i

IMPACT OF VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION ON SELF-

EMPLOYABILITY READINESS AND POTENTIALS AMONG

UNEMPLOYED GRADUATES IN DELTA STATE, NIGERIA.

BY

OKELEKE, PRISCILLA KWUTELI

DECEMBER, 2017

ii

IMPACT OF VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION ON SELF-

EMPLOYABILITY READINESS AND POTENTIALS AMONG

UNEMPLOYED GRADUATES IN DELTA STATE, NIGERIA.

BY

OKELEKE, PRISCILLA KWUTELI

MATRIC NUMBER: 990318141

B.A Ed GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS, 2004; M.Ed.

GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS, 2008

A THESIS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL

FOUNDATIONS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF

POSTGRADUATE STUDIES, UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D) IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS,

AKOKA, YABA, LAGOS

iii

APPROVAL

This research report has been approved for the Department of Educational Foundations,

Faculty of Education and School of Postgraduate Studies, University of Lagos.

By

______________ _______________

Dr. P. I. Nwadinigwe Date

Supervisor

______________ _______________

Prof. N. Osarenren Date

Supervisor

______________ _______________

Prof. N. Osarenren Date

Head of Department

iv

School of Postgraduate Studies University of Lagos

CERTIFICATION This is to certify the thesis:

IMPACT OF VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION ON SELF-EMPLOYABILITY READINESS AND POTENTIALS AMONG

UNEMPLOYED GRADUATES IN DELTA STATE, NIGERIA

Submitted to the

School of Postgraduate Studies, University of Lagos

For the award of the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D) Is a record of original research carried out

By

OKELEKE, PRISCILLA KWUTELI.

In the Department of Educational Foundations

v

AUTHOR’S STATEMENT

I hereby agree to give the University of Lagos through the University of Lagos Library, a

non-exclusive, worldwide right to reproduce and distribute my thesis and abstract (hereinafter

“the Work”) in whole or in part, by any and all media of distribution, in its present form or

style or in any form or style as it may be translated for purpose of future preservation and

accessibility provided that such translation does not change its content.

By the grant of non-exclusive rights to University of Lagos through the Library under this

agree, I understand that the rights of the University of Lagos are royalty free and that I am

free to publish the Work in its present version or future versions elsewhere.

Warranties

I further agree as follows:

i. That I am the author of the Work and I hereby give the University of Lagos the right to make available the Work in the way described above after a three (3) year period of the award of my doctorate degree in compliance with the regulation established by the University of Lagos Senate.

ii. That the Work does not contain confidential information which should not be divulged to any third party without written consent.

iii. That I have exercised reasonable care to ensure that the Work is original and its does not to the best of my knowledge breach any Nigerian law or infringe any third party’s copyright or other Intellectual Property Right.

iv. That to the extent that the Work contains materials for which I do not hold copyright, I represent that I have contained the unrestricted permission of the copyright holder to grant this licence to the University of Lagos Library and that such third party material is clearly identified and acknowledged in the Work.

v. In the event of a subsequent dispute over the copyrights to material contained in the Work. I agree to indemnify and hold harmless the University of Lagos and all its officers, employees and agents for any uses of the material authorized by this agreement.

vi. That the University of Lagos has no obligation whatsoever to take legal action on my behalf as the deposit or, in the event of intellectual property rights, or any other right, in the material deposited.

vi

DEDICATION

My gratitude to God Almighty. To Him alone I owe my being.

vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I want to express my eternal gratitude to my supervisors, Dr. P. I. Nwadinigwe (Associate

Professor) and Professor Ngozi Osarenren. Their unrelenting effort and push, especially when

I was faced with life challenges, during the course of this work was unequalled. Without

them, this work would not have been a success story. Their invaluable scholarly contribution

and supervision are immeasurable. God bless you.

My gratitude to the programme co-ordinator Professor. M. B. Ubangha and Dr. S.O. Adeniyi.

My appreciation goes to all my lecturers in the Department of Educational Foundations,

University of Lagos for their support: Professor. G. C. Ilogu, Professor. O. M Olusakin,

Professor. M. Omoegun, Dr. (Mrs) B.O. Makinde, Dr. (Mrs) I.I. Abe, Dr. M. Aletan, Dr.

(Mrs) O.M. Alade, Dr. (Mrs) B. Ahimie, Dr (Mrs) O.O. Longe, Dr. S. Anyama, Dr. P. O.

Akinsanya, Dr. (Mrs) O.O. Akanni, and Dr. (Mrs) P.N. Emeri. My thanks to all the

administrative members of staff in the Department of Educational Foundations.

To my sister and friend, Dr. Philomena Bivese-Djebah and her ever supportive husband,

Olorogun Clement Bivese-Djebah (Esq.), this journey started with them I remain eternally

grateful for their friendship, love and support. Dr. Uche Azuka-Obieke, is appreciated for her

support, she is always ready to offer advice whenever needed. To the angel that God sent my

way, my father, friend and confidant, Commissioner of Police (C.P) Frank Odita (Rtd), many

thanks for your love, care and faith in me.

My darling golden mother Mrs. Ann Obieke, whose love for me is selfless. She has been

there for me through thick and thin. God will reward you with long life. My lovely children

Chukwufumnanya and Ebube Amanda Okeleke-Kooper who have seen it all with me. I thank

them for believing in me, for their love, care, and encouragement especially when faced with

challenges.

My father, Obi Vincent Ngadiolu Obieke, who gave me wings to fly. He will always be

special to me and I know he is very proud of me. Continue to rest in the Lord. Mrs.

Anthonia Chukwudumebi Okolie, my sister, sad that you are not physically here but happy

viii

that I kept my promise to you, to finish this programme. Thank you for your love towards me

till your demise. I appreciate my brothers and sisters for their prayers and encouragement

throughout this programme.

Priscilla Kwuteli Okeleke.

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pages

Title Page ii

Approval iii

Certification iv

Author’s Statement v

Dedication vi

Acknowledgement vii

Table of Contents ix

List of Tables xii

List of Figures xiii

List of Appendices xv

Abstract xvi

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem 7

1.3 Theoretical Framework 8

1.3.1 Learning Theory of Career Counselling 9

1.3.2 Theory of Innovation and Entrepreneurship 10

1.3.3 Theory of Planned Behaviour 10

1.3.4 Theory of Vocational Development 12

1.4 The conceptual framework for the study 15

1.5 Purpose of the Study 16

1.6 Research Questions 17

1.7 Research Hypotheses 17

1.8 Significance of the Study 18

1.9 Scope and Delimitation of the Study 19

1.10 Operational Definition of Terms 19

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Concept of Career Counselling 23

