessary and compulsory
measures to be taken in case of fire. It is also the duty and legal responsibility of the
owners of high-rise buildings to provide safety measures to their occupants against fire
hazard. Irregularities or negligence on their part would lead to prosecution and liability
to pay compensation for the damage caused.
Even though high-rise buildings are provided with the most sophisticated fire
safety features, assurance of safety to building occupants is questionable and held in
doubt. More often than not, fire outbreaks occur as a result of “human factors”, such as
carelessness, negligence or simply a lack of fire safety awareness. Jelani Abdullah
(2001) cited fire incidents to three high-rise buildings in the city of Kuala Lumpur as
clear examples of this regard. As mentioned by Tan and Hiew (2004), all parties, being
owners, tenants, occupants, cleaners, and security, maintenance and operations
personnel are equally responsible for the safety and security in any high-rise building.
In response to this, fire safety management has become an integral aspect in the daily
operations of high-rise buildings.
As such, this research attempts to identify and establish the most critical aspects
of fire safety management that influences fire safety of high-rise building users and
subsequently, identify methods to improve fire safety of high-rise building users.
1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study
The aim of this study is to investigate the pertinent aspects of Fire Safety
Management in high-rise buildings and to identify methods to improve fire safety of
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high-rise building users. To achieve this aim, three objectives have been delineated as
follows:
• To identify the attributes of Fire Safety Management that influences fire safety
of high-rise building users;
• To establish the critical attributes of Fire Safety Management that influences fire
safety of high-rise building users and;
• To identify methods to improve fire safety of high-rise building users.
1.5 Scope of the Study
The scope of this study has to be narrowed down or focused to simplify the
process of information gathering in order to conduct the analysis within an appropriate
time frame. The scope of the study is limited to:
• Only high-rise buildings;
• Two building case studies only, being the Petronas Twin Towers and KL Tower;
and
• The aspects of Fire Safety Management in high-rise buildings only.
1.6 Research Methodology
The research will be conducted in several stages to achieve all of the objectives
of this study. The first stage would involve identifying the objectives and scope of
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work involved. Once finalized, the second stage would be to conduct the literature
review to find out more information about fire hazards and fire safety in general, thus
achieving part of the first and third objective. This is also to ensure proper
understanding of the subject matter and to enhance knowledge level. The third stage
would involve conducting the field research from the case study chosen to fully achieve
all three objectives. One of the methods that will be used in the field research would be
to conduct professional interviews with the personnel involved in the implementation of
fire safety management in the chosen case study high-rise buildings. An interview
checklist will be prepared prior to conducting the interview to avoid missing out on any
essential questions. Besides the professional interviews, a questionnaire survey would
also be conducted in fulfillment of the objectives of the study. The questionnaire
survey would be based on a Likert’s Scale of 1 (Disagree) – 5 (Strongly Agree) and the
respondents would be required to give their ratings based on the questions asked. The
fourth stage of research would be to compile all the data obtained and conduct the
analysis. The last stage would be the presentation of the analyzed data and writing of
the report with conclusions and future recommendations. A flowchart of the processes
involved is shown in Figure 1.1.
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Figure 1.1 : Research Methodology Flow Chart
Select Topic of Study
Formulation of Problem Statement
Determination of Objectives and Scope of Work
Conduct Literature Review
Critical Aspects Methods to ImproveThe Aspects
Field Data Collection
Professional Interviews
Questionnaire Survey
Data Analysis & Results
Conclusions & Recommendations
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1.7 Summary of Chapters
This study provides some valuable insights into the aspects of Fire Safety
Management that are crucial towards fire safety of high-rise building users. The study
consists of seven chapters.
The first chapter is basically an introduction to the research, which includes the
problem statement, the aims and objectives of the study, the scope of work involved,
and the brief research methodology. Lastly, a summary of all the chapters is also
presented.
The second chapter is basically an introduction to high-rise buildings in general.
In this chapter, the definition as well as a brief history of high-rise buildings is
presented. This chapter also includes a comparison of the fire risk in high-rise buildings
against the fire risk in low-rise buildings. Besides that, some fire statistics are also
presented in this chapter. Lastly, the laws or regulations that govern fire safety are
briefly presented.
The third chapter basically covers the nature of fire. In this chapter, the nature
and behavior of fire are discussed in detail. Besides that, the sources of fire hazards in
high-rise buildings are also presented. Subsequently, the major causes of fire in high-
rise buildings are presented. This is followed by methods or materials that can be used
to protect the various types of materials used in construction of high-rise buildings such
as wood, steel and reinforced concrete. Lastly, the effects of fire or fire products on
people and property are discussed. This chapter also briefly discusses how humans
typically tend to behave in the event of fire.
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The fourth chapter covers the various aspects of Fire Safety Management in
detail. Besides this, several other systems that are commonly used to enhance fire
safety in high-rise buildings are also briefly discussed.
The fifth chapter explains the research methodology in detail. The research
methodology for this study is divided into several stages. The first stage is the
determination of the objectives and scope of work involved. Once this is completed, the
literature review is conducted to gain a better understanding and broaden knowledge
with respect to the subject matter. Next, professional interviews are conducted with the
relevant people involved in the daily operations of high-rise buildings to obtain their
opinions and feedback. Based on the literature review and information from the
interviews, the questionnaire can be developed. Subsequently, field data collection is
conducted to obtain the necessary data. Once obtained, the data is analyzed and the
inferences are derived. Lastly, the discussion and conclusion is done to conclude the
study.
In the sixth chapter, the data analysis and results obtained are discussed in detail.
Statistics are used to analyze the background of the respondents and a Likert’s Scale of
five ordinal measures is used to identify the aspects of Fire Safety Management that
influences fire safety of high-rise building users, the most critical of these aspects and
the methods to improve fire safety of high-rise building users. The inferences are then
made based on the results of the analysis.
Lastly, the seventh chapter highlights the conclusions made from the study and
the recommendations for further studies.
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CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO FIRE RISK IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
2.1 Introduction
This chapter is basically an introduction to high-rise buildings in general. In this
chapter, the definition as well as a brief history of high-rise buildings is presented. This
chapter also includes a comparison of the fire risk in high-rise buildings against the fire
risk in low-rise buildings. Besides that, some fire statistics are also presented in this
chapter. Lastly, the laws or regulations that govern fire safety are briefly presented.
2.2 The Development of High-Rise Buildings
Over one hundred and fifty years ago, cities looked very different from the way
they looked today. The buildings that housed people and their businesses were rarely
over the height of a flagpole. Urban landscapes tended to be flat and uniform in pattern.
The massive skyscrapers that dominate many city skylines today are largely due to three
major developments.
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Firstly, in the year 1853, an American by the name of Elisha Graves Otis,
invented the world’s first safety elevator. This new form of transportation enabled
people to travel safely upward at a much greater speed and with considerable less effort
than by walking. Secondly, in the 1870’s, steel frames became readily available and led
to the replacement of the weaker combination of cast iron and wood previously used in
construction. Until then, the walls had to be very thick to carry the weight of each floor.
It usually was agreed that a 12-inch wall was needed to support the first story, and an
additional four inches was added to the thickness of the base to support each additional
storey (IREM, 1985). This made it impossible to construct high-rise buildings
economically. Whereas, steel frames were able to carry the weight of more floors, so
walls became simply cladding for the purpose of insulating and adorning the building.
This development, which included applying hollow clay tiles to the steel supports,
resulted in a fireproof steel skeleton and also permitted movable interior partitioning
which allowed office suites to be reconstructed to meet the demands of new tenants.
Lastly, the invention of air conditioning by Carrier in 1902 addressed the issue of
providing ventilation in high-rise buildings (IREM, 1985).
At the turn of the century, tall buildings began to spring up in New York City. In
1909, the 700-feet high (50 storey) Metropolitan Life Insurance Building was built and
in 1913, the 792-feet high (57 storey) Woolworth Building was constructed. In 1930
and 1931, two of the tallest buildings in the world were constructed in New York City,
being the Chrysler Building (1046-feet high, 77 storey) and the Empire State Building
(1250-feet high, 102 storey). Also, in 1931, the 55 storey Citibank Building was built.
After these buildings were erected, 40, 50, and 60 storey buildings were built all over
the United States. In 1969, the John Hancock Center (1127-feet high, 100 storey) was
built in Chicago.
From 1970 to 1990, there have been a combined total of 2273 new construction
starts of buildings eight stories or more in the major metropolitan areas of New York,
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Chicago and Los Angeles (Dodge, 1991). Two of these buildings were the 110 storey
New York World Trade Center which was completed in 1973. The South Tower was
1362-feet high and the North Tower was 1368-feet high. Today, the world’s tallest
building is none other than the Petronas Twin Towers located in Kuala Lumpur
standing 1476-feet high.
The tallest building in the world on the drawing board is Illinois Tower, a 5280-
feet high (528 storey) office building. Frank Lloyd conceived this “mile-high” office
building that was to have been constructed on Chicago’s lakefront in 1956 (Fortune,
1992).
2.3 Three Generations of High-Rise Buildings
Since the appearance of the first high-rise buildings around 1870, there has been
a transformation in their design and construction. This has culminated in glass, steel,
and concrete structures in the International or Miesian and post-modernistic styles of
architecture prevalent today. Before proceeding further, it is appropriate to define what
is considered a high-rise building. A building is an enclosed structure that has walls,
floors, a roof and usually windows. According to The Merritt Company (1991), a high-
rise structure is considered to be one that extends higher than the maximum reach of
available fire-fighting equipment. In absolute numbers, this has been set variously
between 75 and 100 feet, or about 7 to 10 stories. The height of a building is measured
from the sidewalk level of the main entrance to the structural top of the building.
13
According to the late O’Hagan (1977), who was the former fire commissioner
and chief of the New York City Fire Department, there have been three generations of
high-rise buildings since the 1880’s. This is briefly described below.
2.3.1 First Generation (1870 to 1920)
The exterior walls of these buildings consisted of stones or brick, although
sometimes cast iron was added for decorative purposes. The columns were constructed
of cast iron which were often unprotected, while steel and wrought iron were used for
the beams, and the floors were made of wood. Often, elevator shafts were unenclosed.
The only means of escape from a floor was through a single stairway usually protected
at each level by a metal-plated wooden door. There were no standards for the
protection of steel used in the construction of these high-rise buildings.
2.3.2 Second Generation (1920 to 1940)
In this generation of buildings, the developments that occurred were mainly
improvements to the weaknesses of first generation high-rise buildings. Firstly, non-
combustible construction materials were used and this reduced the possibility of the
collapse of structural members during a fire. Next, assemblies rated for a particular fire
resistance were included in the construction. Assemblies are the barriers that separate
areas and provide a degree of fire resistance determined by the specific fire resistance
rating of the assembly itself (Craighead, 1995). Besides that, vertical shafts were also
14
enclosed with protective openings and compartmentation, which is the use of walls,
floors and ceilings to create barriers against the spread of smoke and fire, was
implemented.
2.3.3 Third Generation (1940 to Present)
Buildings constructed after World War II up until today make up the most recent
generation of high-rise buildings. They are constructed of lightweight steel or
reinforced concrete frames with exterior curtain walls. However, the majority of
modern commercial high-rise buildings are steel framed. Interspersed among steel
frame high-rise buildings are those of reinforced concrete construction, or a mixture of
steel and concrete.
In the centre of these buildings, or infrequently to the side, there is an inner core
constructed of reinforced concrete. Most building services, being stairwells, elevator
shafts, air-conditioning supply shafts, power, water and gas utilities, are enclosed in this
central core. Extending out from this core are steel beams that connect to vertical
columns located in the exterior walls. This type of construction means that there is no
longer a requirement for interior vertical columns. Hence, these buildings have floor
spaces free of such obstructions.
As mentioned by Brannigan (1993), modern high-rise buildings are lighter than
the previous generations. Brannigan (1993) also goes on to mention that the
development of fluorescent lights and air conditioning helped to remove limits to the
15
floor area. Thus, building populations could be enormously increased and as a result,
buildings have become substantially taller.
2.4 Fire Life Safety of High-Rise Buildings versus Low-Rise Buildings
From a fire life safety perspective, high-rise buildings differ from low-rise
buildings in several distinct ways. Firstly, the existence of multiple occupied floors one
on top of the other means that there is a greater concentration of occupants and
therefore, a greater concentration of personal and business property (Craighead, 1995).
Basically, this translates to there being a greater potential fuel load for any fire that may
occur in the building. Also, the probability of a large uncontrolled fire moving upward
is an ever-present danger in a high-rise building because it is a vertical structure.
Besides that, the fact that more individuals are assembled in a particular location
at any one time means that the likelihood of injury or death occurring is higher
(Craighead, 1995). Depending on the location of the incident, there may be a delay in
reaching the area to provide assistance. For example, a medical emergency that occurs
on the uppermost floor of a skyscraper will require considerably more travel time for
the responding medical team as compared to a similar incident occurring in a building
lobby. Furthermore, when an emergency occurs, the evacuation of occupants is
hampered by the fact that large numbers of people cannot all leave the structure at once
via elevators and emergency exit stairwells.
Another significant difference lies in the fact that access by the fire department,
from both the exterior and interior, may be restricted (IFTA, 1976). Internal access may
16
be restricted to the use of stairwells and elevators that are approached through the
building lobby or lower levels such as basements. Internal access may also be
complicated by the time required for fire department personnel to reach an emergency
occurring in the upper levels of a structure.
Lastly, probably the most significant difference is the stack effect that occurs in
high-rise buildings. According to Boyce (1991), high-rise buildings often have natural
forces affecting fire and smoke movement that are not normally significant in lower
buildings. Stack effect and the impact of winds can be very significant in high-rise
buildings. Stack effect is the result of the temperature differential between two areas,
which creates a pressure differential that results in natural air movements within a
building. In high-rise buildings, this effect is increased due to the height of the
building. Many high-rise buildings have a significant stack effect, capable of moving
large volumes of heat and smoke uncontrolled through the building.
2.5 Risk of Fire in High-Rise Buildings
Direct data analysis of high-rise versus non high-rise is somewhat difficult to
determine because the exact number of structures for some occupancies does not exist.
The best data exist for apartment buildings. Census data estimate the number of
apartment housing units at anywhere between 15 million and 24 million (Hall, 1996).
In 1993, the number of housing units in high-rise buildings was 2,294,000, which
means 9.3-14.8% of all apartments were in high-rise buildings. During this period,
approximately 8.8% of all apartment fire occurred in high-rises (Hall, 1997). Since the
percentage of high-rise fires (8.8%) is lower than the percentage of high-rise apartments
17
(9.3%), the risk for a fire in a high-rise apartment is somewhat lower in a high-rise
building than an apartment that is not a high-rise (See Table 2.1).