x

2.1.1 The Growth of Career Studies 26

2.1.2. Career Development Theories 26

2.2 Concept of Vocational Skills Acquisition 35

2.2.1 Concept of Vocational Education 38

2.2.2 Vocational Education Development in Nigeria 40

2.2.3 Role of Vocational Skills Acquisition Training to National Development 42

2.2.4 Effort of Government toward Vocational Skills Acquisition and

Entrepreneurship Education in Nigeria 45

2.2.5 Studies on Vocational Skills Acquisition training on Self-Employability

Potentials and Readiness 46

2.2.6 Studies on Vocational skills acquisition training on Self-Employability

Potentials, Family Occupation background and Gender 47

2.2.7 Vocational Skills Acquisition training on Self-Employability

Readiness, Family Occupation background and Gender 50

2.3 Concept of Self-Employment 52

2.4 Concept of Entrepreneurship 58

2.4.1 Entrepreneurship in the Middle Ages 59

2.4.2 Entrepreneurship in the 17th Century 60

2.4.3 Entrepreneurship in the 18th Century 60

2.4.4 Entrepreneurship in the 19th and 20th century 60

2.5 Concept of Unemployment 64

2.5.1 Types of Unemployment 66

2.6 Appraisal of Literature Review 68

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design 70

3.2 Area of Study 70

3.3 Population of the Study 71

3.4 Sample and Sampling Procedures 71

3.5 Instrumentation 73

3.5.2 Entrepreneur Potential Inventory (EPI) 73

3.5.3 Business Readiness Index (BRI) 74

3.5.4 Perceived Skills Acquisition Scale (PSAS) 74

xi

3.6 Pilot Study 75

3.7 Procedure for Data Collection 76

3.8 Appointment and Training of Research Assistants 76

3.9 Intervention Procedure 77

3.10 Method of Data Analysis 81

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS OF DATA ANALYSIS

4.1 Test of Hypotheses 82

4.1.1 Hypothesis One 82

4.1.2 Hypothesis Two 84

4.1.3 Hypothesis Three 86

4.1.4 Hypothesis Four 88

4.1.5 Hypothesis Five 90

4.1.6 Hypothesis Six 93

4.2 Summary of Findings 97

4.3 Discussion of Findings 98

CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Summary of the Study 103

5.2 Conclusion 105

5.3 Contributions to Knowledge 106

5.4 Recommendations 106

5.5 Implications for Counselling 107

5.6 Suggestions for Further Studies 108

References 109

Appendices 131

xii

LIST OF TABLES

Pages

Table 1 Baseline Assessment Results and Distribution of participants

By local government area, Age, gender and groups 85

Table 2: Baseline Assessment Results and Distribution of participants by

local government area, Age and Family Occupational Background 85

Table 3: Test-retest reliability Coefficient of the Research instrument 89

Table 4: Descriptive Data on Pre-test and Post-Test scores of

self-employability potentials in the experimental group and control. 96

Table 5: Analysis of Covariance on the Difference in Participants’ Self-employ-

ability potentials across the experimental and the control group. 97

Table 6: Protected t-test analysis of differences between groups in terms of

Self- employability potentials 98

Table 7: Descriptive Data on Pre-test and Post-Test scores of

self-employability readiness in the experimental and control groups. 99

Table 8: Analysis of Covariance on the Difference in Participants’ Self-

employability readiness across the experimental group. 99

Table 9: Protected t–test analysis of difference between groups in terms of

self- employability readiness 100

Table 10: Descriptive Data on Post-test scores of self- employability potentials

among unemployed graduates in the Experimental and Control

Groups due to gender. 101

Table 11: Analysis of Covariance of the effect of experimental conditions on

self- employability potentials due to gender 102

Table 12: Descriptive result on Post-test scores of self- employability readiness

among unemployed graduates in the experimental and control

groups due to gender. 103

Table 13: Analysis of Covariance on Effects of Experimental Condition and

Gender on Self-employability readiness among Participants 104

Table 14: Descriptive Data on Post-test scores of self-employability readiness

in the Experimental and control Groups based on family

occupational background. 105

Table 15: 2 x 3 ANCOVA Tests of the effects of Experimental Conditions and 106

xiii

Family occupational Background on Post-test self-employability

readiness.

Table 16: Protected t – test analysis of difference between family occupational

background in terms of self-employability readiness

107

Table 17: Pair wise Comparison of the Mean Difference between

Experimental Conditions and self-employability readiness 108

Table 18: Descriptive Data on Post-test scores of self-employability potentials in

the experimental and control groups based on family occupational

background. 109

Table 19: 2 x 3 ANCOVA Tests of the effects of Experimental Condition and

Family occupational background on Post - test self-employability

potentials. 110

Table 20: Protected t – test analysis of difference between family occupational

background in terms of self-employability potentials

111

Table 21: Pairwise Comparison of the Mean Difference between

Experimental Conditions and self-employability Potentials 112

xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

Pages

Fig. 1: Theory of Planned Behaviour Model 12

Fig 2: Conceptual Model for the Study: Researcher 17

xv

LIST OF APPENDICES

Pages

APPENDIX

1. Bio Data 144

2. Perceived Skill Acquisition Scale 145

3. Business Readiness Index 146

4. Entrepreneur Potential Inventory 148

xvi

ABSTRACT

The study investigated the impact of vocational skills acquisition training on self-

employability readiness and potentials among unemployed graduates in Delta state.

Descriptive survey and quasi experimental pre and post-test control group designs was

adopted for the study. Multi-stage and Simple random sampling techniques were used to

select 118 participants consisting of 64 male and 54 female participants drawn from three

Local Government Areas out of one senatorial district in Delta State. Three research

instruments were adapted and used to generate data for the study and they were: Perceived

Skill Acquisition Scale (PSAS), Entrepreneur Potential Inventory (EPI) and Business

Readiness Index (BRI). Six research questions were raised and six research hypotheses were

formulated to guide the study. The hypotheses were tested using Analysis of Covariance

(ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of significance. Results from the analysis of data indicated that four

hypotheses were rejected while two were accepted. The findings revealed that: Vocational

skills acquisition training had significant impact on post-test scores of self-employability

potentials among unemployed graduates. The study also revealed that experimental

conditions had significant impact on self-employability readiness among unemployed

graduates. The finding further established that gender and experimental conditions do not

have significant impact on self- employability potentials among unemployed graduates. It

was evident from the finding that gender and experimental conditions do not have significant

impact on self-employability readiness among unemployed graduates. Finding also revealed

that there is significant interaction effect of experimental conditions and family background

on self-employability readiness. The study also revealed that there is significant interaction

effect of experimental conditions and family background on self-employability potentials. On

the basis of the findings, recommendations are suggested in the study among which is that

graduates as well as undergraduates should be orientated about the importance of vocational

skills acquisition as this will make them not to look down on vocational skills training but

rather make themselves available to acquire vocational skills when necessary.

Keywords: Vocational, Entrepreneurship, Readiness, potentials, Self-employability.

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Nigeria is a country undergoing economic recession at the moment and unemployment

among graduates who are mostly youths. This has become a worrisome trend, bearing in

mind the risks, the phenomenon portends for socio- economic stability of the nation. Globally

unemployment rate among graduates have been on the increase especially in developing

countries. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) has forecasted that globally, the

number of unemployed people may rise up to 212 million and warns of mounting social

unrest, income inequality and high youth unemployment (International Labour Organisation

2015). Research has confirmed that unemployment and underemployment of graduates are

devastating phenomena in the lives of graduates (Bai, 2006). In Nigeria, unemployment

among higher institutions’ graduates is still very high and this has adverse psychological,

social, occupational and financial effects on them (Fajana, 2000). The unemployment rate in

Nigeria increased to 14.2 % in the last quarter of 2016 from 10.4% a year earlier, (NBS,

2017).

The possible causes of unemployment among graduates appear to be mismanagement of

funds, lack of employable skills and over-emphasis on university certificates among others.

In Nigeria, on a yearly basis, thousands of graduates are churned out of the numerous higher

institutions into the labour market, where there are limited available jobs. The days that

people employed by government parastatals or private companies were seen as having

attained the highest educational achievement, relegating technical expertise or skills to the

background have gone. When graduates leave school, the expectation of getting employed is

2

dampened as they face the reality of unemployment. This affects their psyche and could make

them vulnerable to crime and criminality.

The Nigerian government in its effort to curb graduate unemployment has over the years set

up various agencies and projects to assist graduates to veer into self-employment. Agencies

such as; National Directorate of Employment (NDE) and also projects such as Subsidy Re-

investment (Sure-P), You-win, G–win (for girls & women) as well as programmes such as

Poverty Alleviation Programme (PAP), among others have been used to assist individuals in

the establishment of their own businesses. In 2012, vocational skills acquisition and

entrepreneurship training were included into the National Youth Service Corps programme to

allow graduates acquire skills that will enable them to take up self-employment as a better

alternative towards being employed rather than searching for unavailable jobs. The spate of

unemployment among graduates informed the Nigerian government through the Federal

Ministry of Education to include entrepreneurship education in the school curriculum as a

compulsory course of study for all students of higher institutions since the 2007/2008

academic session (Uduak & Aniefiok, 2011). The level of implementation of this policy in

tertiary institutions cannot be ascertained neither can it be concluded, that it has a

considerable impact on the unemployment situation in the country, going by the high rate of

unemployment among graduates. In view of this, graduates instead of searching for jobs

should be counselled and guided with respect to career development in order to look for

alternative ways of keeping themselves busy and creating wealth.

Career Counselling is defined as a guide to decision-making process in the realistic choice of

career or a course of study and how individual subjects relate to the future mental health of

students, which therefore is a prerequisite to economic growth and manpower needs of the

3

country (Olayinka, 1993). Akinade (2005), also views it as a facilitative process, a service

rendered to the individual in choosing and adjusting to an occupation. Thus, the importance

of career Counselling on an individual’s self-employability potentials and readiness in

general cannot be overemphasized, as exposing the participants to career counselling enable

them to discover their potentials and readiness in making the right occupational choices.

Self-employment has been viewed as a source of economic growth especially in developing

countries (United Nations Economic Commission For Africa, 1999). Beside this, self-

employment could be seen as an alternative employment option for unemployed individuals.

This means that self-employment not only could reduce unemployment rate and thus ease the

burden of unemployment benefits on the society, but could also create new jobs (Pfeiffer &

Reize, 2000). Many factors may affect an individual’s decision to be self-employed, such as

readiness, potentials, family background, gender and educational qualification. One of the

terms used to describe readiness and willingness to become self-employed is self-

employability readiness. Self-employability readiness could be viewed as being able to work

with little or no outside help, find a new enterprise as well as being able to manage such so as

to obtain good success.

Furthermore, an individual’s family background seems to have a considerable impact on his

or her desire to be self-employed. Taylor (1996) examined the link between parental labour

status and probability of becoming self-employed. Such a link is hinged on the premise that

potential inter-generational transfer of parental wealth makes an individual’s capital

constraints to be less. However, the parental occupational status may act as an individual’s

substitute for potential inter-generational transfers of human capital and entrepreneurial

ability. Hout and Rosen (2000) confirm earlier findings that the father being self-employed is

4

an important determinant of the offspring’s self-employment decisions. There is also

evidence that children of entrepreneurs are more likely to found a company than others

(Wang & Wong, 2004).

Considering self-employment and gender, it has been observed that women are less likely to

venture into self employment than men because they are more risk aversive. Powel and Ansic

(1997) observed that women avoid businesses that have high risks especially as regards being

committed financially. Many graduates remain unemployed after graduation probably

because they are ill-prepared to face the challenges of work or they are ignorant of their

potentials. In a bid to tackle this unemployment situation among graduates, vocational skills

acquisition and entrepreneurship training may come to the rescue to equip unemployed

graduates with vocational as well as entrepreneurial skills that may provide them with

opportunities that would foster self-employment. Vocational training or education can be

defined as that type of training geared towards making the learner to become productive

either as an employee or a self-employed individual. One of the objectives of the National

Policy on Education (2014) is to impact the necessary skills leading to the production of

craftsmen, technicians and other skilled personnel, who will be enterprising and self-reliant.

Vocational skills training seem not to have been given the appropriate attention that it

deserves, because most institutions of higher learning do not expose their students to it and

where it exists, it seems bedeviled with many problems. Again, the attitude of people towards

vocational skills training is discouraging as it is regarded as being inferior to other types of

training or education. The above trend is not tenable presently, taking into consideration the

fact that the innovative system of the current time is shifting towards vocational skills

acquisition, which can provide self-reliance to unemployed graduates. Lope and Sani (2009),

5

in their work “Exploring the vocational mindset of students: Implication for improvement of

vocational learning at university,” found student centred learning model known as vocational

directed approach, as that method which would enable students to have a positive vocational

mindset. There is therefore the possibility that students who are exposed to vocational

education or training might eventually become entrepreneurs (Oosterbeek, Van Praag,

Ijsselstein, 2008).

Sexton and Karsede (1991) opined that entrepreneurship education develops students’

aspiration as well as their readiness for self-employment. That the success of

entrepreneurship training programmes is driven by the learner’s belief in the relevance of the

programmes to his or her survival. Also, good education can foster readiness for self-

employment as Stewart (1999) found that content knowledge is important for individuals to

gain confidence and undertake an entrepreneurial career. Some economists insist that the

taste for risk taking is necessary for any enterprise (Shorrocks, 1988). Furthermore, an

individual going into self-employment should possess some basic potentials or traits. These

potentials could be the latent qualities or abilities imbedded in individuals that may be

developed and probably could be useful to him or her in future. This could to a large extent

serve as a pre-requisite to becoming a successful entrepreneur. Self-employability often times

lead to entrepreneurship. One of the factors that contribute to this is the personal traits of the

individual. Hessels, Gelderen and Thurik (2008) also noted that entrepreneurship ventures are

often shaped by personal aspiration, motivations and character traits. The absence of these

qualities has been found to be the major factors responsible for failure of many small and

medium-sized enterprises (Inyang & Enouh, 2009).

6

Entrepreneurship training has been defined by many scholars in different ways. Okilo and

Ayo (2010) defined entrepreneurship education, as the type of education designed to change

the orientation and attitude of the recipient and in the process, equip him with skills and

knowledge to enable him start and manage a business enterprise.

The term was originally a loan word from French and was first defined by the Irish – French

economist Richard Cantillon. Entrepreneur in English is a term applied to a person who is

willing to help launch a new venture or enterprise and accept full responsibility for the

outcomes. The word entrepreneur was coined from a French word called ‘entrepredre’ which

means a person, who voluntarily head the military expedition. It was first used during the

French military history in the seventeenth century. Ojeifo (2010) in his book, a Handbook

on Entrepreneurial Development in Nigeria defined an entrepreneur as the owner or

the manager of business enterprise, who through risks and initiative, attempts to make a

profit.

The entrepreneur is one who drives the process of economic growth and mediates the

inputs and outputs of the economic system (Vosle, 1994). In the wider perspective, an

entrepreneur could be defined as a person, who has the ability to study the

environment, recognise opportunities for advancement, assemble resources and apply actions

to exploit on those opportunities. Entrepreneurs have a well-defined sense of

opportunities. After identifying the opportunities, they then creatively assemble the

necessary resources to capitalise on them (Zimmerer and Scarborough, 2005; Thomas

and Mueller, 2000). As risk takers, entrepreneurs bring about new products and

services, and indeed, add colours to a society. (Zimmerer and Scarborough, 2005).

According to wikipedia, entrepreneurship: is the act of being an entrepreneur or one

who undertakes innovations, finance and business acumen in an effort to transform

7

innovations into economic goods. This may result in new organisations or may be part

of revitalising mature organisations in response to a perceived opportunity. The most

obvious form of entrepreneurship is that of starting new business which is referred to as start

up company.

Eze (2010) defines an entrepreneur as an individual, who has the ability to identify an

opportunity where others see nothing and also being able to mobilise the necessary resources

to translate such an idea to viable business. An entrepreneur should have some basic

potentials or traits. This could to a large extent serve as a pre-requisite to becoming a

successful entrepreneur.

According to Falkang and Alberti (2000), entrepreneurs are people with entrepreneurial

spirit. Such spirit refers to the knowledge, skills and behaviour necessary for building. Some

people believe that entrepreneurship cannot be learnt, but Timmons and Spinelli (2004) and

others opined that entrepreneurship can be learnt.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The increasing number of unemployed graduates in Nigeria is an indication that most

graduates from higher institutions seem not to possess the required entrepreneurial and

vocational skills needed to set up own businesses, hence the likely reason for crave for white

collar jobs that are not available. This trend has become worrisome and of great concern to

the graduates, their parents and the society at large. Unemployment affects individuals

psychologically, socially and morally. It also affects their relationship with people their

families, friends and people around them, as they seem to feel inferior, unimportant and

unwanted. The unemployment situation has lured some of these graduates into social vices

such as armed robbery, kidnapping, internet crimes, rape, arson and political violence.

8

This problem of unemployment could be attributed principally to their lack of employable

skills, start-up capital, right attitude and competencies which would equip them, to be

enterprising in setting up their own businesses. Also they were probably not exposed to

proper and adequate vocational skills and entrepreneurial training during their undergraduate

years. Some of them seem to lack the will power to venture into self-employment as they are

ignorant of their potentials and are not ready to explore the unknown world of business. They

also seemed not likely to be motivated because many graduates, who go through

entrepreneurial routes tend to fail, as a result of their little knowledge of what it takes to

manage a business effectively.

Okwuanaso (2000) Nwoye (2002) as cited in Ezugworie (2008) suggested that Nigerian

youths have the capacity to create, so there is the need to query the type of education they

receive. This implies that Nigerian youth need the type of education that is creative, that

would exploit the potentials of the students in a conducive educating environment with the

necessary technology that would enable them to be creative, under the tutelage of teachers

trained to meet up with the challenges of modern globalisation and technology. There is a gap

in research on how to improve the self employability readiness and potentials of unemployed

graduates.

1.3 Theoretical Framework

This study was anchored on four theories:

1. Learning Theory of Career Counselling. Krumboltz (1996)

2. Theory of Innovation and Entrepreneurship - Schumpeter (1934)

3. Theory of Planned Behaviour - Ajzen (1991)

4. Theory of Vocational Development - Super.(1957)

9

1.3.1 Learning Theory of Career Counselling.

Krumboltz (1996) posits that an infinite number of accumulated learning experiences

determine one’s current occupational situation. According to him, interests are developed

based on personally enjoyable experiences, new beliefs are developed and changed based on

new information that causes a re-examination of all beliefs. Values change as one acquires

experiences and greater insight is gained. He further posited that the process of career

development involves four factors, namely: Genetic endowment and special abilities,

environmental influences, learning experiences and task approach skills.

Krumboltz calls the ultimate career decision the “logical outcome of an infinitely complex

sequence of learning experiences.” The first part of the theory focuses on the origin of career

choice, based on four important life factors. Krumboltz believes that genetic endowment and

special abilities are qualities that a person inherits from birth and can make one more apt to

pursue certain careers and limit such a person from chasing others. As the mind and body

you're born with have an effect, so does the world also has an effect on you. Krumboltz

opined that environmental conditions and events are the second factor in career choice

development. On the same page, learning experiences have a very significant influence.

Finally, he considers task approach skills as the fourth factor.

With these factors in mind, this theory accounts for life experiences that are both in and out

of your control. Krumboltz makes allowances for the appearance of unexpected career

opportunities, or what he calls “planned happenstance.” For these reasons, this study

considers each career seeker as an explorer and this theory encourages curiosity, persistence,

flexibility, optimism and the ability to take risks.