Table 2.1 : Summary of Fires for Apartments (NFPA)
Occupancy Percentage of Units
That Could Be High-Rises
Reported High-Rise Fires
Percentage of Fires In High-Rises
Apartments 9.3 – 14.8 7700 8.8
Since there are no data available that provide the exact number of high-rise
offices, hotels/motels and facilities that care for the sick, the National Fire Protection
Association has calculated the number of existing structures using estimates based upon
the total spare footage of the buildings. In 1992, there were 21,000 office occupancies,
5,000 health-care properties and an undetermined number of lodging properties with
more than 100,000 square feet of space (Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat,
1992). While it is unlikely that a high-rise building would have less than 100,000
square feet of space, it is possible to have a building with more than 100,000 square feet
that is not a high-rise. Therefore, the actual number of buildings over 100,000 square
feet that are high-rises is only some fraction of the total number of occupancies.
Because the data necessary to determine the number of high-rise office structures,
hotel/motel structures and facilities that care for the sick are not available, one cannot
accurately determine the risk for a fire starting in these structures.
In 1995, it is estimated that approximately 19.7% of the hotel/motel fires
occurred in high-rises (Hall, 1997). Approximately 9.4% of all office building fires
occurred in high-rises and 31.0% of all fires in health care facilities occurred in high-
rises (Hall, 1997) (Please refer to Table 2.2).
18
Table 2.2 : Summary of Fires by Occupancy Type in 1995 (Offices, Hospitals and
Hotels) (NFPA)
Occupancy Reported High-Rise
Fires
Percentage of Fires
In High-Rises
Offices 500 9.4
Hospitals 800 31.0
Hotels/Motels 1000 19.7
The incidence of fires in the various classifications of high-rise structures has
remained consistent over longer analysis periods. The National Fire Protection
Association estimates that from 1985-93, roughly one in every 12 reported apartment
building fires was a high-rise building (Hall, 1996). One-sixth to one-fourth of reported
hotel and motel fires have been in high-rises buildings (Council on Tall Buildings and
Urban Habitat, 1992). Roughly one of every eight reported office building fires was in
high-rise building and one-third of reported fires in facilities that care for the sick have
been in high-rise buildings (Hall, 1996). These numbers are consistent with the
percentages reported for 1995 data in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2.
2.6 Risk of Death Due to Fire in a High-Rise Buildings
The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (1992) concluded that
although overall incident data and statistics show that the percentages of injuries and
property damage associated with fires in tall buildings are small, the small number of
tall building fires which do occur usually impact substantially on the urban
environment. Examples of this adverse impact include the permanent closure of
19
businesses, lawsuits from injured parties, and business interruptions. News reports from
previous high-rise structure fires suggest that lawsuits alone can reach hundreds of
millions of dollars in losses. The fires in tall buildings have consequences which are
related to the construction features which may lead to extensive fire and smoke spread,
or to reductions in occupants’ ability to exit readily (Council on Tall Buildings and
Urban Habitat, 1992).
From 1989-1993, apartment fires accounted for 8.4% of civilian injuries and
6.7% of civilian deaths in high-rise buildings (Hall, 1996). From 1985-1993, fires in
high-rise hotels and motels were less than one-fourth as likely to involve a death as fires
in hotels and motels that are not high-rise (Hall, 1996). This means that whether or not
the risk of fire is somewhat higher in high-rise hotels and motels, the risk of fire deaths
is probably much lower. A summary of the reported high-rise structure fires for the
United States from 1994-1996 is presented in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 : Summary of High-Rise Building Fires in US by Year (1994-1996)
Year Fires Civilian
Deaths
Civilian
Injuries
Property
Damage
($ Millions)
Death
Per 1000
Fires
1994 11400 51 952 $59.3 4.5
1995 10000 55 688 $44.5 5.5
1996 12100 64 790 $69.2 5.3
Total 33500 170 2430 $173.0 5.1
20
The frequency of fires and deaths from the fires in high-rise occupancies varies
by the type of occupancy. Apartment occupancies nationally experience a higher
frequency of fires and a higher frequency of deaths and injuries. Descriptive statistics
of fires by the type of high-rise occupancy are displayed in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 : Summary of High-Rise Fires in US by Occupancy Class (1994-1996)
(NFPA Data)
Occupancy Reported
Fires
Civilian
Deaths
Civilian
Injuries
Property
Damage
($ Millions)
Death
Per 1000
Fires
Apartments 26200 160 1999 $100.3 6.1
Hotels and
Motels 3000 8 247 $26.9 2.7
Hospitals 2600 2 95 $7.9 0.8
Office
Buildings 1700 0 89 $37.9 0.0
Total 33500 170 2430 $173.0 5.1
2.7 Common Definition of Fire Safety Terms
a) High-rise building: Any building having an occupied floor located more than
75 feet above the lowest level of Fire Department vehicle access.
b) Means of escape: The routes by which persons may escape from a fire, and the
means by which these routes are kept useable. These means include fire-doors to
21
prevent smoke and flame from spreading to an escape-route; signage to indicate
the direction to safety; panic furniture or other fast-release systems on escape
doors to allow free egress while maintaining internal security at normal times;
ladders or mechanical devices to allow escape from upper stories where internal
staircases are unavailable.
c) Fire warning systems: Systems provided to facilitate the alerting of occupants
of the building and others with fire safety responsibility to the existence of fire
within the premises. These include fire alarms, fire detection equipment, and
connection to remote terminals.
d) Escape lighting: Lighting designed to switch on upon interruption of the mains
electrical supply, and to illuminate the means of escape for a pre-determined
period by means of stored electricity.
e) Fire-fighting equipment: Apparatus such as fire extinguishers, hose reels, and
fire-blankets provided for use by the Fire Service personnel or for occupants of
the building for fire-fighting purposes only.
2.8 Fire Regulations
In Malaysia, the government organization that is responsible towards fire and
life safety is the Fire and Rescue Department Malaysia (FRDM). The fire safety
standards implemented are in accordance with the regulations in the Uniform Building
By-Law (UBBL) 1984, NFPA codes and standards, Fire Services Act 1988 and the
Hazardous Material (HAZMAT) code and guide.
22
2.8.1 Uniform Building By-Law (UBBL) 1984
UBBL is a published document, which is used as a required safety standard and
is emphasized by the government. The FRDM strives to discharge its responsibilities in
its prevention and safety programs, and also to increase its enforcement in relation to
inspections of buildings and business licensing activities, in accordance to UBBL
especially in relation to Part 7 (Fire Requirements) and Part 8 (Fire Alarm, Fire
Detection, Fire Extinguishment and Fire Fighting Access).
2.8.2 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Codes and Standards
NFPA is an international non-profit organization which is authorized on fire,
electrical and building safety. The NFPA was established in 1896 and it serves as the
world’s leading advocate in fire prevention and is an authoritative source for
information on fire safety. The Building Code and Regional Fire Code Development
Committees provide representative input to the NFPA’s codes and standards and have
helped develop about 300 codes and standards which are used in every building,
process, service, design and installation in many countries. It has earned accreditation
from the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Apart from that, NFPA 1600,
the National Standard on Disaster / Emergency Management and Business Continuity
Programs provides a “total program approach” to the challenge of integrating disaster
and emergency management with business continuity planning.
23
2.8.3 Fire Services Act 1988
The Fire Services Act 1988 is implemented to make necessary provision for the
effective and efficient functioning of the Fire Services Department, and also for the
protection of persons and property from fire risks and other purposes connected
therewith. Generally, this Act explains the duties of the Fire Service Department and
consists of implementing fire prevention, fire safety inspection and fire hazard
abatement, investigation and prosecution.
2.8.4 Hazardous Material (HAZMAT) Code and Guide
Hazardous Material (HAZMAT) code and guide is actually conforming to
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) recommended standards.
2.9 Summary
In this chapter, the definition as well as a brief history of high-rise buildings was
presented. As mentioned, a high-rise building is defined as any building having an
occupied floor located more than 75 feet above the lowest level of Fire Department
vehicle access. This chapter also includes a comparison of the fire risk in high-rise
buildings against the fire risk in low-rise buildings. It is pertinent to establish the
24
reasons as to why fire safety is of utmost importance when dealing with high-rise
buildings. Besides that, some fire statistics were also presented in this chapter. Lastly,
the laws or regulations that govern fire safety were briefly presented.
25
CHAPTER 3
CHARACTERISTICS AND EFFECTS OF FIRE
3.1 Introduction
Basically, this chapter covers the nature and behavior of fires in detail. Besides
that, the sources of fire hazards in high-rise buildings are also presented. Subsequently,
the major causes of fire in high-rise buildings are presented. Lastly, the effects of fire
or fire products on people and property are discussed. This chapter also briefly
discusses how humans typically tend to behave in the event of fire.
3.2 Nature of Fire
One generally accepted definition of fire is a process involving rapid oxidation
at elevated temperatures accompanied by the evolution of heated gaseous products of
combustion, and the emission of visible and invisible radiation (Abdullah, 2001). The
combustion process is a chemical reaction between the oxidation of a fuel in the
26
presence of oxygen with the emission of heat and light. The concept of fire can be
symbolized by the Triangle of Fire, which is represented by fuel, heat, and oxygen (See
Figure 3.1) (Drysdale, 1985). If the fire is in a fire grate or furnace, this process can be
referred to as a controlled fire, and if it is a building on fire, this process is referred to as
an uncontrolled fire. The removal of any one of these factors usually will result in the
fire being extinguished.
Figure 3.1 : Triangle of Fire
3.2.1 Pyrolisis
Fire is combustion and oxidation process when a fuel material undergoes
pyrolysis (Drysdale, 1985). It is in effect a chemical process when oxygen reacts with
the material’s fuel components to liberate stored energy into thermal energy with high
temperatures. Fuels that predominantly consist of carbon and hydrogen elements,
however, may contain small amounts of sulphur, lead, zinc, etc., and non-combustibles
like mineral matter (ash), water and inert gases.
27
With the exception of hydrogen itself, all common fuels are organic compounds,
whose energy are ultimately sourced from the sun through the process of photosynthesis
in green plants. The atmosphere contains 21% of oxygen, 78% nitrogen and 1% of
other elements. All of these would enter the combustion process where in the case of
oxygen, only the amount required for the combustion process is utilized while the
excess of it exits in its original oxygen (O2) state. Nitrogen, that requires very high
temperatures for oxidation, is inert as far as the combustion process is concerned.
Nevertheless, it acts as a moderator or cooling agent in that it absorbs some of the heat
of combustion thus assisting in limiting the maximum temperature reached (Abdullah,
2001).
A stoichiometric mixture of air and fuel is one that contains sufficient air
(oxygen) for complete fuel combustion. A weak mixture is one that has excess of air
(oxygen) and hence favourable for combustion. A rich mixture (excess of fuel) is that
of one having deficiency of air (oxygen) and thus considered unfavourable for complete
combustion.
3.2.2 Combustion
Complete combustion occurs when the conditions are favourable. The products
of complete combustion are carbon dioxide in gaseous form, water in vapour form and
heat energy (Drysdale, 1985). However, small quantities of carbon monoxide and
partial flume gas components may form. The amount of energy released in the burning
of a substance is called its heat of combustion or combustion enthalpy.
28
Incomplete combustion occurs when the fuel element is not completely oxidized
in the combustion process. Fire would occur in a less vigorous and smoldering state
emitting thick smoke containing toxic gases and contaminants. Factors that give rise to
incomplete combustion on a burning fuel material are as follows (Abdullah, 2001):
a) Insufficient air to the fuel material (causing local fuel-rich and fuel-lean zones);
b) Insufficient air supply to the flame (providing less than the required quantity of
oxygen).
c) Insufficient reactant residence time in the flame (preventing completion of
combustion reactions);
d) Flame impingement on a cold surface (quenching combustion reactions); and
e) Too low flame temperature (slowing combustion reactions).
When there is incomplete combustion to a burning fuel material, the formation
and subsequent release of partially oxidized compounds such as carbon monoxide,
aldehydes and ketones occurs (Abdullah, 2001). Should such adverse toxic smoke
situation predominate in building fires, this would be the main contributing factor to the
ill-favoured consequence of high occupant-fatality rate not to mention the lifelong
agony and suffering of the survivors.
3.2.3 Ignition
There should be sufficient heat to set a fuel material into combustion and this is
called ignition. Ignition occurs in any one or combination of the following forms
(Abdullah, 2001):
29
a) Induced Form (as in internal combustion engines or lighting a fire);
b) Spontaneous Form (when the fuel material ignites itself through electric sparks,
friction, grinding or rubbing effect, magnified sunlight, etc.);
c) Contact Form (through flame contact); and
d) Pilot Form (transmission of heat radiation through a stream of hot gases,
volatiles and flying brands).
3.3 Sources of Fire Hazards in High-Rise Buildings
Sources of fire hazards can be classified based on the triangle of fire, namely
from materials, oxidants and heat energy (Tuhtar, 1989). Each of these elements is
described below.
3.3.1 Hazards of Materials
Hazards of materials can be further classified into wood and wood-based
products, plastics, textiles, liquids and gases. These are further described below.
30
3.3.1.1 Wood and Wood-Based Products
Wood and numerous wood-based products such as paper, cellulose-based
fibrous materials and many others, are indeed ubiquitous. They are invariably involved
in almost all kinds of fires. Therefore, understanding of their fire characteristics is
important for fire protection.
The chemical content of dry wood and wood-based products is relatively simple.
Carbon (50%), oxygen (40%) and hydrogen (6%) are the most abundant elements with
nitrogen and mineral ash making up the remainder. However, these few elements are
combined to form a large number of substances, of which cellulose (50%), lignin (26%)
and extractables (1%) are the major components. Wood also contains water, either as
moisture or absorbed water in wood cells. Whereas moisture is readily removed on
heating wood and wood products above 380 K, absorbed water remains even after
prolonged heating (Emmons and Atrega, 1982). Apparently, dry wood may still contain
considerable amounts of water (5 – 6%) (Tuhtar, 1989).
Wood and wood-based products are combustible. They can burn in different
modes such as smoldering, charring, ignition followed by flames, or burning with a lot
of smoke (Tuhtar, 1989). Smoke produced from burning wood has a characteristic
recognizable odour. In comparison with other solids, the toxicity of smoke produced
from wood burning is not pronounced. Except for carbon monoxide, other toxic gases
are either absent or only present in traces.
31
3.3.1.2 Plastics
Plastics are used practically everywhere, namely in building construction,
homes, offices, shops, schools, hospitals, etc. A lot of equipment and applications,
furniture, wall coverings, curtains, textiles and many other products either are made
completely of plastic, or contain some plastic parts.