10

1.3.2 Theory of Innovation and Entrepreneurship

Schumpeter (1934) states that any activity that involves entrepreneurship will help in

reducing unemployment situation in the economy, because people would have learnt one skill

or the other. The theory asserts that unemployment is negatively related to new-firm startups,

that is, as new businesses are established, employability is stimulated and unemployment

reduces substantially. In the same vein, where there are low entrepreneurial activities,

unemployment propensity seems to be high. The implication of the above statement is that

those who are unemployed tend to remain so, because they possess lower endowments of

human capital and entrepreneurial talents required to start and sustain new firms or to keep

them going. This theory is intended to assist the unemployed graduates to realise the

importance of acquiring skills which will enable them to be in an advantageous position to be

self-employed. In the Schumpeterian theory, the entrepreneur moves the economy out of

static equilibrium.

1.3.3 Theory of Planned Behaviour

The Theory of planned behaviour was propounded by Ajzen (1991). He is a psychologist. He

posits in this theory, that intention is an antecedent to behaviour. This theory links

behavioural intentions to actual behaviour. Intentions therefore are a function of three sets of

factors: attitudes, social norms and perceived behavioural control. It is a theory which helps

us to understand the relationship between behaviour and behavioural intention. It explains

how a person’s behaviour is controlled by behavioural intentions. Behavioural intentions

consist of three components. It is made up of a person’s attitude towards the behaviour, the

subjective norm that affects the performance of the behaviour and lastly how the individual

perceive that they are able to perform the behaviour with no difficulty.

11

Attitude towards the behaviour referred to as how the individuals feel about performing or

negative feelings. It can be determined through the evaluation of one’s beliefs regarding the

consequence and outcomes that will arise from the behaviour that they have carried out. For

example, if a person has a positive attitude, he/she generally would have an optimistic view

and believe that he/she can achieve a positive outcome from that behaviour, it is more likely

that the person will perform the behaviour. Likewise if a person is pessimistic and believes

that he/she cannot perform a behaviour, there are chances that the person may not be able to

perform that behaviour.

Subjective norm refers to the stress and pressure received by the individual from people, such

as family members or friends, on whether a particular behaviour should be performed and

how much that individual is willing to conform to the wishes of others to carry out that

behaviour. Lastly, perceived behavioural control refers to the person’s belief and confidence

as to whether or not they are able to carry out a particular behaviour, by convincing

themselves or by relating to past behaviours to cope or handle the situations well. In

entrepreneurship, the theory of planned behaviour contends that entrepreneurial intention is

dependent on an individual’s attitude towards the desired entrepreneurial career, social norms

which include family expectations and beliefs to perform the behaviour and perceived

behavioural control (PBC), or ability to put into action the intended behaviour of entering

into entrepreneurship. As a general rule, the more favourable the attitude and social norm

with respect to a behaviour and the greater the perceived behavioural control, the stronger

should be an individual’s intention to perform the behaviour under consideration (Ajzen,

1991).

12

Fig. 1: Theory of Planned Behaviour Model (Ajzen, 1991)

This theory is relevant to this study because it is intended to provide the unemployed

graduates with adequate information on the importance of having a positive attitude towards

vocational skills acquisition training and self-employability readiness and potentials.

1.3.4 Theory of Vocational Development

This theory propounded by Super (1957) states that the choice of vocation constitute an

implementation of self - concept which requires a person to recognise himself as a distinct

individual. He also opined that vocation is developmental in nature, rather than being an

event which occurs at a particular point in time. Vocational patterns according to Super are

determined by socio-economic factors, mental and physical abilities, personal characteristics

and the opportunities to which persons are exposed. People seek career satisfaction through

work roles, in which they can express themselves, implement and develop their self-concept.

This self-concept is manifested in the successful accomplishment of age and stages of

developmental tasks across one’s life span. He presented the tasks and stages in a sequential

manner. The stages are: (1) Growth stage (birth - 14years) which comprises pre-vocational,

fantasy, interest and capacity (2) Exploration stage (15 - 24years) include tentative, transition

and trial stages (3) Establishment stage (25 - 44years), Maintenance stage (45 - 64years) and

Entrepreneur

Personal Attitude

Subjective norm

Perceived Behavioural control

Intention

13

Declining stage (65 years to death). The major focus is on the exploratory and establishment

stages because most on unemployed graduates belong to these stages and they are considered

to be better adjusted to the world of work and work roles. This theory is relevant to this study

because it encourages early preparedness of individuals for many jobs they are capable of

undertaking. It also helps to determine the life stage and developmental tasks of an individual

as well as the tasks they can adapt to.

Super (1957) describes career development as occurring in stages that stretch across the

individual’s lifespan. According to this school of thought career development is closely

interlinked with the individual’s physical, cognitive, emotional and social maturation.

The initial stage in career development occurring during childhood has been called the period

of Growth. In the beginning, the child’s cognitive maturation is at a level where fantasy rules

one’s perceptions and interactions with the world. Time perspectives have not yet become

tangible and the child’s expressions are often not rooted in reality.

As development continues, reality orientations become stronger. That is a ‘future’ and that

there are different kinds of jobs in which one could specialize, become more real to the child

as he or she grows up. It is perhaps during these years that the rudimentary foundations of the

individual’s vocational self-concept are laid. According to Super (1957), the rest of career

development reflects the individual’s attempt to implement this vocational self-concept.

The individual then moves into the period of Exploration – a crucial period in the career

development sequence. It is crucial because this period also coincides with the developmental

stage of adolescence. Resolving the identity crisis is perhaps the most important task faced by

the individual at this stage of development. Finding the answer to the question - Who am I?

Lies at the heart of the identity crisis.

14

Career choice is an essential aspect of discovering one’s personal identity. From the point of

view of career development, this is the time when the individual has the opportunity to

informally ‘try out’ and explore various career possibilities.

These opportunities could emerge spontaneously in school, through interactions with friends,

information from the media and so on. A vital point to be noted is that while exploration will

present the individual with information, the validity of this information is not known.

Facilitating interactions with career counsellors, promoting self-discovery, organising work

experience programmes, are examples of career development activities that make significant

contributions to helping the individual deal successfully with the career developmental task

of exploration.

The next stage in career development is called the period of Establishment, occurring during

early adulthood. This is a time when the individual actually makes a career choice and

establishes himself or herself as a worker. The career direction that is chosen could be

strongly influenced by the nature of the individual’s experiences during the preceding periods

of Growth and Exploration.

Maintenance is the next stage in career development and it is a time mainly of building one’s

life, as a professional in the chosen area through continuous adjustments and efforts to

improve one’s position. The final stage is the period of Decline when one’s output as a

worker is said to decrease and perceptions for retirement begin. This brings us to the

important concept of career maturity. The developing person faces career development tasks

at each stage in his or her development. Exploiting the opportunities offered by these tasks

and acquiring the ability to meet the demands of these tasks contribute to career maturity. The

15

absence of opportunities to meet a career developmental task inhibits the maturational

process and causes a career maturation lag.

Most of the unemployed graduates fall within the exploration and establishment career

development stages of Super’s vocational development stages.

The Life-Span, Life-Space approach to Careers.

Career Development stage Age range Orientation and career development tasks Growth 0-14 Prevocational 0-3 Not oriented to work career vocation Fantasy 4-10 The chose Thoughts about career are fantasy-based Interest 11-12 Likes and dislikes begin to colour thoughts work Capacity 13-14 Career thoughts are influenced by ideas of personal

ability Exploration 15-24 Tentative 15-17 Able to express career choices tentatively Transition 18-21 Choice are increasingly oriented to realities and facts Trial 22-24 Initial career commitment and first job Establishment 25-45 Trial 25-30 Job changes could continue as experiences accrue Stabilization 31-44 Settles into a job and finds stability Maintenance 45-65 Growth and development within the chosen career area Decline 65 plus Preparation to leave the work force Declarations 65-70 Work activity decreases and slows down Retirement 71 plus Leaves the world of work

Source: Super, Savickas, & Super (1996).

1.4 The Conceptual Framework for the Study

Fig 2: Conceptual Model for the Study: Researcher

Self-

Employment (Entrepreneurship)

Self-employability Potentials creativity,

innovativeness risk bearing

Vocational Skills Acquisition Training

(Entrepreneurship Training)

Self interest Special abilities Environmental

influences Learning

experiences Task approach

skills

Self-employability readiness:

ability to raise funds

undertake new ventures

Career

Counselling

16

The conceptual framework above illustrates how career Counselling technique has been used

to help bring about self-understanding and informed decision-making of the participants on

their self-employability. This awareness creates the opportunity of undergoing further

training based on interest and special abilities, environmental Influences, learning

experiences and task approach skills. The training was narrowed down to vocational skills

acquisition training and entrepreneurship training which were deployed to assist unemployed

graduates in discovering their self- employability readiness and potentials, thereby placing

them on the pedestal of being job creators instead of job seekers. The vocational skills

acquisition and entrepreneurship training exposed them to techniques that helped participants

give practical expression to their interests, as well as ginger the entrepreneurial spirit in them,

which in turn would likely lead to self -employment.

1.5 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of vocational skills acquisition training

on the self-employability readiness and potentials among unemployed graduates in Delta

State. Specifically, the study sought to achieve the following:

(1) Examine the difference in self-employability potentials among participants exposed to

vocational skills acquisition training and the control group.