All plastics, regardless of chemical characteristics, being organic compounds are
combustible. Various flame-retardants can considerably reduce flammability but cannot
completely stop combustion. Ignition temperatures of plastics are somewhat higher in
comparison with wood and wood-based products. However, the rates of flame spread
are generally much higher than wood (Tuhtar, 1989).
The burning of plastics rapidly produces smoke which is usually dense, contains
a lot of soot and has a dark colour. It has been found in many cases that the inhibition
of flammability of plastics by flame-retardants increases smoke production (Tuhtar,
1989). Thermoplastics soften on heating before reaching ignition temperature and
harden on cooling. At higher temperatures, thermoplastics melt and flow. This
characteristic of plastics is potentially hazardous since the flaming liquid may drip and
thus spread the fire.
Another hazard is that during the burning process, some plastics release
corrosive and toxic gases such as HCL, HF, HBr, HCN and NH3 (Smith, 1985). The
conditions which enhance the emission of such gases during a fire are low ventilation
and lengthy fire growth which increases fire temperatures to the point of an easy break
of the polymer matrix and the release of simple gaseous constituents.
32
3.3.1.3 Textiles
The widespread use of textiles in daily life, coupled with the fact that nearly all
textiles are combustible, explain the leading role of textile fires in fire deaths. More
than 50% of fatal incidents involve a fabric (Krasny and Sello, 1986). As to the type of
fabric first ignited, artificial fibres, cotton and rayon comprise the largest percentage
(41%), whereas wool and wool mixtures are very rarely first ignited (1%). This marked
difference is due to the differing ignition temperatures. While cotton and most artificial
fibres ignite at relatively low temperatures (520 – 670 K), the ignition temperature for
natural protein-based fabrics such as wool, silk and cashmere is between 840 and 880 K
(Tuhtar, 1989).
The fire characteristics of textiles depend on the nature and proportion of
individual fibres, on their weight and the method of blending. Textiles based on
cellulosic fibres such as cotton and jute behaves differently in fires compared to protein
fibres. The latter ones do not burn readily, shrink at temperatures approaching their
decomposition temperature and burn more slowly. Common artificial fibres such as
nylon and rayon burn similarly to protein-based natural fibres. Thus, they are relatively
safer compared to fabrics containing cellulose. However, when exposed to heat,
artificial fibres often melt and stick to the skin. Therefore, they should not be employed
for protective clothing.
Synthetic fabrics can be hazardous in some special atmospheres, such as
oxygen-enriched atmospheres or atmospheres containing flammable gases and vapours
because of the accumulation of static electricity (Tuhtar, 1989). The discharge of this
electricity to the ground or other objects may produce a spark of sufficient energy to
ignite a flammable gas. In such situations, electrically conductive fabrics should be
employed.
33
3.3.1.4 Liquids
Flammable and combustible liquids are among the most fire hazardous
materials. Fire statistics record that fires involving a liquid are the most frequent ones.
Flammable and combustible liquids are the most hazardous in all instances when the
liquid is exposed to air, such as in spillages (Tuhtar, 1989). The fire and explosion
characteristics of a liquid can be described using a number of parameters. Some of
them are applicable to solid and gaseous materials as well. Thus, most of the hazards
are similar to the ones already described earlier.
3.3.1.5 Gases
For fire protection purposes a gas may be defined as any substance which exists
in a gaseous state at normal temperature and pressure. Since at these conditions many
substances may exist as either liquids or gases, depending on the partial pressures of
their vapours, it is generally accepted that all those liquids which exert a relatively high
vapour pressure may be regarded as gases (Baker, 1973).
In most situations, gases are used in large volumes. Since gases are much lighter
than liquids and solids, the only practical means of having a reasonable quantity of gas
on hand is either by gas compression in containers or by filling the containers with
liquefied gas. Both these forms of gas-packing present hazards. Fire hazards of gases
are very similar to those of liquids. This is not surprising since in fire hazards of liquids
it is the vapour of a particular liquid which is hazardous, rather than the liquid phase
34
itself. Thus, most of the hazards are also similar to the ones already described
previously.
In addition to the fire characteristics, many gases are hazardous on account of
other properties. The hazard stems from properties such as toxicity, reactivity and
chemical inertness (Tuhtar, 1989). However, the basic hazard of all gases and vapours,
regardless of their chemical composition, is related to the change of gas pressure with
changing temperature. From classical gas laws, the doubling of temperature leads to a
doubling of gas pressure. Hence, gas containers would normally be ruptured in the
event of a fire.
3.3.2 Sources of Oxidants
The second factor necessary for combustion to occur is the presence of an
oxidant. This can be either in the form of free oxygen in the air or chemically bound
oxygen present in reduction agents (Tuhtar, 1989). These are further described below.
3.3.2.1 Oxygen in Air
It is obvious that a fire can occur only if an oxidant is present together with a
combustible material, since only then, and in the presence of an ignition source, will the
reductant be oxidized to the final combustion products (Tuhtar, 1989). By far the most
35
common oxidant is the oxygen in air itself. Oxygen in air comes in the form of
molecular oxygen O2. It is a very reactive chemical species which is capable of
oxidizing almost all other elements producing oxides as the final reaction products.
Other forms of oxygen, such as atomic oxygen O or ozone O3 are even more reactive.
However, they are normally present in air only in negligible concentrations, leaving the
molecular oxygen as the predominant oxygen species. Compared to common oxidation
reactions in which a material is slowly transformed to its oxidized form, fires can be
regarded as oxidation reactions occurring very quickly.
3.3.2.2 Chemically Bound Oxygen
Oxygen needed for the oxidation of the reductant may also come from some
compounds in which it is chemically bound in the form of various groups, such as
peroxide O22-, perchlorate ClO4
-, nitrate NO3-, nitrite NO2
-, permanganate MnO4-, etc
(Tuhtar, 1989). Most compounds containing these groups are not combustible
themselves, yet they are considered hazardous because they can liberate oxygen needed
for combustion. In this way, the intensity of burning is increased since pockets of
oxygen-enriched atmospheres are formed in the immediate vicinity of the decomposed
compound. The release of oxygen from oxidants involved in a fire is accompanied by
the evolution of heat. When water is employed for extinguishing such fires, steam
explosions are possible, further augmenting the hazard of oxidants. Compounds
containing bounded oxygen are widely used in many applications such as salt baths,
bleaching powders and fertilizers.
36
3.3.3 Sources of Heat Energy
The third factor necessary for the initiation of the reaction between a fuel and an
oxidant is a source of heat energy. Only in some exceptionally rare circumstances will
the sole contact between the fuel and oxygen lead to a spontaneous combustion. In the
great majority of cases, an outside source of heat energy is necessary for the initiation of
the combustion. The source of heat energy often behaves as a catalyst, especially in the
piloted ignition. Its presence is necessary for the promotion of the combustion reaction,
but only up to the point where the reaction becomes self-sustaining.
There are several distinct means of generating heat energy in the quantities and
duration required for the initiation of fire. They may conveniently be divided into three
broad categories, namely electrical, chemical and mechanical sources of heat energy
(Tuhtar, 1989). Each of these is further described below.
3.3.3.1 Electrical Heat Energy
Electricity is repeatedly quoted as a major cause of many fires. Fire statistics
regularly show electricity to be responsible for between 20% and 40% of all fires of
known origin (Tuhtar, 1989). Although formally it is true that electrical heat energy
does cause a significant number of fires, it is also undisputable that fires will seldom be
initiated by the electricity if the electrical installations and equipments are made, used
and maintained in accordance with the corresponding codes and standards.
37
Electrical heat energy is always generated when an electric conductor carries a
current (Parker and Long, 1972). From classical physics, it is known that the greater the
current and resistance, and the longer the current flows through the conductor, the
greater the heat energy liberated. For safe use of electrical conductors, electrical codes
specify the maximum current which will not overheat them. The resistance of
conductors is determined by the kind of material employed. Materials which are good
conductors, such as copper, silver and aluminium are preferred and generally used.
Finally, the time the current takes to pass through the conductor is determined by the
intended use of electrical appliances, unless the appliance is left on unintentionally,
causing an accidental fire.
3.3.3.2 Chemical Heat Energy
Heat energy necessary for the initiation of fires may be produced by several
types of chemical reactions. Among them of primary concern to fire protection are
combustion reactions. These reactions when brought to a completion release a
considerable amount of heat known as the heat of combustion (Parker and Long, 1972).
Examples of common sources of heat energy formed by combustion reactions are open
flames, a lighted cigarette, an acetylene torch used for cutting and welding, a hot fuel-
fired boiler, a drier or a furnace surface. Other types of chemical reactions which
release heat are spontaneous heating (self-heating) and spontaneous ignition (self-
ignition).
38
3.3.3.3 Mechanical Heat Energy
It is well known that some forms of mechanical energy can be converted to heat
energy (Parker and Long, 1972). The greater the mechanical work, the greater the
amount of heat released. The mechanical heat energy, formed as result of mechanical
failure or malfunction of equipment, is the source of ignition for a significant number of
fires (5 – 10%) (Tuhtar, 1989). Furthermore, when two moving solids are in contact,
the resistance to relative motion is manifested in the form of heat due to friction. If heat
due to friction is not dissipated as rapidly as it is formed, there will be overheating
which may ignite the combustible material.
3.4 Causes of Fire in High-Rise Buildings
In principle, a building is considered safe when equipped with adequate fire
features, designed and engineered to perform such functions without fail. This is only
true provided that the fire protection system installed is serviced and maintained
regularly and in good working order and condition at all material times. However, it is
ideal to prevent fire from occurring in any way possible. This could be achieved
through proper control measures and strict adherence to fire safety rules and
regulations. Building Managers, Tenants, Occupants and Contractors all play a role in
preventing building fires.
In the history of building fires, the causes of fire outbreak are usually due to fire
ignition, faulty electricity, smoking, arson, cooking or renovations (Abdullah, 2001). A
brief description of each of these causes is given below:
39
3.4.1 Fire Ignition
As ignition is the principle component in the Triangle of Fire and the
introductory element in building fires, its occurrence should be prevented to the fullest
extent. Ignition can be caused by many factors, as previously described.
3.4.2 Faulty Electricity
Spontaneous ignition comes about from faulty electricity. As such, electrical
fixtures, fittings and installations should be periodically inspected, checked and tested.
Only approved electrical items should be used and strictly, electrical installation works
should only be carried out by licensed contractors (Craighead, 1995). The malpractice
of over fusing and by-passing of circuit breakers that has been one of the major causes
of building fires should therefore be strictly prohibited.
An example in this case is the Joelana Building fire that claimed the lives of one
hundred and seventy-nine building occupants. A window air-conditioning unit caught
fire from short-circuiting due to bypassing of the circuit breaker. In the Las Vegas
MGM Grand Hotel fire that killed eighty-five people, the fire was caused by electrical
short-circuiting at the ground floor restaurant due to earth fault (Abdullah, 2001).
40
3.4.3 Smoking
As far as possible, smoking should be restricted as it can cause fire (McGuire,
1983). Lighting of fires in building premises, even for religious purposes should be
disallowed. In the first place, burning of incense materials would pollute the space air
and secondly, a great degree of carelessness and recklessness of people exist in this
respect. Placing of trash bins along corridors and lobbies might result in smokers
discarding lighted cigarette butts into them resulting in the burning of combustible
materials inside. In the Westchase Hilton Hotel fire that caused the deaths of twelve
people, the cause of fire was due to smoking material igniting furniture (Abdullah,
2001).
3.4.4 Arson
Many building fires were arson-initiated where in certain cases, purported
“unfortunate victims” were eventually proven to be the culprits themselves with
fraudulent intentions in seeking redress. Hence the multitude of problems that might be
encountered in preventing the misdeeds of such perverted and furtive subversive
elements reputed for their clandestine nature and characteristics. However, to a
considerable extent these could be prevented by strict security control and frequent
patrols by security personnel. Occupants can also contribute a great deal by keeping
vigil and reporting on any suspicious characters and untoward happenings in the
building (Craighead, 1995).
41
Arson-initiated fires have claimed many lives in the history of tall building fires.
In the Dupont Plaza Hotel and Casino fire that claimed the lives of ninety-seven people,
fire was arson-initiated when new furniture stored in the ballroom was burnt by
arsonists. The Pioneer International Hotel fire in which twenty-eight people were killed
was believed to be arson-initiated (Abdullah, 2001).
3.4.5 Cooking
Restaurants should be equipped with proper kitchen exhaust systems including
provision for fire suppression. Exhaust ducts should be enclosed in fire-rated enclosures
and filters should be regularly cleaned. Kitchen air-conditioning and ventilation system
should not be connected to the central air-conditioning system as greasy matter will be
lodged in supply and return air ducts, ceiling void and all over the premises served by
the floor’s air-conditioning system.
Precautionary measures should be taken in keeping fuel away from ignition
sources and these could be achieved by proper storage and strict controls on the
movement of highly flammable materials (Craighead, 1995). Refuse and spent building
materials should be disposed in a legal manner and not be burned in the building
compound or premises under any circumstances.
Liquid petroleum gas should be stored in safe places outside the building proper
and conveyed by proper conduits to the restaurants. Cooking of any kind using gaseous,
liquid or solid fuel matter should not be allowed in pantries save for boiling water using
electric kettles. In the history of tall building fires, restaurant fires can lead to disastrous
consequences. In the case of the Tae Yon Kak Hotel fire in South Korea that killed one
42
hundred and sixty-three people, fire was caused by liquid petroleum gas fire in a coffee
shop at the 2nd floor (Abdullah, 2001).
3.4.6 Renovations
Renovations are either minor or major (remodeling) and have to be closely
supervised and monitored as there have been numerous cases of outbreak of fire in
high-rise buildings not only during renovations, but also due to illegal haphazard
renovations (Tan and Hiew, 2004). In view of safety, comfort and well being of
building occupants, renovations should not be carried out during occupancy time.
3.4.6.1 Minor Renovations
These are in the form of furniture layout, minor electrical work, lighting, and
painting, carpet laying, half-length partitions that are removable for future
rearrangements. Minor renovations should not involve in any changes to original
building designs. Nevertheless, such works must be carried out in accordance with
building rules and regulations (Tan and Hiew, 2004).
43
3.4.6.2 Major Renovations or Remodeling
These are total renovations where full-length repartitioning is involved. Tenants
in occupying a whole floor often remove smoke compartments, obliterating corridors
and openings are made to firewalls. Sprinklers, air-conditioning terminals, return air
vents and lighting are repositioned in the process.
Often such changes are made without due regard to fire safety. In repartitions to
restaurants, massage parlours or health centers, hairdressing saloons, MTV, KTV or
Karaoke, independent cubicles are made for privacy. Very often, cheap and inferior
materials like plywood are used for partitioning works. Such materials have low FRR,
greater risks to flammability and flashover propensities.
Usually, the remodeled premises have higher fire risks than the original building
design. In such cases, additional fire safety features should be incorporated into the fire
protection design of these premises (Tan and Hiew, 2004). However, these are ignored
in most cases.
44
3.5 Effects of Fire and Fire Products
3.5.1 Effects of Fire on People
Each year throughout the world, fires and explosions take a heavy human toll.
Thousands of people are killed, and many more are injured, often permanently. Recent
fire statistics for 12 countries (Tuhtar, 1989) reveal that on average the number of fire
deaths per 100 000 of population varies between 0.54 (for Switzerland) and 2.50 (for
US) (See Table 3.1).
Table 3.1 : International Fire Deaths in 1983
Country Deaths per 100
Population
Switzerland 0.54
Netherlands 0.59
Austria 0.96
Yugoslavia 1.15
Spain 1.20
New Zealand 1.25
Denmark 1.37
Norway 1.45
Japan 1.56
Sweden 1.68
France 1.70
Finland 1.92
United Kingdom 2.02
United States 2.50
45
The world’s leading rates are firmly held by the USA and Canada in that order
since these two countries annually experience by far the largest number of fires (Cote,
1986). A generally apathetic attitude to fire prevention in these two countries and an
inferior fire protection organization in comparison with European countries, coupled
with the considerable economic impact of fire protection seem to intensify such a high
fire death rate. The chances of being killed by fire have been estimated to be 1:60 000
per year (Rasbash, 1984).
The lowest fire death rate is in the 15-35 age group, as this group is able to
evacuate more rapidly in the event of fire (Gormsen et al., 1984). Younger people
(children up to five) and older people (over 65) are the most likely victims, as fire
deaths of these groups are disproportionably higher, since they spend most of their time
at home. Consequently, most fatal fires occur in residences. Although one-and two-
family dwellings and mobile homes account for 64.2% of all residential-type
occupancies, fire risks in high-rise buildings are the most severe, and often produce
multiple deaths. It has been found that one in every 100 fires in residential occupancies
causes death. Deaths in sprinkler-protected buildings are strikingly lower, which shows
that the main function of sprinklers – the protection of lives – is amply proven
(Hagglund, 1983).
There have been numerous attempts to correlate fire deaths with a number of
different factors. Thus, especially high positive correlation is found with alcohol
consumption, and smoking (Gormsen et al., 1984). Smoking has been blamed as the
principal cause of multiple-death fires in the USA. Other statistically significant
correlations have been found with cold climates (a positive correlation) and the number
on fire fighters per unit of population (a negative correlation) (Banks and Montgomery,
1983).
46
Fire fighting is a dangerous profession. Thus, each year a large number of fire
fighters die in the line of duty. The leading cause of deaths is not smoke intoxication or
burns, but heart-related diseases brought about by high stress. Especially vulnerable are
older firemen for whom heart attacks are the leading cause of death. Physiological
changes in fire fighters due to the weight of personal equipment under hot
environmental conditions are reflected in increased heart rhythm, increased
concentration of noradrenaline and increased sweating. These conditions increase air
consumption and energy expenditure during fire operation (Tuhtar, 1989).
Fires also cause a great number of injuries. Fire injuries are defined as the
effects of fires on people who then require medical attention and treatment. Fire
injuries exceed the number of deaths many times (Tuhtar, 1989). Injured people always
experience pain and often need long hospitalization, further enhancing overall fire costs
and effects.
3.5.2 Effects of Fire on Property
In addition to human losses, fires cause tremendous wastage of property.
Property losses in industrialized countries vary between 1.0 and 1.5% of gross national
product (Rasbash, 1984). About one fifth of this value comprises direct property losses,
while the remainder is made up of the costs of conducting fire prevention, of
maintaining fire departments, of conducting the fire insurance business and of the
necessary organizational measures (Rasbash, 1984).
47
Indirect losses from fires are hard to assess. They often cannot be measured in
monetary terms, such as loss of credit standing, loss of trained personnel, loss of
customer confidence, etc. The World Fire Statistics Centre lists seven key parameters
which indicate fire losses, and calls for a uniform reporting of fire losses using these
parameters as a base.
A large percentage (ca. 70%) of total fire losses occur in high-valued industrial
and commercial properties, with most fires occurring in storage occupancies. In an
analysis of the role of fire defense within UK industry it has been estimated that fire
losses in industry amount to ₤6000 per minute if fires are not extinguished (Durrant,
1985).
3.5.3 Effects of Smoke
Smoke in fires appears as a result of non-stoichiometric combustion of fuels. In
addition to the final oxidation products, CO2 and H2O, combustion products contain a
number of gases and partially oxidized and reduced compounds, such as methane
(CH4), methanol (CH3OH), formaldehyde (HCHO), formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid
(CH3COOH), as well as droplets of flammable tars, condensed vapors and very fine
solid particles (Hurst and Jones, 1985). The presence of these products produces a
visible appearance of combustion products known as smoke. Smoke in fires is evolved
practically at all temperatures. The physical conditions of combustion, such as the
combustion rate, the combustion mode and the temperature, have more influence on the
smoke composition than does the kind of burning material (Tuhtar, 1989). The
characteristics of smoke that are most dangerous to people are it toxicity, colour and
density.
48
Fire statistics and research reveal that most fire deaths are caused by smoke
inhalation (Gormsen et al., 1984). Modern materials in fires release more toxic
compounds per unit weight than do the traditional ones, and although the smoke
composition has remained fairly constant, the rate of fire spread and the emission of
smoke have increased. These two factors are the leading causes of the increased death
rate in fires. Inhaled smoke causes irritation and damage to the respiratory system,
while smoke in air affects the eyes, inducing tears, and in more serious cases even
injury to the eyes.
Smoke color varies, depending on the material being burned, from light blue in
the case of good combustion to heavy black during the combustion of some high
molecular weight hydrocarbons. Dark-colored smoke significantly reduces visibility,
obscuring exit signs, and induces panic in people in fires (Benjamin, 1984). Another
important smoke characteristic from a safety point of view is its density. It is well
known that dense, copious smoke obscures visibility and threatens the lives of both the
people being rescued and the fire fighters. The visibility reduction depends not only on
the composition and concentration of smoke but also on the radius of the smoke
particles, on the nature of the light, as well as on the psychophysical state of the
observer (Tuhtar, 1989).
3.5.4 Effects of Fire Gases
The principal effect of fire gases is in their toxicity when inhaled, sometimes
even in very low concentrations. The toxicity is enhanced since the inhaled gases are
generally at a high temperature and often oxygen deficient. However, in case of death it
is very difficult to pinpoint a single gas that is presumably responsible for the tragic
49
outcome. Fire gases appear in mixtures and the possibility of synergism is always
present. Therefore, a great deal of research concerning the toxicity of smoke and fire
gases is being undertaken in many countries (Tuhtar, 1989).
However, what is known for certain, on the basis of numerous biological and
chemical experiments, is that many fire gases, taken individually, are toxic to humans
(Tuhtar, 1989). The toxicity depends on several factors, of which the concentration of
the gas in air, the duration of the exposure and the physical condition of the individual
are the most important.
3.5.5 Effects of Heat and Flame
During fires, enormous amounts of heat are often liberated. If for any reason
(unconsciousness, drunkenness, physical or mental incapacity, drugs) people are not
able to leave the fire atmosphere, the effects of heat ranging from simple discomfort to
death may develop. Elevated air temperatures can be tolerated to a certain degree,
depending on air humidity, heat-shielding effects of clothing and physical activity
(Newman, 1982). The higher the moisture content of the air breathed, the lower is the
maximum survivable breathing-level temperature. Since water vapour is one of the
principal combustion products, and in many cases is added when used in fire fighting, a
fire atmosphere is frequently moisture-laden. In such a situation skin perspiration is
enhanced leading to rapid body dehydration.
Water-deficient blood becomes denser, slowing the blood circulation and
causing an increased heart rate. Physically fit men are able to endure air temperatures
50
of 353 – 373 K for 10 minutes without serious consequences. At slightly higher
temperatures (386 – 392 K) breathing and heart rate are however, so increased that after
a short time heat exhaustion and total collapse set in (Tuhtar, 1989).
Skin can be damaged when exposed to just minute amounts of heat flux. With
some people even sunbathing can cause a severe heat shock. The threshold of human
tolerance to heat radiation is sharply reduced in the interval 1.7 – 2.2 kW/m2. For
instance, a heat intensity of 1.7 kW/m2 can be tolerated for 30 minutes, while at 2.2
kW/m2 heat can be endured for only 5 minutes. Exposure to still larger heat flux causes
severe skin burns. A one-second exposure to 20 kW/m2 leads to skin redness, while
radiation of 28 kW/m2 brings about skin burns. Heat flux of 37 kW/m2 seriously
damages fabrics (Bull and Lawrence, 1979).
People are instinctively afraid of fires, so burns from flames can be caused only
if there are no means of egress from fire, or people are incapacitated. Consequently,
small children and very old people are the most likely victims. People overwhelmed by
fires, if they survive, usually end up with bad burns. Even then, their lives are
endangered because of possible infection.
Burns may be brought about either by direct contact with flames or by heat
radiated from flames. When the surface temperature of the human skin increases to 317
K the outer layer of the skin becomes damaged, while at a temperature of 350 K skin
tissue is immediately destroyed. These extremes together with intermediate levels of
skin burns, are commonly classified as first-, second- and third-degree burns. Heat
damage to a relatively small skin area can be very painful, and if a larger area is
involved (50% for young people, 20% for old people), the death rate can reach 50%
(Bull and Lawrence, 1979).
51
3.6 Human Behaviour in Fires
Fires are by their very nature traumatic events. The appearance of dense and
irritating smoke and flames are the best indicators of impending peril and an obvious
motivation for evacuation in case of fires (Tong and Canter, 1985). However, even in
buildings that are correctly designed and equipped with all the necessary exit facilities,
some people are likely to become injured or killed. Fear of death, anxiety,
disorientation, confusion and panic are just some of the direct effects of stress.
Under these circumstances, most people (85%) react reflexively and intuitively
(Wardlaw, 1983). On evacuation they tend to use the same entrance corridors and the
same everyday routine, even in cases where emergency exits are clearly marked. On the
other hand, a smaller group (10 - 25%) is made up of people who show considerable
self-control. They are able to perceive the danger and are able to work out and
implement a realistic rescue plan. The third, equally small group, reacts irrationally and
hysterically and are frequently the first victims of fire. However, panic behaviour is the
exception rather than the rule. Most people demonstrate unselfish behaviour in trying to
help others in fires (Brian, 1986).
An analysis of the behaviour of people in fires in hotels, hospitals and nursing
homes revealed that portable fire extinguishers, although easily accessible, were
actually not used (Wardlaw, 1983). Out of 136 people evacuated, more than 100 did
not even try to extinguish the fire, while a few of those who did actually used the wrong
extinguishing medium.
Thus it is clear that the behaviour of people in fires is a complex process. More
disturbing, in the case of fire, is that some people do not pay attention to fire alarms,
52
either assuming a false alarm or assuming just another emergency exercise. Others
over-react and panic, and try to escape using the first arrangement or solution available.
Yet another group returns to the building under fire from which they had just been
safely evacuated, thus endangering their lives again (Tuhtar, 1989). In such situations,
the role of the leader is crucial. He should be able to keep uninterrupted attention on all
people, and to ask for and get their cooperation, enhance their sense of responsibility,
and ultimately lead them to a safe exit.
3.7 Summary
In this chapter, the nature and behavior of fires were discussed in detail. Besides
that, the sources of fire hazards in high-rise buildings were also presented. The sources
of fire hazards can be divided into three main categories, namely hazards of materials,
sources of oxidants, and sources of heat energy. Subsequently, the major causes of fire
in high-rise buildings were presented. The major causes were identified as, fire
ignition, faulty electricity, smoking, arson, cooking, and renovation works. Lastly, the
effects of fire or fire products on people and property were discussed. This chapter also
briefly discussed how humans typically tend to behave in the event of fire. This is
important since it could ultimately determine life or death in the event of a fire
emergency.
53
CHAPTER 4
FIRE LIFE SAFETY MANAGEMENT IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the various aspects of Fire Safety Management are presented and
discussed in detail. Besides this, several other systems that are commonly used to
enhance fire safety in high-rise buildings are also briefly presented.
4.2 Fire Safety Management in High-Rise Buildings
In the world of high-rise buildings construction, security and life safety systems
and equipments have become an important element that must be taken into
consideration. However, achieving the appropriate level of protection is not possible
with just implementing one simple procedure. Rather, it is the synergistic effect of all
building systems and features working together harmoniously that ensure the safety in
the building (Craighead, 1995). Therefore, it is essential that the high-rise security and
54
fire life safety systems be well planned, managed and executed. Hence, the human
interface has become the complementary factor that supplements these sophisticated
systems.
In general, high-rise buildings must have an effective fire life safety
management plan that includes training and education for tenants and staff in order to
reduce the chances of fire outbreaks from occurring. A person who is not properly
trained and lacks awareness may not only be responsible for causing a fire but also help
it spread through ignorance and panic resulting in loss of life and damage to property.
Fire life safety management needs to be considered from two major aspects, which are
Preventive Management and Emergency Response Management (Tan and Hiew, 2004).
4.3 Preventive Management
According to the Webster Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913), preventive
management is defined as an agent or device intended to prevent conception.
Preventive management includes education and training, electrical inspection,
renovation inspection, pest control programme and good housekeeping practice,
signage, operation and maintenance of fire equipments and fire drill procedures (Tan
and Hiew, 2004).
55
4.3.1 Education and Training
4.3.1.1 Occupant Training
When a fire occurs, the occupants who discover the fire should know how to
protect themselves, how to notify others who may be at risk, how to confine the fire,
and how to notify those who will be the ones responding to the fire. Thus, all high-rise
building occupants including every new occupant should receive regular training in fire
prevention practices. They are taught by qualified personnel how to react in the event
of a fire emergency, about legal fire life safety requirements, the usage of the building’s
emergency systems, first aid practices and equipments, and other relevant emergency
procedures (Tan and Hiew, 2004). Audiovisual aids and handout materials are
extremely helpful in the training programme. Documentation of this instruction needs
to be maintained by the Fire Safety Director and be available for inspection by the
authorities. All the occupants are required to participate in the building fire life safety
programme every once in while (Craighead, 1995).