(2) Investigate the impact of vocational skills acquisition training on self-employability

readiness among unemployed graduates.

(3) Establish the impact of experimental conditions and gender on self-employability

potentials among unemployed graduates.

(4) Determine the impact of experimental conditions and gender on self-employability

readiness among unemployed graduates.

(5) Investigate the impact of experimental conditions and family background on self-

employability readiness among unemployed graduates.

17

(6) Examine the impact of experimental conditions and family background on self-

employability potentials among unemployed graduates.

1.6 Research Questions

The following questions guided this study:

1. To what extent would vocational skills acquisition training have impact on post-test

scores of self-employability potentials among unemployed graduates?

2. What would be the impact of vocational skills acquisition training on post-test scores

of self-employability readiness among unemployed graduates?

3. What is the impact of gender and experimental conditions on self- employability

potentials among unemployed graduates?

4. To what extent would gender and experimental conditions have impact on self-

employability readiness among unemployed graduates?

5. What is the impact of experimental conditions and family occupational background

on post-test scores of self-employability readiness among unemployed graduates?

6. To what extent would experimental conditions and family occupational background

have impact on post test scores of self-employability potentials among unemployed

graduates?

1.7 Research Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were tested in this study:

1. Vocational skills acquisition training will not have significant impact on post-test

scores of self-employability potentials among unemployed graduates.

2. Vocational skills acquisition training will not have significant impact on post-test

scores of self-employability readiness among unemployed graduates.

18

3. Gender and experimental conditions will not have significant impact on self-

employability potentials among unemployed graduates.

4. Gender and experimental conditions will not have significant impact on self-

employability readiness among unemployed graduates.

5. Experimental conditions and family occupational background will not have

significant impact on post-test scores of self- employability readiness of unemployed

graduates.

6. Experimental conditions and family occupational background will not have

significant impact on post-test scores of self- employability potentials of unemployed

graduates.

1.8 Significance of the Study

The study would be beneficial to graduates as the skills acquired through training, would

probably help them to be self-employed. Also, the study would be useful to counsellors as

they would be well informed on the different skills acquisition strategies that will suit the

graduates’ needs. It would expose counsellors on the need to assist graduates through

counselling, to discover their readiness for self-employment as well as their potentials

towards acquiring vocational and entrepreneurial skills.

Furthermore, it would be relevant to policy makers and curriculum developers in the

education sector by helping them to review the present educational policy and curriculum

with more emphasis on vocational skills acquisition and entrepreneurship training as a core

factor, in promoting self-employment, thereby reducing unemployment. It would also equip

the various agencies concerned with curbing unemployment among graduates with

information and strategies to be used in discovering the self-employability readiness and

19

potentials of graduates, as this may awaken their interest towards becoming self-employed

and probably guarantee their success when they venture into self employment.

Finally, it would help tertiary education graduates to employ creativity in solving problems,

evaluate new ideas, select the best ones and modify them, where necessary, due to the skills

acquisition and entrepreneurship training they have undergone.

1.9 Scope of the Study

The study was limited to selected unemployed graduates from Delta State. The study

investigated the impact of vocational skills acquisition training on the self-employability

readiness and potentials among unemployed graduates. It also examined the impact that

gender and family background would have on the self-employability readiness and potentials

of unemployed graduates.

1.10 Operational Definition of Terms

The following terms are defined within the context of this study as follows:

Career Counselling: It is a verbal process in which a counsellor and counsellee(s) are in a

dynamic and collaborative discussion, focused on identifying and acting on the counsellee’s

goals, in which the counsellor employs a repertoire of diverse techniques and processes, to

help bring about self-understanding, understanding of behavioural options available and

informed decision-making in the counsellee.

Entrepreneurship: This is the process of identifying, developing or bringing a vision to life.

In this study, it is the involvement of the participants training on how to utilise their formal

knowledge in starting new organisations or revitalising moribund business entities.

20

Family Background: It refers to the participants growing up in different families, where they

were surrounded either by entrepreneurs or non-entrepreneurs. This in turn may affect their

decisions to becoming entrepreneurs later in life.

Gender: Gender means male or female. It was used to describe things such as gender traits,

roles, stereotypes and identity. In this study, it referred to male and female participants who

are exposed to experimental conditions

Self-employability: It is the act of generating one’s income directly from customers, clients

or other organisations as opposed to being an employee of a business or person. In this study,

it was used to determine the readiness and potentials of unemployed graduates as regards

starting own business.

Self-employability Potentials: This is when someone possesses the capability or power to do

something, which might be latent or nascent. In this study the participants’ self employability

potentials were explored through vocational skills acquisition and entrepreneurship training

to determine their areas of proficiency.

Self-employability Readiness: This is when someone is mentally disposed to carry out a

task. In this study, it was used to measure the participants’ attitude towards vocational skills

acquisition and entrepreneurship training.

Unemployment: Unemployment is when a person who is actively searching for employment

is unable to find work or where someone of working age is unable to work. In this study, it

referred to participants who possess tertiary educational qualification and are able and active

for employment but are unable to get jobs.

Vocational Skills Acquisition: Vocational skills acquisition is a non-formal method through

which the participants gain ability to learn or acquire skills. It involves the development and

practice of new skills gained through training or experience.

21

Vocation: It is an individual’s employment or occupation especially regarded as worthy and

requiring dedication. In this study, it was used to determine the participants’ choice of

occupation after undergoing career counselling.

Potentials: These are latent qualities or abilities that may be developed and can lead to future

success or usefulness. In this study, it was used to determine the participants’ latent or

nascent abilities which could be harnessed through counselling and skills acquisition training.

Readiness: This is the state of being fully prepared for something. In this study, it was used

to determine the participants’ preparedness to venture into self-employment, having received

career counselling and vocational skills acquisition training.

Unemployed graduates: These are individuals who have gone through tertiary education, are

certificated but not engaged in any paying job. In this study, they include all tertiary

institutions graduates available for work and had either actively sought for work but found

none.

22

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

This study focuses on vocational skills acquisition training and self-employability readiness

and potentials among unemployed graduates. For a proper understanding of the study,

relevant literatures reviewed are organised under the following sub-headings:

Concept of Career Counselling

The Growth of Career Studies

Career Development Theories

Concept of Vocational Skills Acquisition

Concept of Vocational Education

Vocational Education Development in Nigeria

Role of Vocational Skills Acquisition Training to National Development

Effort of Government toward Vocational Skills Acquisition and Entrepreneurship

Education in Nigeria

Studies on Vocational Skills Acquisition training on Self-Employability Potentials

and Readiness

Studies on Vocational skills acquisition training on Self-Employability Potentials,

Family Occupation background and Gender

Vocational Skills Acquisition training on Self-Employability Readiness, Family

Occupation background and Gender

Concept of Self-Employment

Concept of Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship in the Middle Ages

Entrepreneurship in the 17th Century

Entrepreneurship in the 18th Century

Entrepreneurship in the 19th and 20th century

Concept of Unemployment

Types of Unemployment

Appraisal of Literature Review

23

2.1 Concept of Career Counselling

Counselling is a helping relationship, which assists individuals to change their perspective or

attitude for better achievements (Egbe-Okpenge and Orhungur 2012). Also according to

Fuster (2000), counselling is neither giving of advice nor offering solutions to problems but

helping counsellees to change their attitude, perception of self, others or of habits. It is also a

process designed to help students cope with their problems, with the assistance of

professionally trained guidance counsellors. Counselling has three broad domains which

include educational counselling, vocational/career counselling and personal-social

counselling. Career/Vocational counselling, which is the thrust of this work is defined by

Akinade (2005), as a facilitative process, a service rendered to the individual in choosing and

adjusting to an occupation. Olayinka (1993) has defined it as a decision-making process in

the realistic choice of career, a course of study and how individual subjects relate to the

future mental health of students and therefore a prerequisite to economic growth and

manpower needs of the country. The importance of vocational counselling to the

entrepreneurship development of students and youths in general cannot be overemphasized.

According to Uba (2010), counselling will intensively equip students and youths for sound

public relations, self-understanding and better management skills which will facilitate

entrepreneurship development

Career development is a life-long process that actually starts at an individual’s birth. Many

factors basically influence a person’s career development such as interest, abilities, values,

personality, environment and background. Career counselling is a process that will help you

to know and understand yourself and the world of work in order to make career, educational

and life decisions. Career development is not just taking a decision on what job you want to

engage in when you graduate, rather it is a life-long process, that as you go through life, you

will change, situations will change and you will continually have to make career and life

24

decisions. The goal of career counselling therefore is not only to help an individual make the

decisions you need to make now, but to give you the knowledge and skills you need, to make

future career and life decisions. Unfortunately, most students pass through school without

being exposed to career counselling or development.