Besides training sessions, booklets, brochures, pamphlets or leaflets that contain
the correct procedures to be followed in the event of any emergency occurring within
the building are often provided to occupants. Many of these brochures include floor
evacuation plans that indicate the building core, perimeter, stairwells, elevators, exit
routes to the appropriate stairwells, symbols depicting the location of fire fighting
equipment and manual fire alarm devices; floor number; fire department and building
emergency telephone numbers; stairwells that have roof access and what the fire alarm
looks and sound like (Craighead, 1995).
56
4.3.1.2 Floor Warden Training
A qualified person should conduct a floor warden training class at least once in
every 3 to 6 months. The class should include legal fire life safety requirements and
emergency systems and equipments, outline of floor warden’s duties and
responsibilities in training occupants under their supervision and a description of the
emergency procedures addressed in the Floor Warden Manual (Craighead, 1995).
4.3.1.3 Building Emergency Staff Training
Building emergency staff procedures and each member’s duties and
responsibilities must be clearly stated. All emergency staff and personnel must be
properly trained to carry out their duties in the event of a fire (Tan and Hiew, 2004).
Technical staff should be tailored with more comprehensive training programmes as
compared to the occupants training programme and they should be aware of the fire
resistance capabilities of the building structure, materials, fire dampers, fire rated
ducting, the principles of fire spread and harmful products, smoke control measures,
principles behind effective evacuation procedures, and the maintenance of built-in and
installed fire safety features. Special training is also required for personnel in control
rooms and receptionists in communication so that they can convey important
information correctly and be able to alert the relevant people during an emergency
(Craighead, 1995).
57
4.3.2 Inspection of Electrical Installation
Electrical equipment should be installed safely and inspected regularly to ensure
proper and safe functioning (Tan and Hiew, 2004). This is to ensure that there is no
malfunctioning of equipment that could pose a fire hazard to the building and ultimately
prevent loss of life.
4.3.3 Renovation Precaution and Inspection
Renovation plans include drawings, floor plans, partition plans, plumbing works
and types of signage to be submitted to the management and/or FRDM for approval
during pre-renovation. Then, the contractors have to apply for a work permit from the
office of the Building Manager (Abdullah, 2001). The work permit should spell out
clearly the location where the work will be carried out and the duration in terms of
permissible time intervals and number of days as well as fire safety precautions. Before
the works commence, the Fire Control Room is notified so that the operator can pay
special attention towards the affected area. When work is in progress, all the renovation
works are controlled and monitored. Besides that, temporary fire fighting equipment
such as portable fire extinguishers are placed in the affected areas where the sprinkler
system has been shut off to facilitate the works. After the renovation, post-renovation
checking should be carried out. The fire detection and fire fighting systems are retested
and any damaged fire seals are replaced. If the works are extensive, it will be necessary
to invite FRDM for a post-completion inspection prior to the issuance of certificate of
fitness for occupational by the local authorities (Tan and Hiew, 2004).
58
4.3.4 Pest Control Programme and Good Housekeeping Practices
A proper pest control programme must be available as vermins can cause
damage by biting on wires and destroying the protective insulation, causing short-
circuits. Besides that, good housekeeping practices should ensure that building areas
are kept clean and as neat as possible. Areas within spaces, storage areas, and public
corridors should be free of obstructions and fire hazards (Tan and Hiew, 2004).
4.3.5 Signage
The law requires evacuation signs to be posted in high-rise buildings
(Craighead, 1995). Proper and visible signage should be made available to show
locations of exit points and fire equipment. This can help guide people out of the
building safely in the event of an emergency (Tan and Hiew, 2004).
4.3.6 Inspection, Operation and Maintenance of Fire Safety Equipment
All personnel in the maintenance unit must play their roles and conduct simple
inspections of ongoing daily activities to ensure that all equipments are in good
condition (Abdullah, 2001). Sometimes, the support team of a licensed life safety
system maintenance contractor who is hired by the building owner does the
maintenance of equipments such as lifts. The management staff can also play a major
59
role by informing the maintenance personnel of any faults occurring in the building. All
fire rated doors should remain closed at all times. Besides that, all fire fighting sensors
and accessories should be tested at least once a month. The test should be conducted
after office hours to check and ensure that the above equipment respond as they should
(Tan and Hiew, 2004). Apart from that, proper inventory of all equipments installed is
needed to ensure proper record of maintenance history. All maintenance and operation
manuals of the equipments including hired system maintenance should be kept properly
and a checklist of each system should be developed to ensure all aspects are covered
thoroughly.
4.3.7 Fire and Evacuation Drill Procedures
Fire and evacuation drills are an invaluable tool to train, instruct, reinforce, and
test the effectiveness of the emergency staff, occupants, and floor warden’s response to
a fire emergency (Craighead, 1995). Fire and evacuation drills for high-rise buildings
should be done at least once every 12 months (Abdullah, 2001). The main objective of
the drill is to familiarize the building occupants with the escape routes available and the
sound of the fire alarm bells. This will speed up the actual evacuation process (Tan and
Hiew, 2004). To be successful, fire drills should be planned ahead of time and should
be documented. On completion of drills, a brief report about the goal statement,
description of how the drills were conducted, overall review of how building fire life
safety systems performed, how floor wardens, occupants, and building emergency staff
performed and lastly recommendations on training improvements should be produced
by the Fire Safety Director. This documentation is used to analyze the training
readiness of all persons involved and to prove that the building manager has taken steps
to ensure the safety of occupants (Craighead, 1995).
60
4.4 Emergency Response Management
It is necessary to plan ahead for a manager or building owner to effectively
respond to a fire emergency. The Building Owners and Managers Association
International (BOMA) defines an emergency plan as “a set of actions intended to reduce
the threat from emergencies that may affect a facility”. The objective of an emergency
plan is to allow those responsible for the facility during an emergency to focus on the
solution of major problems and not to immediately attempt to bring order out of chaos
(Tan and Hiew, 2004). If all the predictable and foreseeable items are considered in the
plan, those responsible for actions during an emergency will be able to deal with the
unpredictable or unusual situations that may develop (Craighead, 1995). Emergency
response management can be classified into four aspects, i.e. Building Emergency
Procedure Manual, Emergency Response Team, Fire Identification and Notification,
and Emergency Evacuation.
4.4.1 Building Emergency Procedure Manual
This manual is a written document that describes actions formulated to reduce
the threat to life safety from emergencies that are most likely to occur in a specific
building. The authority having jurisdiction, such as the local fire department, often will
develop written criteria and guidelines on which plans may be based. This manual
should also consult with other authorities having jurisdiction, including local officials,
for precise criteria and guidelines on which their plans should base. Generally, this
manual consists of legal requirements; emergency telephone numbers; organization of
building emergency response staff and their responsibilities; evacuation and relocation
procedure; building emergency systems and equipments including the way systems and
61
equipments operate in relation to each other and building drawings and plans detailing
site plans, floor layouts, evacuation routes, stairwell and elevator configurations;
emergency operation center; drills; documentation and record-keeping for all activities
and training conducted under the emergency plan as well as handling of the media. All
the changes of information in this manual have to be amended and updated (Craighead,
1995).
4.4.2 Emergency Response Team
In the event of an emergency, the responsibilities of the Emergency Response
Team are to ensure that the fire department has been notified immediately, all occupants
have been informed, any necessary evacuation or relocation procedures for affected
occupants have begun, building fire life safety systems are operating under emergency
conditions, and any investigation or initial suppression of the fire is carried out. The
Emergency Response Team includes the fire safety director; incident supervisor; fire
control officer; fire control squad members; rescue team; communication officer;
technical team; security at the control room; roll-call supervisor; floor warden; and
traffic controller who have their own responsibilities or duties as outlined in the
Building Emergency Procedure Plan (Tan and Hiew, 2004). Sometimes, the support
team of a licensed life safety system maintenance contractor who is hired by the
building owner will assist the emergency response team in rescue work (Craighead,
1995).
62
4.4.3 Fire Identification and Notification
In the event that anyone smells smoke or sees fire or even smoke smoldering,
the fire alarm should be activated immediately to evacuate the building, even if the fire
is known to be small. The fire could grow rapidly, endangering other building
occupants. All building occupants should be familiar with the firebreak glass locations
(Tan and Hiew, 2004). After activating the fire alarm, the person discovering the fire or
smoke should immediately call the fire department from a safe location and provide the
necessary information. After the alarm has been sounded and the fire department has
been informed, an attempt should be made to put out the fire, if it is small and can be
extinguished without exposing oneself to injury. Portable fire extinguishers and
standpipe hose reels should be readily available for use. Otherwise, he or she should
evacuate with the other occupants in an orderly manner.
4.4.4 Emergency Evacuation and Relocation
The size of high-rise buildings and the high number of people often contained in
them makes it impractical to immediately and completely evacuate during a fire
emergency (Craighead, 1995). Evacuation or relocation is the movement of people
during an emergency to a location, inside or outside the building that considered a safe
refuge area. Evacuation involves leaving the building, whereas relocation involves
moving to an area of relative safety within the building and it takes place when the fire
is controllable. Relocation is based on the “Rule of 5” where two floors above the fire
are relocated for safety and two floors below is utilized as a base for the FRDM to stage
operations (Tan and Hiew, 2004). Occupants will be relocated at three floors from the
fire floor. Evacuation is complicated by the tendency most people have to leave
63
buildings by the same route they use to enter. To evacuate a floor, occupants should
proceed immediately to the nearest safe stairwell and go down at least three floors to re-
enter the building. If the fire floor is at six or less floors from the ground level, the
occupants are required to evacuate the building entirely. While evacuating, the
occupants should never use elevators. Once the occupants of the involved floors have
been relocated, the decision to evacuate them further using stairwell or elevators, or
whether additional floors need to be evacuated will be determined by the building
manager or the Fire Safety Department.
Evacuation plans must account for a range of events and be robust enough to
take all types of occupants into consideration (Tan and Hiew, 2004). Plans should
include floor search to make sure that every person on a floor is aware of an emergency
evacuation. The orderly movement of persons requires the utmost coordination of
assigned emergency evacuation floor teams and central evacuation control. They must
be encompassing, amenable to change, and applicable to a range of occupants with
disabilities. For example, floor plans with considerable detail reveal the number of
people who work in a specific office and whether or not that office has someone with
special needs. Such floor plans that are available to on-scene commanders of the fire
department would be an extraordinarily valuable tool for firefighters.
The primary concern in the event of a fire is to evacuate everyone from the
building as soon as possible (Craighead, 1995). Evacuation planning should take into
consideration how people will realistically react in an emergency situation. In order to
accomplish this, occupants must be prepared in advance for quick and orderly
evacuation. Lives are often lost through the irrational behavior of evacuees triggered by
panic. Successful evacuation is partly dependent on physical ability of individuals and
other physical values, such as distance to travel, proportions of exits and density of
smoke and partly on psychological values, such as communication processes,
perception, conceptualization, understanding, evaluation and decision. Because of this,
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proper education of occupants on abiding to evacuation procedures and escape routes
hopes to eliminate panic when people are ignorant during an emergency evacuation.
Periodic meetings should also be held with all personnel to explain evacuation
procedures in detail.
For evacuation of those individuals with disabilities, they should obtain
assistance from other individuals who are familiar with their disability and able to assist
them. If no one is able to assist them down the stairs, they have to proceed to the
stairwell or designated area of refuge and inform other evacuees to seek immediate
rescue. Staircases and other designated areas of refuge are designated to provide
protection from smoke and fire for least the first 60 minutes. However, if anyone is
unable to make their way to the staircases or refuge areas, they should try to activate the
fire alarm on that particular floor. This will alert the fire rescue team by illuminating
the light on the fire-fighting panel for the particular floor and will initiate a direct
response to that floor (Tan and Hiew, 2004).
Lastly, it is the building management’s responsibility and duty of care to ensure
that the building evacuation plans can evacuate as many occupants including the less
fortunate prior to the arrival of the fire department. If the system fails, the firefighters
will then have to come to do a search and rescue for those left behind. From time to
time, an evacuation plan shall be reviewed and updated as required by the authority
having jurisdiction (Tan and Hiew, 2004).
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4.5 Systems to Enhance Fire Safety
The following systems are likely to enhance the levels of fire life safety within a high-
rise building (Craighead, 1995).
a) Stair Pressurization – The purpose of stair pressurization is to limit smoke
migration into the main egress route. By adopting a phased evacuation strategy,
the stair pressurization system is less likely to be compromised, as the limited
number of occupants entering the stairs should ensure that it performs as
designed with the required number of doors open (Craighead, 1995).
b) Lobby Pressurization – The advantage of having lobby pressurization is that it
provides a relatively safe area of refuge for occupants on the floor of fire origin.
When considering the use of stairs or use of lifts for evacuation, lobby
pressurization is an advantage where it is designed, installed and maintained
accordingly (Craighead, 1995).
c) Lobby Extraction – Depending on the building characteristics and system
configuration proposed, lobby extraction or smoke spill systems may be
considered within the design of a safe refuge.
d) Sprinkler System – In buildings greater than 25 metres in effective height, the
BCA requires a sprinkler system to be installed appropriate to the relevant
standard. There are many advantages to having a sprinkler system installed;
where a sprinkler system is omitted, the likelihood of smoke and fire spread is
greater (Abdullah, 2001). Main egress routes may experience smoke
66
contamination at an earlier time and evacuation may not be possible, depending
on the time of notification and occupant response. Where a sprinkler system is
not installed, occupants must understand that the risk to life could be higher. If
evacuation does not occur in the initial stages of a fire, then the fire may escalate
to a point where evacuation may not be possible.
e) Alarm Sequence – The designed alarm sequence in high-rise commercial and
residential buildings is crucial. This sequence of alarm notification determines
the method of evacuation adopted. For example, in a phased evacuation, the
alarm sounds the floor of fire origin, one/two floors above, and one/two floors
below. However, in a full building evacuation, the evacuation alarm may sound
the entire building regardless of fire location. This alarm may be connected to
the fire brigade through an approved monitoring agency, depending on the type
of occupancy. The earlier the fire brigade can attend the fire scene, the quicker
the situation is under control. If the building has fully trained wardens, control
should be achieved relatively quickly after alarm initiation. The alarm system
should also consider persons with language problems (non-English speaking
persons), and people with visual and hearing impairments. The alarm should
incorporate both fire detection and occupant warning and be designed to suit the
environment and ensure false alarms are minimized (Craighead, 1995).
f) Signage – It is important that the signage within stairs, hallways and other
building elements is simple to understand (Tan and Hiew, 2004). This is due to
the fact that occupants could be from non-English speaking families or they may
have a disability and therefore necessitates the installation of illustrative and
written type instructions. It is important to note that within smoke filled
enclosures, a visual aide may not be as effective.
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g) Public Address System and Occupant Intercommunication – Previous studies
have shown that occupants who do not have clear instructions will automatically
leave the building through the same route they entered (Craighead, 1995).
Therefore, the public address system, i.e. inter-communication, PA system,
occupant/emergency warning system, etc. should function in accordance with
the intended evacuation strategy. This in effect relies on an alarm system, but
also on the occupants that are provided with the information during an incident.
An appropriate system should be designed to ensure reliability and function to
the particular building requirements. Further, inter-communication where a
warden type system exists is an advantage to ensure clear direction is given to
occupants from those trained to do so.
h) Emergency Power – A full emergency power supply should be available to the
lifts and essential services systems such as emergency lighting and an occupant
warning system to assist with building evacuation (Craighead, 1995). Where
lifts are incorporated into an evacuation strategy, an appropriate emergency
power supply should be provided.
i) Refuge Options – All buildings that intend to use the phased evacuation strategy
should have protected refuge areas (Craighead, 1995). These should be
compartments of fire and smoke resistive construction, stairways large enough
to accommodate wheelchair access without obstructing people, means of
communication with building occupant warning system and fire brigade
communications. In “super tall” high-rise buildings, these refuge areas could
consist of an entire floor for every 20-50 levels.
j) Adequate Exits – In high-rise developments it is expected there will be a large
amount of occupants (Tan and Hiew, 2004). Therefore, a sufficient number of
68
exits must be available to accommodate this. Reliable means of re-entry should
be made available under normal and emergency conditions. Discharge of exit
stairs may be to outside or into a tenable area of the building.
k) Smoke Control Issues – Buildings over 25 metres in effective height, regardless
of the intended use, must consider smoke control issues and smoke hazard
management (Craighead, 1995). Smoke can be controlled in many ways, and it
is essential that the exit routes and safe refuge areas are smoke free, to enable
occupants to evacuate without hindrance that may cause delay or possible injury.
l) Compartmentation – Consideration should be made to incorporate door
smoke/fire seals and automatic closers to all doors opening into lobby or main
evacuation route to stairs. Ensuring sufficient fire resistive construction to
compartments is deemed necessary.
m) House Keeping – Maintain relatively sterile main evacuation routes, lobbies,
corridors, stairs and safe refuge areas and practice separation of combustible fuel
loads from ignition sources where practical (Tan and Hiew, 2004).
4.6 Summary
In this chapter, the various aspects of Fire Safety Management were discussed in
detail. Under preventive management, the aspects that were determined from the
literature review are conducting education and training programmes; inspection of
69
electrical installations; taking renovation precautions and inspections; implementing
pest control programmes; implementing good housekeeping practices; providing clear
signage; inspection, operation and maintenance of fire safety equipment; and
implementing fire and evacuation drill procedures. Besides this, several other systems
that are commonly used to enhance fire safety in high-rise buildings were also briefly
discussed.
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CHAPTER 5
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
5.1 Introduction
In a general sense, the research methodology is the steps or the sequence of
work involved from the beginning of the study until the completion of the final report.
It is essential in guiding the researcher towards achieving the aims and objectives of the
study. In this chapter, the methodology used in carrying out this study will be described
in detail. The first step involved is the determination of the objectives and the scope of
work involved. Subsequently, literature review was conducted to get a better
understanding of the subject matter in line with the objectives of the study. Next, field
research was conducted based on the case studies that were previously identified in the
scope of work. This involved conducting personal interviews with the people involved
in the day to day operations of the buildings, such as the Building Manager or Safety
Officer. This was necessary to obtain their professional opinions in line with the
objectives of the study. From the information obtained through the literature review
and personal interviews, the questionnaire is then developed and distributed to the
targeted participants. Subsequently, the data obtained from the questionnaires are
analyzed and their inferences are presented. This is followed by the discussions and
suggestions and eventually, conclusions are drawn to conclude the study.
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The targeted participants of the questionnaire survey comprised mainly of
people who use high-rise buildings in their daily lives. This group of people was
chosen since they are most likely to possess substantial experience and background
knowledge in the subject matter and to make judgments and opinions that are relevant
towards achieving the objectives of the study.
5.2 Research Methodology
For the purpose of this study, the research methodology can be briefly divided into four
stages, namely:
a) Literature Review;
b) Data Collection;
c) Analysis; and
d) Presentation of Results and Conclusions.
During the preliminary study, the following items were clearly identified and defined;
a) Problem Statement;
b) Aims and Objectives; and
c) Scope of Study.
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5.3 Literature Review
The literature review is divided into three sections. The first section is basically
an introduction to the topic of fire safety, whereby statistics of fires in high-rise
buildings and the definition of fire safety terms are presented. The Laws and
Regulations that govern fire safety are also presented in this section. The second
section focuses on the characteristics of fire and its damaging effects on both people and
property. Lastly, the third section identifies the main factors that influence fire safety of
high-rise building users and suggests methods to improve fire safety of high-rise
building users. The purpose of conducting the literature review is to enable the author
to enhance his knowledge and understanding of the core subject matter involved. The
literature review was conducted through reading and sourcing of information from
books, journals, magazines, and the internet. The literature review thus provides
guidance towards the preparation of the survey questionnaire, which is discussed in the
following sections.
5.4 Building Case Studies
As previously defined in the scope of the study, this study is focused around two
high-rise building case studies. The first building case study is the Petronas Twin
Towers and the second building case study is the Kuala Lumpur Tower. The Petronas
Twin Towers can be categorized as a high-rise office building whereas the Kuala
Lumpur Tower serves mainly as a telecommunications tower. Although they both serve
different functions, they have one thing in common, which is having a high density of
users since they are open to the public. Furthermore, they are two of the tallest building
73
in Kuala Lumpur. A brief description of both the building case studies is presented
below.
5.4.1 Petronas Twin Towers
Figure 5.1 : Petronas Twin Towers
The Petronas Twin Towers (PETT) is the centerpiece of the mixed-use Kuala
Lumpur City Centre (KLCC) Complex, set in the heart of the city’s commercial district.
Both towers have 88 storeys on each side soaring 452 metres (1483 feet) above street
level up into the sky. The towers also consist of four basement levels, concourse and
concourse mezzanine levels. The towers were certified as the world’s tallest building
by the Council of Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat in 1996 until October 2003 upon
completion of the Taipei 101 building.
74
The towers were designed by the United States architect firm Cesar Pelli and
Associates in association with KLCC architects. The total built-up area is 341,760
square metres. The towers are linked at the 41st and 42nd levels by a distinctive 58.1
metres double deck skybridge. The construction of the towers made extensive use of
local materials and other modern material which reflect the latest technology in
construction of high-rise buildings. The towers are supported by 104 barrette piles with
4.5 metres thick reinforced concrete raft foundation under each tower and are framed
with a structure of concrete core walls and columns; steel beams and trusses; as well as
finished with vision glass and stainless steel cladding which make these spires glisten
on the skyline. The plan of each tower is derived from an Islamic pattern. The design
consists of two overlapping squares to create an eight-pointed star, which is further
modified to half-circles between the star points (Cesar Pelli et al, 1998).
The towers mark both in time and space a historic achievement and national
pride of Malaysia and have become the country’s most significant urban landmark.
This project was awarded the Aga Khan Award 2004. The management of the towers is
run by Kuala Lumpur City Centre Urusharta Sdn Bhd (KLCCUH Sdn Bhd).
75
5.4.2 Kuala Lumpur Tower
Figure 5.2 : Kuala Lumpur Tower
The Kuala Lumpur tower stands amidst the city of Kuala Lumpur at 515 metres
above sea level. It is majestically poised at a breathtaking height of 421 metres. The
Kuala Lumpur Tower is one of the city’s best known ambassadors. It is situated atop
Bukit Nanas at 94 metres above sea level and is on higher ground compared to the
Petronas Twin Towers. The tower was constructed as a telecommunications tower to
upgrade the quality of telecommunications and the clarity of broadcast transmissions.
Undoubtedly, the tower marks the start of a milestone in the telecommunications arena.
It is constructed with vertical ribs on the external surface and the tower alone
weighs 100,000 tonnes. It was constructed over a period of four years and was
completed in May 1996. The Kuala Lumpur Tower is designed to withstand wind
pressures of up to 90 mph. It is also a member of the prestigious World Federation of
Great Towers.
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The Kuala Lumpur tower was designed by the local firm Kumpulan Senireka
Sdn. Bhd. and constructed by Wayss & Freytag to provide the nation with a
telecommunications and broadcasting tower. The management of the towers is run by
Menara Kuala Lumpur Sdn Bhd, which is a subsidiary of Telekom Malaysia.
5.5 Data Collections
For the purpose of this study, only primary data is collected and used in the
analysis to make conclusions. This primary data were collected by using the
questionnaire survey forms that were distributed to the targeted respondents. In total,
80 questionnaire responses were obtained during field data collection at the two high-
rise building case studies. To be more accurate, 40 responses each were obtained at
Petronas Twin Towers (Building Case Study 1) and Kuala Lumpur Tower (Building
Case Study 2) on the 13th and 14th March 2007 respectively between 12.00pm and
3.00pm. The field data collection was conducted during the lunch hour to
accommodate the users who may not be free during working times.
As mentioned previously, the data collection was based on an 8-page pre-tested
questionnaire survey form. The questionnaire was designed in a user-friendly multiple-
choice format without any open-ended questions. This was done with the intention of
reducing answering effort on the respondent’s part, and also to aid the respondents in
making decisions without confusing them. The questionnaire was pre-tested a week
prior to the field data collection by testing it on several high-rise building users to get
their feedback on any improvements that can be made. These people were asked to
comment on each question in terms of ease of understanding and interpretation, content,
77
appropriateness, relevance, and comprehensiveness. The questionnaire was
subsequently revised based on the information and feedback provided by these people.
Upon revision and finalization of the questionnaire, field data collection was
commenced. Once all the data required had been obtained, it was analyzed using
statistical methods. Based on the derived results, conclusions were drawn and thus, the
study was concluded. Out of the 80 responses obtained, only 57 responses were usable.
5.5.1 Questionnaire Design
The questionnaire is designed based on information obtained from the literature
review and during the interviews with the relevant high-rise building personnel.
Interview questions centered on the aspects of Fire Safety Management that would
influence fire safety of high-rise building users and also the methods that could be
implemented to enhance fire safety of high-rise building users, in line with the
objectives of the study.
The questionnaire is designed in two main sections. Section 1 relates to the
general information or background of the respondent. Section 2 can be further sub-
divide into 3 parts. Part 1 attempts to obtain the respondent’s opinion regarding aspects
of Fire Safety Management that influences fire safety of high-rise building users,
whereas Part 2 is intended to obtain the most critical of these aspects that influences fire
safety of high-rise building users. In Part 3, the respondent’s opinions is sought to
identify methods to improve fire safety of high-rise building users.
78
The questions asked in the questionnaire are in the form of multiple choice
questions. As mentioned previously, this was done with the intention of reducing
answering effort on the respondent’s part, and also to aid the respondents in making
decisions without confusing them. However, the use of multiple-choice questions
would require the anticipation of a whole range of possible answers which could be
given. With this in mind, the options have to be formulated as such. It also has to be
pre-tested to ensure the validity of the options available for selection.
Taking all aspects into consideration, a semi-structured approach with mostly
multiple-choice questions was selected. A sample of the questionnaire used in this
study is shown in Appendix A. Responses for the multiple-choice questions are based
on a Likert’s Scale of five ordinal measures of agreement towards each statement (from
1 to 5) as shown in Figure 5.3.
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Ordinal Scale 1 to 5 in Ascending Order
1 2 3 4 5
Increasing Degree of Agreement
Each scale represents the following rating:
1 = Disagree
2 = Uncertain
3 = Partially Agree
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly Agree
Figure 5.3 : Five Ordinal Measures of Likert’s Scale
5.6 Analysis of Data
Once the process of data collection is completed, the next step would be to
analyze the data obtained. The aspects of Fire Safety Management that influences fire
safety of high-rise building users and the methods that may be implemented to enhance
fire safety of high-rise building users are thus identified. The aspects that influence fire
safety of high-rise building users are listed in Table 5.1 and the methods to improve fire
safety of high-rise building users are listed in Table 5.2.
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Table 5.1 : The Aspects of Fire Safety Management that Influences Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users
No. Aspects of Fire Safety Managament that Influence Fire
Safety of High-Rise Building Users
1 Education and training of high-rise building users in fire safety
2 Conducting inspection of electrical installations
3 Taking renovation work precautions and inspections
4 Implementing pest control programs
5 Implementing good housekeeping practices
6 Provide clear signage indicating exit routes and location of fire
fighting equipment
7 Conducting inspection, operation and maintenance of fire
safety equipment
8 Implementing fire and evacuation drill procedures
Table 5.2 : Methods to Enhance Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users
No. Methods to Enhance Fire Safety of High-Rise Building
Users
1 Conduct more educational and training
2 Implement Floor Warden System
3 Assign specific personnel as Building Emergency Response Staff
4 Conduct regular inspection of electrical
5 Ensure that all areas under renovation are regularly inspected
6 Implement regular pest control program
7 Implement good and regular housekeeping programs
8 Ensure flammable materials are stored in a safe area
9 Ensure there are clear or “glow in the dark” signage indicating
exit routes and location of fire safety equipment
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10 Conduct fire and evacuation drills on a regular basis
11 Distribute pamphlets or leaflets containing emergency procedures
and evacuation plans
12 Install high-tech fire safety equipment
13 Increase law enforcement to ensure compliance to statutory
requirements
The procedure used in analyzing the results of the questionnaire survey is aimed
at establishing the relative importance between the various aspects of Fire Safety
Management that influences fire safety of high-rise building users and to determine the
most important aspect by ranking them according to the data given by the respondents.
Apart from that, the questionnaire survey is also intended to seek the respondent’s
feedback with regards to the methods that may be undertaken to tackle the issue of fire
safety in high-rise buildings.
5.6.1 Questionnaire Measure
This questionnaire is measured based on a Likert’s Scale of five ordinal
measures from one (1) to five (5) according to the level of agreement as stated in Figure
5.3. The data generated from the questionnaire survey is analyzed using frequency
analysis. The measurement tools in the survey provide quantitative indication of
qualitative judgments.
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The rating scale used for the questionnaire is;
1 = Disagree;
2 = Uncertain;
3 = Partially Agree;
4 = Agree;
5 = Strongly Agree.
The average index formula is given as:
( * )Average Index = N
nµ∑ .......................... (1)
Where, µ is the weightage given to each factor by the respondents;
n is the frequency of the respondents;
N is the total number of respondents.