The psychology of career development is one of the most robust and vigorously growing

branches of Behavioral Sciences and Career Psychology has been an area of concentrated

investigation. Research and methods dealing with career counselling have increasingly been

included in the mainstream of psychological research and practice. While at one time, career

counselling seemed to be an obscure sub-branch of counselling psychology, today, applied

psychologists in clinical, industrial, organisational and social psychology settings find career

development as issues of interest (Osipow, 1987). .

Baruch (1996), pointed out career development systems should fit the needs of the

individuals within the organisation. Since people vary a lot in their needs, stages of career,

levels of hierarchy and many other characteristics, the career planning and management must

be widespread and diverse, so that, it will fit the variety of individual needs. Career needs are

defined ‘as the personal needs of goals, tasks and challenges in a person's career at various

career stages’. A career goal may be a particular landmark to be achieved during a career,

which provides a person with the necessary direction and motivation. ‘Career goals’ enable

an individual to structure and motivate their work behaviour by setting goals and by

practising new and desired work behaviour; thus these goals focus on current efforts.

Conversely, ‘career tasks’ would begin once individuals begin to identify the opportunities

available to them and then take action based upon them, demonstrating initiative and

spending time and energy, developing skills and competencies to achieve them.

25

Hall (1976), defines career as the individually perceived sequence of attitudes and behaviours

associated with work-related experiences and activities over the span of the person's life.

Career counsellors have defined career development as "the total constellation of

psychological, sociological, educational, physical, economical and chance factors that

combine to shape the career of any given individual over the life span" (McDaniels and

Gysbers, 1992).

It has also been defined as "the evolving sequence of a person's work experiences over time"

(Arthur, Hall, and Lawrence, 1989). Some of the career events are predictable on the job

actions and interactions; others are adaptive responses or spontaneous contributions to the

constantly unfolding situation (Arthur, Hall, and Lawrence, 1989). The internal career

involves a subjective sense of where one is going in one's working life while the external

career includes the formal stages and roles defined by organisational policies and societal

concepts of what an individual can expect in an occupational structure (Schein, 1996). The

idea behind introducing the internal perspective recognises that beliefs and values,

expectations and aspirations, are just as important as sequence of positions held (Wood,

1999). Career is not defined by a series of occupational classifications or company-based

systems of human resource development; equally important is the individual's own exertion

of will in choice and activity (Arthur, Hall, and Lawrence, 1989). It is important to

understand what kind of expectations workers have and how organisations respond to these

expectations (Järlström, 2000). External career opportunities refer to the extent to which an

organisation provides support to the internal career anchors (Jiang and Klein, 1999/2000). If

the fit between the anchors and job environment does not exist anxiety, strain, job

dissatisfaction and turnover may result. (Feldman and Bolino, 2000; Jiang and Klein,

1999/2000).

26

2.1.1 The Growth of Career Studies

Today, career theory is a growing interdisciplinary body of knowledge, with roots as a

subfield of organisation and management studies (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996; Collin &

Young, 2000). In the early 1970s, the field of career studies was not yet established, but as

the prevailing historical narrative goes, a small group of organisational scholars, led by

Douglass Hall, Edgar Schein, and John Van Maanen at the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology (MIT), grew increasingly interested in the long-term issues associated with

working in organisations and the long-term influence of careers on individuals, the

institutions within which they worked and the societies to which they belonged (Arthur,

1994; Arthur, Hall, & Lawrence, 1989).

In the last several decades, changes such as increased globalisation and rapid technological

advancement have precipitated an organisational restructuring that has forced those in

career studies to re-examine traditional career assumptions (Sullivan, 1999).

The culture of work has also changed with the relative integration of women into the world of

work. Three main traits characterise the current concept of career development interventions

in the post-modern era. First, career interventions are conceived as being applied over the life

span (Super, 1980). Second, the career development process is viewed as including all the

transitions that an individual experiences: school, job and personal (Schlossberg, 1984).

Third, clients are considered to be ‘actors’ in their own career development. The objective is

to assist them to be the subjects of their own existence.

2.1.2. Career Development Theories

Career development theories try to explain why individuals choose careers. They also deal

with the career adjustments people make over time. Modern theories, which are broad and

27

comprehensive in regard to individual and occupational development, began appearing in the

literature in the 1950’s (Gysbers, Heppner & Johnstone, 2003). The theories described here,

(trait-and-factor, developmental and social-cognitive) and the counselling procedures that go

with them are among the most prominent and widely used in the field of career counselling.

As early as 1909, Frank Parsons’ gave a formula of a ‘true and reasoned match’,

subsequently, career theorists and practitioners had set out to device independent approaches

to healthy progress and success in the career sphere. Hence, career counselling has been

conceived as a process wherein individuals are guided on how to gather and incorporate

information about themselves and the world of work, which would culminate to a logical

process of decision making.

Whereas contextual factors were long considered moderating influences in the career

development and counseling process, contemporary theory, research and practice have

brought these issues to the fore (Fouad & Bingham, 1995; Leong & Brown, 1995; Sue & Sue,

1990). The Trait–Factor theory was perhaps the earliest approach to career development and

emerged in direct response to the need for accurately matching people to specific

occupations. This theory rests on a set of assumptions. Firstly, it is assumed that individuals

possess a unique combination of traits, which can be measured and quantified with accuracy.

It is further assumed that the characteristics of occupations are such that workers must exhibit

certain specific traits for successful execution of the job roles of a particular occupation.

Based on these two assumptions, the Trait-Factor approach attempts to identify and quantify

the traits that characterise an individual and match the person with occupations that would

draw from his or her unique profile of traits. This approach, therefore, describes career

decision-making to be a simple process of matching personal characteristics with job

requirements. Accordingly, the closer the match, the greater the likelihood of optimal

productivity and personal satisfaction. In other words, career success is contingent on finding

28

the closest match between the individual’s traits and the demands of a particular occupation.

Frank Parson (1909), in his seminal publication, ‘Choosing a Vocation’ outlined the Trait-

Factor approach. He described career decision–making to be a rational process of identifying

personal traits and then matching them with suitable careers.

Frank Parsons’ (1909) steps to rational career decision-making process:

• First of all, the individual using the expert services of a vocational guidance

counsellor needs to inform him/herself of personal aptitudes, interests and on career

satisfaction resources. This includes understanding personal limitations and the causes

underlying these limitations.

• Next, the career chooser needs to acquire information about the conditions that

promote occupational success.

• Finally, the individual arrives at a career choice through a rational and reasoned

analysis of the relationship between the facts acquired at steps one and two.

According to the Trait-Factor formulation, career decision-making is a rational process of

problem solving, which is based on the systematic collection of information, the verification

of this information and finally using this information to make a career decision. This was the

approach that dominated career counselling in the West from the early 1900’s to around the

1940’s. The theory of career choice propounded by John Holland (1959), more than 40 years

ago is perhaps the most well-known and widely studied career theory in the history of Career

Psychology. This is probably because the theory has yielded objective methods for the

practice of career counselling. At the heart of Holland’s theory are three propositions: Firstly,

it is possible, according to Holland, to classify people and environment into types. Type by

definition, is a conglomeration of traits which can serve as a measure for categorizing people

into groups.

29

Holland (1970) identifies six categories in which personality types and occupational

environments can be classified: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and

Conventional. The different categories are graded by prestige levels. The Investigative (I)

occupations rank highest, followed by Enterprising (E), Artistic (A) and Social (S)

occupations, which have roughly the same level of prestige. The lowest levels of prestige are

Realistic (R) and Conventional (C) occupations (Gottfredson, 1981). The realistic type is the

person who is most comfortable being involved in activities that are concrete and based on

clearly defined systems and norms. Conversely, the realistic type of person is not comfortable

in social contexts that require interpersonal skills, expressive ability and situations that

require the expression of emotional sensitivity. Engineers, machine operators and mechanics

are examples of professionals who would fit into Holland’s realistic type.

The investigative type is analytical in orientation and enjoys drawing conclusions from

systematic and objective observations. Repetitive and routine activities are likely to be

avoided by this group of people. Researchers, doctors, detectives are examples of the

investigative type.

The artistic type thrives on being expressive and original. This type tends to be

unconventional and deeply sensitive to personal feelings, thoughts and ideas. Activities that

are orderly and mechanical are likely to be unattractive to this group. Actors, designers,

musicians, authors would demonstrate the characteristics of the artistic type.

The social type is strongly oriented to human interactions. These people are sensitive to

human needs, nuances of emotions, thinking patterns and other aspects of human behaviour.

Activities that occur in non-human situations are likely to be avoided. Counsellors, nurses,

teachers, social workers would fit into the social type. The enterprising type is typically self-

driven. An individual from this group would enjoy organising people, objects and resources

30

to create systems and structures for the attainment of goals and targets. The enterprising type

is likely to be uncomfortable in work situations that are repetitive and do not allow for

leadership or the expression and implementation of personal ideas. Sales people, managers,

politicians are said to possess the characteristics of the enterprising type. The conventional

type tends to find the highest level of comfort in situations that are organised and predictable.