With the rating scale given as below, (Abd. Majid and McCaffer, 1997);
- 1 = Disagree ( 1.00 ≤ Average Index < 1.50 )
- 2 = Uncertain ( 1.50 ≤ Average Index < 2.50 )
- 3 = Partially Agree ( 2.50 ≤ Average Index < 3.50 )
- 4 = Agree ( 3.50 ≤ Average Index < 4.50 )
- 5 = Strongly Agree ( 4.50 ≤ Average Index < 5.00 )
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5.7 Summary
In conclusion, the research methodology for this study can be divided into
several stages. The first stage is the determination of the objectives and scope of work
involved. Once this is completed, the literature review has to be conducted to gain a
better understanding and broaden knowledge with respect to the subject matter. Next,
professional interviews have to be conducted with relevant people involved in the daily
operations of high-rise buildings to obtain their opinions and feedback. Their opinions
are necessary in developing the questionnaire survey. Based on the literature review
and information from the interviews, the questionnaire can be developed. The
questionnaire is designed using a multiple-choice questions format which is easy to
answer and not time consuming. Subsequently, field data collection is conducted to
obtain the necessary data. Once obtained, the data is analyzed and the inferences are
derived. Lastly, the discussion and conclusion is done to conclude the study.
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CHAPTER 6
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
6.1 Introduction
Upon completion of field data collection through the questionnaire survey, the
analysis of the data is conducted. This chapter presents the analysis of the data
collected and the results or inferences that can be made based on this data. In line with
the research methodology that has been previously established, the data and the results
produced are analyzed and discussed in fulfillment of the objectives of the study.
85
6.2 Results and Analysis
Out of the 80 responses that were obtained, only 57 responses (71.25 %) were
useable. The remaining 23 responses (28.75 %) were rejected due to being incorrectly
filled by the respondents. Table 6.1 and Figure 6.1 below show the percentages of the
usable and rejected responses.
Table 6.1 : Usable and Rejected Questionnaire Responses
Description Frequency Percent (%) Cumulative (%)
Useable 57 71.25 71.25
Rejected 23 28.75 100
TOTAL 80 100
Useable71%
Rejected29%
UseableRejected
Figure 6.1 : Usable and Rejected Questionnaire Responses
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6.2.1 Background Information of Respondents
Part 1 of the questionnaire is aimed at obtaining some background information
about the respondents. From the field data collection, the following information has
been obtained.
6.2.1.1 The Race Group of the Respondents
From the data collected, it can be observed that the majority of the respondents
are Malay (58%), followed by Chinese (21%), Indian (19%) and lastly Sabah/Sarawak
Native (2%). The percentages are tabulated as shown in Table 6.2 and Figure 6.2
below:
Table 6.2 : Race Group of the Respondents
Race Frequency Percent (%) Cumulative (%)
Malay 33 58 58
Chinese 12 21 79
Indian 11 19 98
Sabah/Sarawak
Native 01 02 100
Others 0 0 100
TOTAL 57 100
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Indian19%
Sabah/Saraw ak Native
2%Others
0%
Chinese21%
Malay58%
Malay
Chinese
Indian
Sabah/Saraw ak Native
Others
Figure 6.2 : Race Group of the Respondents
6.2.1.2 The Age Group of the Respondents
From the data collected, it can be observed that the majority of the respondents
are between the ages of 21 – 30 years old (57%). This is followed by respondents 31 –
40 years old (18%) and 41 – 50 years old (12%). Respondents below the age of 21
years and over the age of 50 years constituted 4% and 9% of the total respondents
respectively. The percentages are tabulated as shown in Table 6.3 and Figure 6.3
below:
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Table 6.3 : The Age Group of the Respondents
Age Frequency Percent (%) Cumulative (%)
< 20 Years 02 04 04
21 – 30 Years 33 57 61
31 – 40 Years 10 18 79
41 – 50 Years 07 12 91
>50 Years 05 09 100
TOTAL 57 100
31 - 40 Years18%
21 - 30 Years57%
<21 Years4%
>50 Years9%
41 - 50 Years12% <21 Years
21 - 30 Years31 - 40 Years41 - 50 Years>50 Years
Figure 6.3 : The Age Group of the Respondents
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6.2.1.3 The Gender of Respondents
From the data collected, it can be observed that the majority of the respondents
are Male (72%). Females comprised the remaining 28% of the respondents. The
percentages are tabulated as shown in Table 6.4 and Figure 6.4 below:
Table 6.4 : The Gender of the Respondents
Gender Frequency Percent (%) Cumulative (%)
Male 41 72 72
Female 16 128 100
TOTAL 33 100
Male72%
Female28%
Male
Female
Figure 6.4 : The Gender of the Respondents
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6.2.1.4 The Highest Level of Education of the Respondents
From the data collected, it can be observed that the majority of the respondents
are either Degree holders (45%) or Diploma holders (35%). This is followed by
Certificate holders and respondents with only Secondary level education tied at 7%.
Respondents possessing Masters qualifications comprised 4% of the total number of
respondents. Lastly, respondents with only Primary level education comprised only 2%
of the sample. The percentages are tabulated as shown in Table 6.5 and Figure 6.5
below:
Table 6.5 : The Highest Level of Education of the Respondents
Education Level Frequency Percent (%) Cumulative (%)
Primary 01 02 02
Secondary 04 07 09
Certificate 04 07 16
Diploma 20 35 51
Degree 26 45 96
Masters 02 04 100
Doctorate 0 0 100
Others 0 0 100
TOTAL 57 100
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Secondary7%
Diploma35%
Degree45%
Masters4%
Others0%
Doctorate0% Primary
2%
Certif icate7%
Primary
Secondary
Certif icate
Diploma
Degree
Masters
Doctorate
Others
Figure 6.5 : The Highest Level of Education of the Respondents
6.2.1.5 The Current Employment Level of the Respondents
From the data collected, it can be observed that the majority of the respondents
are currently employed at the Executive Level (28%). This is followed by respondents
whom are currently employed at Management Level (21%) and Non-Executive Level
(14%). Only 5% of the respondents were from the Senior Management Level. Of the
total number of respondents, 9% were observed to be unemployed. These respondents
are most likely students. Lastly, 23% of the respondents categorized themselves as
employed in other levels not specified in the questionnaire. The percentages are
tabulated as shown in Table 6.6 and Figure 6.6 below:
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Table 6.6 : The Current Level of Employment of the Respondents
Employment Level Frequency Percent (%) Cumulative (%)
Unemployed 05 09 09
Non-Executive 08 14 23
Executive 16 28 51
Management 12 21 72
Senior Management 03 05 77
Others 13 23 100
TOTAL 57 100
Senior Management
5%
Management21%
Others23%
Unemployed9%
Executive28%
Non-Executive14% Unemployed
Non-ExecutiveExecutiveManagementSenior ManagementOthers
Figure 6.6 : The Current Level of Employment of the Respondents
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6.2.1.6 The High-Rise Buildings Usage Frequency of the Respondents
From the data collected, it can be observed that the majority of the respondents
use high-rise buildings on a daily basis (34%). This is followed closely by respondents
who use high-rise buildings on a monthly basis (32%). Subsequently, the percentage
reduces to 14% and 11% of respondents who use high-rise buildings on a semi-annual
and weekly basis respectively. Of the total number of respondents, 7% were observed
to use high-rise buildings only on an annual basis. Lastly, only 2% of the respondents
stated their usage of high-rise buildings on a fortnightly basis. The percentages are
tabulated as shown in Table 6.7 and Figure 6.7 below:
Table 6.7 : The High-Rise Buildings Usage Frequency of the Respondents
Usage Frequency Frequency Percent (%) Cumulative (%)
Daily 20 34 34
Weekly 06 11 45
Fortnightly 01 2 47
Monthly 18 32 79
Semi-Annual 08 14 93
Annual 04 7 100
Never 0 0 100
TOTAL 57 100
94
Annually7%
Never0%
Daily34%
Fortnightly2%
Weekly11%
Monthly32%
Semi-Annually14%
Daily
Weekly
Fortnightly
Monthly
Semi-Annually
Annually
Never
Figure 6.7 : The High-Rise Buildings Usage Frequency of the Respondents
6.2.1.7 The High-Rise Buildings Usage Purpose of the Respondents
From the data collected, it can be observed that the majority of the respondents
most frequently use high-rise buildings as visitors (60%). This is followed by
respondents who are tenants in high-rise buildings (18%). Of the total number of
respondents, 12% were observed to be workers in high-rise buildings whereas 5%
claimed to be owners of high-rise buildings. Lastly, the remaining 5% of the
respondents stated other purposes for using high-rise buildings. The percentages are
tabulated as shown in Table 6.8 and Figure 6.8 below:
95
Table 6.8 : The High-Rise Buildings Most Frequent Usage Purpose of the Respondents
Purpose Frequency Percent (%) Cumulative (%)
Visitor 34 60 60
Worker 07 12 72
Tenant 10 18 90
Owner 03 5 95
Others 03 5 100
TOTAL 57 100
Visitor60%Worker
12%
Tenant18%
Owner5%
Others5%
VisitorWorkerTenantOwnerOthers
Figure 6.8 : The High-Rise Buildings Most Frequent Usage Purpose of the
Respondents
96
6.2.2 The Results of the Questionnaire Survey
6.2.2.1 The Aspects of Fire Safety Management that Influences Fire Safety of
High-Rise Building Users
This section attempts to identify the aspects of Fire Safety Management that
would influence the fire safety of high-rise building users. Table 6.9 shows the results
obtained from the field data collection:
Table 6.9 : The Aspects of Fire Safety Management that Influences Fire Safety of
High-Rise Building Users
Frequency Analysis
1 2 3 4 5
No Aspects that Influence Fire
Safety of High-Rise
Building Users No. of Respondents
Average
Index
Category
of Rating
Scale
1 Education and training in fire safety 0 0 2 14 41 4.68 5
2 Inspection of electrical installations 0 1 6 26 24 4.28 4
3 Taking renovation work precautions and inspections 0 2 7 32 16 4.09 4
4 Implement pest control program 0 4 15 26 12 3.81 4
5 Implement good housekeeping practices 0 1 3 34 19 4.25 4
6 Provide clear signage indicating exit routes and location of fire safety equipment
0 1 4 25 27 4.37 4
7 Conduct inspection, operation and maintenance of fire safety equipment
0 0 4 30 23 4.33 4
8 Implement fire and evacuation drill procedures 0 0 2 22 33 4.54 5
97
6.2.2.2 The Most Critical Aspects of Fire Safety Management that Influences Fire
Safety of High-Rise Building Users
This section attempts to identify the most critical aspects of Fire Safety
Management that would influence the fire safety of high-rise building users. The results
are based on the aspects of Fire Safety Management as identified in Section 6.2.2.1.
The aspects are ranked with number 1 being the most critical to number 8 being the
least critical. The results are shown in Table 6.10:
Table 6.10 : The Most Critical Aspects of Fire Safety Management that Influences Fire
Safety of High-Rise Building Users
No. Most Critical Aspects that Influence
Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users
Average
Index Rank
1 Education and training in fire safety 4.68 1
2 Implement fire and evacuation drill procedures
4.54 2
3 Provide clear signage indicating exit routes and location of fire safety equipment
4.37 3
4 Conduct inspection, operation and maintenance of fire safety equipment
4.33 4
5 Inspection of electrical installations 4.28 5
6 Implement good housekeeping practices 4.25 6
7 Taking renovation work precautions and inspections
4.09 7
8 Implement pest control program 3.81 8
98
6.2.2.3 The Methods to Improve Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users
This section attempts to identify the methods to improve fire safety of high-rise
building users. Table 6.11 shows the results obtained from the field data collection:
Table 6.11 : The Methods to Improve Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users
Frequency Analysis 1 2 3 4 5
No. Methods to Improve Fire Safety
of High-Rise Building Users No. of Respondents
Average Index
1 Conduct more educational and training programs for users 0 1 4 24 28 4.39
2 Implement Floor Warden System 0 5 19 22 11 3.68 3 Assign specific personnel as
Building Emergency Response Staff
1 1 9 33 13 3.95
4 Conduct regular inspection of all electrical installations 0 1 6 30 20 4.09
5 Ensure all areas under renovation are regularly inspected 0 0 7 32 18 4.19
6 Implement regular pest control program 0 2 12 34 9 3.88
7 Implement good and regular housekeeping practices 1 0 9 35 12 4.00
8 Ensure that flammable materials are stored in a safe area 0 1 0 26 30 4.49
9 Ensure that there are clear or “glow in the dark” signage indicating exit routes and location of fire safety equipment
0 0 6 28 23 4.30
10 Conduct fire and evacuation drills on a regular basis 1 0 7 28 21 4.19
11 Distribute pamphlets or leaflets containing emergency procedures and evacuation plans
0 4 11 27 15 3.93
12 Install high-tech fire safety equipment 0 3 10 23 21 4.09
13 Increase law enforcement to ensure compliance to statutory requirements
0 3 7 25 22 4.16
99
6.3 Findings and Discussion
In this section, the findings of the study are discussed and inferences are made
based on the results obtained. The aim of this section is to provide a more descriptive
form of the tabulated data. The discussion is divided into four parts. The first part
touches on the respondent’s background with regards to usage of high-rise buildings.
The second part discusses aspects of Fire Safety Management that influences fire safety
of high-rise building users. This is followed by the establishment of the most critical
aspects of Fire Safety Management that influences fire safety of high-rise building
users. Finally, the discussion focuses on the methods that can be undertaken to improve
fire safety of high-rise building users.
The discussion will be based on the Average Index as the yardstick for
comparing each statement. The value of the Average Index ranges from 1.00 to 5.00,
with 1.00 being the lowest degree of agreement for the statement and 5.00 being the
highest degree of agreement.
6.3.1 Respondents Background
Based on the previous observations, it can be seen that 79% of the respondents
use high-rise buildings at the very least on a monthly basis. This is expected due to the
fact that the field data collection is done in the KLCC area, which has a high density of
high-rise buildings. Another observation is that the majority of the respondents use
high-rise buildings as visitors. This is also expected since the KLCC area is popular
amongst the local people.
100
6.3.2 First Objective: To Identify the Aspects of Fire Safety Management that
Influences Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users
The discussion for this section will focus on identifying the aspects of Fire
Safety Management that influences fire safety of high-rise building users. Table 6.12
shows the ranking of the aspects based on the value of the Average Index in descending
order.
Table 6.12 : The Aspects of Fire Safety Management that Influences Fire Safety of
High-Rise Building Users (Descending Order)
No. Aspects that Influence Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users
Average Index
Category of Rating
Scale 1 Education and training in fire safety 4.68 5
2 Implement fire and evacuation drill procedures 4.54 5
3 Provide clear signage indicating exit routes and location of fire safety equipment 4.37 4
4 Conduct inspection, operation and maintenance of fire safety equipment 4.33 4
5 Inspection of electrical installations 4.28 4 6 Implement good housekeeping practices 4.25 4
7 Taking renovation work precautions and inspections 4.09 4
8 Implement pest control program 3.81 4
As can be observed, the respondents agreed that all of the aspects listed above
are crucial towards Fire Safety Management in high-rise buildings, since the average
index of all the aspects are between the ranges of 3.50 to 5.00. Thus, the aspects of Fire
Safety Management that influences fire safety of high-rise building users have been
successfully identified.
101
6.3.3 Second Objective: To Identify the Most Critical Aspects of Fire Safety
Management that Influences Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users
The discussion for this section will focus on identifying the most critical aspects
of Fire Safety Management that influences fire safety of high-rise building users. From
the ranking in Table 6.10, the most critical aspects of Fire Safety Management that
influences fire safety of high-rise building users have been identified. As expected,
most of the respondents felt that education and training of high-rise building users in
fire safety is the most important and critical aspect of Fire Safety Management. This is
especially true since many fires in high-rise buildings are caused by human negligence.
It is important for all high-rise building users to be taught and reminded of the
importance in fire safety procedures. This training should encompass all aspects of fire
safety, including the type of fire hazards, the sources of fire hazards, unsafe practices
that should be avoided and the proper usage methods of the fire safety equipments that
are available in the building. The aims of these educational and training programs are
to increase the awareness of the users towards fire safety and thus, enhance their ability
to react in the event of any emergency situation.
The second highest ranked critical aspect based on the field data collected is the
implementation of fire and evacuation drill procedures. Fire and evacuation drill
procedures are important because it helps the user to be prepared in the event of a real
fire situation occurring. It is one thing to be educated and trained on paper, but it is
entirely a different situation within the overwhelming panic and mental distress that
may occur during a real fire. They may also tend to use the route that they normally use
in their daily life, rather than the designated fire escape route since it comes more
natural to them. This may result in them being trapped and the consequences can be
fatal. Thus, it is essential to practice fire and evacuation drills on a regular basis to
accustom high-rise building users to the procedures involved so that in the event of an
emergency, they would know how to immediately react in an appropriate manner.
102
The third highest ranked critical aspect based on the field data collected is to
provide clear signage indicating exit routes and location of fire safety equipment. This
is very true since most fires will almost definitely be accompanied by dense smoke that
restricts visibility. Hence, users may become very confused or panic stricken in the
event of a fire and forgets the designated escape routes. Thus, clearly lit signage is
essential since it can provide a visual guide in aiding the users to escape safely.
It is also interesting to note that most of the respondents felt that implementing a
pest control program was not very essential towards fire safety. This is not true since
rodents have the capability of biting and damaging the insulation on wiring, thus
causing short-circuiting. Ultimately, this can result in a fire breaking out. In summary,
it is equally important to implement a pest control program to achieve the goals of Fire
Safety Management.
6.3.4 Third Objective: To Identify the Methods to Improve Fire Safety of High-
Rise Building Users
The discussion for this section will focus on identifying the methods to improve
fire safety of high-rise building users. Table 6.13 shows the ranking of the methods
based on the results obtained from the field data collection in descending order.
103
Table 6.13 : The Methods to Improve Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users
(Descending Order)
No. The Methods to Improve Fire Safety of High-
Rise Building Users
Average
Index
Category
of Rating
Scale
1 Ensure that flammable materials are stored in a safe area 4.49 4
2 Conduct more educational and training programs for users 4.36 4
3 Ensure that there are clear or “glow in the dark” signage indicating exit routes and location of fire safety equipment
4.30 4
4 Conduct fire and evacuation drills on a regular basis 4.19 4
5 Ensure all areas under renovation are regularly inspected 4.19 4
6 Increase law enforcement to ensure compliance to statutory requirements 4.16 4
7 Conduct regular inspection of all electrical installations 4.09 4
8 Install high-tech fire safety equipment 4.09 4 9 Implement good and regular housekeeping
practices 4.00 4
10 Assign specific personnel as Building Emergency Response Staff 3.95 4
11 Distribute pamphlets or leaflets containing emergency procedures and evacuation plans 3.93 4
12 Implement regular pest control program 3.88 4 13 Implement Floor Warden System 3.68 4
As can be observed, the respondents agreed that all of the methods listed above
are crucial towards improving fire safety of high-rise building users, since the average
index of all the methods are between the ranges of 3.50 to 5.00. Based on the Average
Index, the most relevant method towards improving fire safety is to ensure that
flammable materials are stored in a safe area. Flammable materials that are commonly
found in most buildings are solvents and fuels used for cleaning and maintenance
purposes. These materials, if not stored safely, can pose a serious fire threat in any
104
building. Hence, it is essential to store these materials only in specific storage areas.
These areas should be fireproof and have fire fighting equipment readily available
nearby in case of any emergency.
The second most relevant method agreed by the respondents is to conduct more
educational and training program for high-rise building users. This is true, since as
previously mentioned; conducting these training programs will help prepare users to
face a real fire situation in the event it occurs. It will also help to enhance the
awareness of the users towards fire safety and their ability to react in the event of any
emergency.
The third most relevant method agreed by the respondents is to ensure that there
are clear or “glow in the dark” signage indicating exit routes and location of fire safety
equipment. This is very true, since as mentioned previously, users can become panic
stricken and confused in the event of a real fire situation, especially if there is thick
smoke that hinders visibility. Thus, clearly lit signage is essential since it can provide a
visual guide in aiding the users to escape safely.
Lastly, most of the respondents felt that it would not be practical to implement
Floor Warden System in our high-rise buildings. In this system, a specific person is
employed as a warden on every floor of the building to ensure fire safety in that floor.
This system is practiced widely in the United States and also in European countries.
Most of the respondents felt that this system is not practical because it would involve a
very high cost, since the building management would have to employ many people.
This cost would ultimately be passed down to the end-users in the form of higher
maintenance fees. Most people are not willing to pay this higher fee, thus rendering this
system impractical.
105
6.4 Other Suggestions
In this section, other additional comments as expressed by the respondents in the
questionnaire survey are mentioned as below:
a) One respondent felt that it was necessary to form a Safety and Health
Committee in every high-rise building. Currently, this is only practiced
in very limited high-rise buildings in the country.
b) Another respondent felt that more steps should be undertaken to prevent
the occurrence of fires rather than fighting it. This is especially true,
since prevention is always better than cure.
c) Another respondent felt that this study can only give suggestions to users
but how well it will be practiced depends largely on the users
themselves. In other words, the onus is on the users themselves to take
the necessary steps to prevent the occurrence of fires and safeguard their
own lives. This is exactly the aim of Fire Safety Management, which is
to educate the users to be more responsible and proactive towards fire
safety.
106
6.5 Summary
In order to complete the data analysis, quantitative judgments were employed.
Statistics were used to analyze the background of the respondents and a Likert’s Scale
of five ordinal measures was used to identify the aspects of Fire Safety Management
that influences fire safety of high-rise building users, the most critical of these aspects
and the methods to improve fire safety of high-rise building users. The inferences were
then made based on the results of the analysis. From the results, it is observed that
education and training of high-rise building users in fire safety is the most critical and
essential aspect of Fire Safety Management. Lastly, the best methods to improve fire
safety in high-rise buildings are to ensure that flammable materials are stored in a safe
place; to conduct more educational and training programs for high-rise building users in
fire safety; and to ensure there are clear signage to indicate exit routes and location of
fire-fighting equipment in high-rise buildings.
107
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 Introduction
This chapter concludes the study by summarizing the results of the analysis.
Some recommendations for further studies are also included. Based on the literature
review, data from the questionnaires distribution and analysis of the results, the three
main objectives of this study have been achieved.
7.2 Conclusions
As a conclusion, this study has successfully identified and met the three
objectives that were previously stated:
108
7.2.1 Objective 1: To Identify the Aspects of Fire Safety Management that
Influences Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users
Overall, the majority of the respondents agreed that all the aspects identified
from the literature review are relevant towards Fire Safety Management in high-rise
buildings. Thus, the aspects of Fire Safety Management that influences fire safety of
high-rise building users were successfully identified.
7.2.2 Objectives 2: To Identify the Most Critical Aspects of Fire Safety
Management that Influences Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users
Based on the responses obtained from the questionnaire survey, the most critical
aspects of Fire Safety Management that influences fire safety of high-rise building users
are ranked from 1 to 8 as follows:
1. Education and training of high-rise building users in fire safety;
2. Implementation of fire and evacuation drill procedures;
3. Providing clear signage indicating exit routes and location of fire safety
equipment;
4. Conducting inspection, operation and maintenance of fire safety equipment;
5. Inspection of electrical installations;
6. Implementation of good housekeeping practices;
7. Taking renovation work precautions and inspections; and
8. Implementation of pest control program.
109
7.2.3 Objectives 3: To Identify the Methods to Improve Fire Safety of High-Rise
Building Users
Overall, the majority of the respondents agreed that the three most relevant
methods to improve fire safety of high-rise building users are:
a) Ensure that flammable materials are stored in a safe area;
b) Conduct more educational and training programs for high-rise building
users; and
c) Ensure that there are clear or “glow in the dark” signage indicating exit
routes and location of fire safety equipment;
7.3 Recommendation for Further Studies
There are some areas suggested by the author for further study in the area of Fire
Safety Management as listed below:
a) The attitude of high-rise building users towards fire safety with regards to
the background of the users;
b) The attitude of high-rise building users towards fire safety with regards to
the type of high-rise buildings;
c) The awareness level of high-rise building users towards implementation of
Fire Safety Management in high-rise buildings; and
d) The satisfaction level of high-rise building users towards Fire Safety
Management in high-rise buildings;
110
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115
APPENDIX A Sample of Questionnaire
FIRE SAFETY MANAGEMENT IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
OBJECTIVE: TO IDENTIFY ATTRIBUTES THAT INFLUENCE AND METHODS
TO IMPROVE FIRE SAFETY OF HIGH-RISE BUILDING USERS
NAME OF RESPONDENT : PREPARED BY; DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA, 81310 UTM SKUDAI, JOHOR DARUL TAKZIM
116
QUESTIONNAIRE
FIRE SAFETY MANAGEMENT IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS Dear Sir/Madam, I am a final year student pursuing a Masters of Science (Construction Management)
from the Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). As a
requirement of fulfilling my course, I am conducting a survey to obtain data that are
relevant to this research. Hence, I would greatly appreciate your kind participation by
being one of my respondents in my research. You can be rest assured that ALL THE
INFORMATION IN THIS SURVEY WILL BE STRICTLY KEPT PRIVATE
AND CONFIDENTIAL. Last but not least, I would like to take this opportunity to
thank you for your invaluable time and support.
Thank you.
T.PRASHANT
117
BACKGROUND INFORMATION OF RESPONDENT 1. What is your race?
Malay Chinese
Indian
Sabah/Sarawak Native
Others
2. What age group do you belong to?
< 21 years 21 – 30 years
31 – 40 years
41 – 50 years
> 51 years
3. Please state your gender.
Male
Female
4. What is your highest level of education?
Primary Level
Secondary Level
Certificate Level
Diploma Level
Degree Level
Masters Level
Doctorate Level
Others
5. At what level are you currently employed?
Unemployed
Non-Executive Level
Executive Level
Management Level
Senior Management Level
Others
118
6. How often do you use high-rise buildings?
Daily Basis
Weekly Basis
Fortnightly Basis
Monthly Basis
Semi-Annual Basis
Annual Basis
Never
7. What do you most frequently use high-rise buildings as?
Visitor Worker
Tenant
Owner
Others
119
QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY FORM
PART 1 The objective of this section is to identify the attributes of Fire Safety Management that would influence fire safety of high-rise building users;
1 2 3 4 5 Disagree Uncertain Partially Agree Agree Strongly Agree
a. Education and training of high-rise building users in fire life safety;
1 2 3 4 5 b. Conducting inspection of electrical installations;
1 2 3 4 5 c. Taking renovation work precautions and inspections;
1 2 3 4 5 d. Implementing pest control program;
1 2 3 4 5 e. Implementing good housekeeping practices;
1 2 3 4 5 f. Provide clear signage indicating exit routes and location of fire safety equipment;
1 2 3 4 5 g. Conducting inspection, operation and maintenance of fire safety equipment ;
1 2 3 4 5 h. Implementing fire and evacuation drill procedures;
1 2 3 4 5 Other Suggestions:
120
PART 2 The objective if this section is to identify the most critical attributes of Fire Safety Management that would influence fire safety of high-rise building users; Please rank the following in order of how critical they are beginning from (1) to (8), where (1) indicates the most critical and (8) indicates the least critical. a. Education and training of high-rise building users in fire life safety;
b. Conducting inspection of electrical installations;
c. Taking renovation work precautions and inspections;
d. Implementing pest control program;
e. Implementing good housekeeping practices;
f. Provide clear signage indicating exit routes and location of fire safety equipment;
g. Conducting inspection, operation and maintenance of fire safety equipment ;
h. Implementing fire and evacuation drill procedures
Other Suggestions:
121
PART 3 The objective of this section is to identify methods to improve fire safety of high-rise building users;
1 2 3 4 5 Disagree Uncertain Partially Agree Agree Strongly Agree
a. Conduct more educational and training programs for high-rise building users
to increase awareness and ability to react in case of emergency; 1 2 3 4 5
b. Implement Floor Warden System in high-rise buildings;
1 2 3 4 5 c. Assign specific personnel as Building Emergency Response Staff whom
are specifically trained for emergency situations;
1 2 3 4 5 d. Conduct regular inspections of all electrical installations to minimize
threat of fire. 1 2 3 4 5
e. Ensure that all areas under renovation are regularly inspected and do not
pose a fire threat. 1 2 3 4 5
f. Implement a regular pest control program to eliminate rodents and other
pests from damaging electrical wires and causing short-circuiting; 1 2 3 4 5
g. Implement good and regular housekeeping procedures;
1 2 3 4 5 h. Ensure that flammable materials are stored in a safe area;
1 2 3 4 5 i. Ensure that there are clear or “glow in the dark” signage indicating exit
routes and location of fire safety equipment; 1 2 3 4 5
j. Conduct fire and evacuation drills on a regular basis;
1 2 3 4 5 k. Distribute pamphlets or leaflets containing emergency procedures and
evacuation plans to high-rise building users; 1 2 3 4 5
l. Install high-tech fire safety equipment in high-rise buildings;
1 2 3 4 5 m. Increase law enforcement to ensure high-rise building users comply
to statutory requirements; 1 2 3 4 5
122
Other Suggestions:
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