They are likely to enjoy activities that require routine and repetition. Unpredictable,

disordered situations and activities that require innovation are likely to be avoided.

Accountants, bankers, receptionists would fall into the category of the conventional type. In

an analysis of census data using the Holland codes. Reardon, Bullock and Meyer (2007)

confirmed that the distribution across Holland’s types is asymmetrical. They found that from

1960 to 2000 “the Realistic area had the largest number of individuals employed and that the

Artistic area had the fewest number employed”. The gap between the number of people

employed in the Realistic and Enterprising areas shrunk during the five decades to where in

2000 there were approximately equal numbers of people employed in both areas.

Interestingly, the Investigative area more than doubled during this time whereas the other

four areas remained relatively stable. Regardless of age, between 75% and 85% of male

workers were employed in the Realistic and Enterprising areas; women were more varied and

concentrated in Conventional, Realistic, Social and more recently Enterprising areas.

Personal satisfaction in a work setting depends on a number of factors, but among the most

important is the degree of congruence between personality types.

Two of the most widely known career theories are those associated with Donald Super (1957)

and Eli Ginzberg (1951). They are both based on personal development. The original

developmental theory proposed by Ginzberg and associates (Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelard &

Herma, 1951) has had considerable influence and has been revised (Ginzberg, 1972).

31

Super's (1957) theory of career development has long been of interest to career researchers

(Fouad & Arhona, 1994; Savickas, 1994; Whiston & Brecheisen, 2002). Its intuitive design

of the stages individuals pass through in their careers has made it widely relevant to career

practitioners and has greatly affected many clients. This theory illustrates how image norms

may operate in each of this career stages. Image norms may impact the career decisions and

developmental tasks intrinsic in each of Super's (1990) stages. An image norm is the

conviction that individuals must present or possess a certain image, consistent with

occupational, organisational or industry standards, in order to achieve career success. The rise

in image discrimination cases suggests that image norms may play an important role in

employment decisions.

Career Developmental Theorists such as Ginzberg (1951), Super (1957) and Gottfredson

(1997) put forth the idea that occupational development keeps pace with the individual’s

maturation. As with other aspects of human development, career development is also

described as occurring in stages. Each of these presents career developmental tasks, the

successful resolution of which is critical to the passage into and comfort in the next stage of

career development. (Super, 1957). Career developmental tasks are expectations of what is

thought to be typical to a person at a given stage of development.

Ginzberg (1951) and Super (1957), describe career development as occurring in stages that

stretch across the individual’s lifespan. According to this school of thought, career

development is closely interlinked with the individual’s physical, cognitive, emotional and

social maturation.

The initial stage in career development that occur during childhood has been called the period

of Growth. In the beginning, the child’s cognitive maturation is at a level where fantasy rules

one’s perceptions and interactions with the world. Time perspectives have not yet become

32

tangible and the child’s expressions are often not rooted in reality. As development continues,

reality orientations become stronger. That is a ‘future’ and that there are different kinds of

jobs in which one could specialise, become more real to the child as he or she grows up. It is

perhaps during these years that the rudimentary foundations of the individual’s vocational

self-concept are laid. According to Super (1957), the rest of career development reflects the

individual’s attempt to implement this vocational self-concept.

The individual then moves into the period of Exploration–a crucial period in the career

development sequence. It is crucial because this period also coincides with the developmental

stage of adolescence. Resolving the identity crisis is perhaps the most important task faced by

the individual at this stage of development. Finding the answer to the question - Who am I?

Lies at the heart of the identity crisis.

Career choice is an essential aspect of discovering one’s personal identity. From the point of

view of career development, this is the time when the individual has the opportunity to

informally ‘try out’ and explore various career possibilities. These opportunities could

emerge spontaneously in school, through interactions with friends, information from the

media and so on. A vital point to be noted is that while exploration will present the individual

with information, the validity of this information is not known.

Facilitating interactions with career counsellors, promoting self-discovery, organising work

experience programmes, are examples of career development activities that make significant

contributions to helping the individual deal successfully with the career developmental task

of exploration.

The next stage in career development has been called the period of Establishment. Occurring

during early adulthood, this is a time when the individual actually makes a career choice and

establishes himself or herself as a worker. The career direction that is chosen could be

33

strongly influenced by the nature of the individual’s experiences during the preceding periods

of Growth and Exploration.

Maintenance is described as the next stage in career development and it is a time mainly of

building one’s life as a professional in the chosen area through continuous adjustments and

efforts to improve one’s position.

The final stage is the period of Decline when one’s output as a worker is said to decrease and

perceptions for retirement begin. Krumboltz (1979, 1996) has formulated an equally

comprehensive but less developmental social-cognitive approach to career development. He

takes the position that four factors influence a person’s career choice:

• Genetic endowment

• Conditions and events in the environment

• Learning experiences

• Task- approach skills ( values, work habits)

According to Krumboltz (1979) career decisions are controlled by both internal and external

processes. There is continuous learning which results in what

Krumboltz (1979) labels:

• Self-observation generalisations, an overt or covert self-statement of evaluation that

may or may not be true.

• Task-approach skills, an effort by people to project their self-observation

generalisations into the future in order to predict future events.

• Actions, implementation of behaviours, such as applying for a job.

The strong point of Krumboltz’s (1979) theory is that it views people as having some period

of control over events they find reinforcing. Whereas individuals and the world change,

persons can learn to take advantage of learning opportunities and make career decisions

34

accordingly. In summary, Krumboltz (1979) outlines a dynamic approach to career

counselling, that can be applied to males and females, as well as to racial and ethnic

minorities, who have individualistic perspectives (Brown, 2007).

Hall (2002) describes three stages of career development: the early years of becoming

established, the middle years of maintenance and re-examination and the late years of

adjustment into retirement. He describes the middle career stage as beginning somewhere

around the age of 40, although it can vary; because this age corresponds to changes in the life

cycle, it provides a breeding ground for potential crisis. Hall (2002) describes nine

physiological, attitudinal, occupational, and family changes that an individual experiences at

this time. They are: Awareness of advancing age and death, awareness of physical aging,

knowledge of how many career goals they will attain, a search for new life goals, a marked

change in family relationships, a change in work relationships, a growing sense of

obsolescence, a feeling of less mobility and attractiveness in the job market with growing

security concerns, changes in the work environment.

Career interest patterns tend to be more stable after college than during college. Nevertheless,

many adults continue to need career counselling (Swanson & Hansen, 1988). Indeed, adults

experience cyclical periods of stability and transition throughout their lives and career.

Change is a developmental as well as situational expectation at this stage of life (Borgen,

1997; Kerka, 1991).

Developmentally, some adults have a mid-life career change that occurs as they enter their

40’s and what Erik Erikson (1950) described as a stage of generativity versus stagnation. At

this time, adults may change as they become more introspective and seek to put more

meaning in their lives. Situationally, adults may seek career changes after a trauma such as a

death, layoff, or divorce (Marino, 1996).

35

Adults may have particularly difficult times with their careers and career decisions when they

find themselves unhappy in their work yet feel appropriately ambivalent about switching

directions (Lowman, 1993). In such situations, they may create illogical or troublesome

career benefits that become self - fulfilling or self - defeating (Krumboltz, 1992).

2.2 Concept of Vocational Skills Acquisition

Skills acquisition as the name implies is the ability to learn a skill. A skill could be seen as

intellectual, such as learning to listen, speak, read and write. It can be manual such as

learning to build, or make something. One acquires skills by learning them and this has been

man’s means of material transformation from the earliest of times.

According to Diigbo (1989) it takes trained hands and minds to apply the knowledge and

technique effectively. For example, in the medieval times, apprenticeship became a normal

method of entry to a craft guild. Vocational education has been given different definition by

different scholars. Anao (2002), stated that vocational education is a kind of education,

geared towards the production of the educated man who can effectively work with his head,

heart and hands. Olaitan (1988), sees vocational education as a kind of education or training

that equips the learner with saleable or entrepreneurial skills. Ginzberg (2001), also defines

vocational training as the type of education which has to do with productive work. The

importance of vocational training or education cannot be over emphasized. Obisanya (2010),

describes vocational education as an essential ingredient on re-orientating the mindset of

Nigerian students towards self-employment or job creation. Decening (2010), identifies four

minds for a vocational future which are: Opportunity recognising mind, the designing mind,

the risk managing mind and the resilient mind. The student’s mind set can influence the

outcome of the vocational training or education. While comparing the responses of students

from two different nationalities, Kirby and Ibrahim (2010), found that |the vocational

36

propensity of the Egyptians students is somewhat higher than that of their counterparts in the

United Kingdom, despite the prevailing traditional knowledge requisition pedagogy. When

exposed to a more vocational style of teaching and learning, the students’ scores increased by

8% over a twelve week period, suggesting that, if a change in vocational educational

paradigm could be effected, it should be possible to effect a change in the way students think

and behave, thereby helping their vocational culture.

Olaitan (1998), in stressing the importance of vocational skills acquisition argues that for the

progress of human race, vocational education has been a consistent and identifiable element

and that vocational education has been part of the foundation of men’s creative and

progressive development. When graduates acquire skills through vocational training, there is

high tendency that they would become useful to themselves in particular and the society at

large.

Ojei (2010), opined that vocational skills acquisition have been identified as a panacea for the

high youth unemployment, poverty and hunger in Nigeria, where statistics have shown that

70% of the unemployed population of the country are unskilled. According to Isaac (2011),

effective engagement of youths in skills acquisition is an intervention mechanism in the

eradication of unemployment and poverty in the society. Vocational skills training could help

the youths to be self-employed or be relevant in the world of work, thereby preventing

poverty and providing for them a more fulfilled life. Therefore, graduates trained in a range

of vocational and technical skills end up not only becoming self-employed and self-reliant,

they also become employers of labour.

37

International Youth Foundation (2014), observed that young people around the world are

more likely to pursue formal education and when they graduate, they realise that they are not

adequately prepared for the world of work. Basic skills relevant to key growth sectors of the

modern economy (both technical and “soft” skills) are not covered in formal education

systems, resulting in a skills mismatch between the competencies that the youths need to

succeed in the workplace and those they actually possess. The critical challenge for today’s

youths is lack of vocational skills, especially graduates and a key approach to overcoming the

challenge is through the provision of vocational (life) skills training. Vocational (life) skills

according to IYF (2014), are a comprehensive set of universal, cognitive and non-cognitive

skills and abilities, connecting behaviour, attitudes, and knowledge, which youths can

develop and retain throughout their lives. Life skills increase young people’s well-being and

help them to develop into active and productive members of their communities.

Vocational skills acquisition, which is the acquisition of specific skills for self-employment

or career, has become a major part of the average student’s education plan (Ugwuja, 2010).

Ayinde (2017) noted that an average undergraduate appreciates that a skill in catering or

computer appreciation coupled with a degree from any department and different fields, may

just very well be the difference between gaining employment speedily and sitting at home for

years, hence, the increase in vocational skills acquisition among university undergraduates.

According to a report of the European Commission (2014), vocational skills acquisition,

which is a non–formal education, supports development by helping to transform young

peoples’ potentials, creativity, talents, initiatives and social responsibilities, through the

acquisition of related knowledge, skills, attitudes and values. The Commission also posited

that recognising and valuing non-formal learning in a creative and innovative way, raising the

38

visibility of skills acquired outside the formal system and fostering complementarity between

non-formal and formal learning, while at the same time promoting equal opportunities

(European Commission, 2012).

Vocational Skills training is a way of promoting self - reliance and employability among

citizens, especially graduates and thereby improve their socio-economic condition and living

standards (African Development Fund, 2017).

2.2.1 Concept of Vocational Education

The term vocational and technical education has been defined differently by many authors.

Some authors defined them separately while others defined the twin concept jointly. Oranu

(2006) saw vocational and technical education as skill-based programme designed for sub-

professional level education and based on a specific vocation. Technical education, on the

other hand facilitates the acquisition of practical and applied skills as well as basic scientific

knowledge. The major difference between the two terms according to Oranu (2006), is that

every vocational education programme is technical in nature, not all technical education

is vocational. This tenuous relationship makes for the use of both terms in academics

interchangeably.

The Federal Government of Nigeria, through the National Policy on Education (NPE)

(2004), UNESCO in Ayonmike, Okwelle and Okeke (2015) defined vocational

training/education as those aspects of educational processes involving in addition to

general education, the study of technologies and related sciences and the acquisitions of

the economy and social life. The National Policy on Education, which came into existence

as a result of the National Curriculum Conference of 1969, further stated that vocational

training/education is an integral part of general education and also a means of preparing

people for occupational fields and for effective participation in the world of work. It is an

39

aspect of life learning and a preparation for responsible citizenship; an instrument for

promoting environmentally sound suitable development and a method of alleviating poverty.

Vocational and technical/education according to Okorocha (2012), is an educational training

which encompasses knowledge, skills, competencies, structural activities, abilities, capacities

and all other structural experiences for securing jobs in various sectors of the economy or

even enabling one to be self-dependent by being a job creator. Vocational and technical

education according to ILO in Oluwale, Jegede and Olamade (2013), is a vehicle for the

development of marketable and entrepreneurial skills and the engine of development. Amoor

(2009) saw it as the core of both individuals and society’s economy. The author

further stressed that through the acquisition of skills; individuals could explore their

environment and harness the resources within it, which could serve them and the

society since the wealth of any nation determines its development.

Vocational training/education according to Ojimba (2012), is a form of education,

whose primary aim is to prepare persons for employment in recognised occupation and this

encompasses field of study (Agricultural Education, Fine and Applied Arts Education,

Business Education and Vocational Trades in soap making, hairdressing, Computer

training among others). Iheanacho (2006) defined vocational education as that aspect of

education that deals with business education, farming, book keeping, bricklaying, among

others with aims of acquiring vocational skills in these fields. Uwaifo (2009) posited that

technical education is the training of technically- oriented personnel who are to be initiators,

facilitators, and implementers of technological literacy that would lead to self-reliance and

sustainability. The author stresses that technical education has direct impact on national

welfare. Banjoko cited in Dokubo (2013), summed it all by stressing that skill is a major

distinguishing aspect of vocational education which makes it outstanding from liberal

40

arts. In summary, vocational and technical education essentially develops in the individual,

the knowledge, skills, and desirable attitude for legitimate work.

2.2.2 Vocational Education Development in Nigeria

Vocational and technical education in Nigeria could be traced to pre-colonial era, when

traditional education was in practice. According to Ogunmilla cited in Sofoluwa and

Olumade (2006) traditional education of the various ethic nationalities, arts and crafts of

various types have existed as their own expression of vocational training. The traditional

agricultural practices then, were developed to suit the cultivation of agricultural species

predominantly produced in the different eco-geography areas of the country. The

instructional method then was observation and imitation of the master. During the colonial

era, the child was trained in the family trade through direct apprenticeship by either the

parents or relations. During this period, non-indigenous companies like shell BP, the PZ and

the UAC started training artisans among their employees, who were to serve the skill needs of

the companies at that particular time.

During this period, examinations were not conducted nor were certificates issued. Every

learner was graded according to the tasks he or she was able to accomplish. This implies that

prior to the colonial times, vocational education has been with us. However, schools were

built primarily for the purpose of evangelism by the early missionaries. Specifically, the

early missionary activities were characterised by literacy types of education which was

geared towards winning converts and producing clerks and interpreters (Ajayi & Ayodele,

2002).

It was not until 1908 when government departments started to organize some form of

vocational training school. The marine training school according to (Adegbite, 2000), came

on board in 1982. The Public works, The Post and Telegraph and Railway Training Schools

41

were also established around 1931. Government’s active participation in the provision of

technical education became obvious between 1930 and 1960. The first technical institute

established in Nigeria was the Hope Waddell Institute in Calabar in 1885 with the aim

of providing education in the rudiments training in the Technical Trade and Teacher’s

Education, (Mamman, Chadi, Jirgi, & Mubarak, 2013). Yaba Higher College was officially

opened on January 19, 1934 and later became the first vocational and technical

institute in 1948 with the motive to train Artisans, crafts men and Technicians,

together with teachers of technical education to teach in trade centres, (Aina in

Mamman, Chadi, Jirgi & Mubarak, 2013). Thereafter, technical colleges were

established by various regional governments in various locations in the country,

namely: Enugu (1950), Ilorin (1951), Kano (1953), Bukuru (1953), Sapele (1955), Ijebu-

Ode (1959), Osogbo, Oyo (1961), Owo (1963), Aba (1964) and Abakaliki (1966).

These colleges were not fee paying and they were adequately funded by the government at

that time. In 1959, Nigeria Federal Ministry of Education set up a commission- The

Ashby Commission to conduct an investigation into Nigerian needs in post-secondary

education.

The Ashby Commission recommended that adequate attention should be given to

technical and vocational education. It also recommended that students, studying technical

drawing and craft subjects should be encouraged. Similarly, technical schools should be

upgraded to award the City and Guilds London Certificate. The Commission for Technical

Education (1963), recommended three levels of vocational and technical education as

follows:

Pre-vocational and Pre-technical training usually offered in secondary schools; Craftsmen

training usually offered in technical colleges, trade centres and vocational schools

International Journal of Capacity Building in Education and Management (IJCBEM, 2016).

42

Technical training is usually offered in polytechnics, monotechnics and colleges of

technology.

The fourth Commonwealth Education Conference (1986), recommended that industry

should be closely associated with technical education. This could be through policy-

making, manpower planning and curriculum development, provision of opportunities

for industrial experience, accreditation, consultancy services, part-time courses and

vocational guidance.

In 1987, the National Council on Education (NCE) approved the National Board for

Technical Educational (NBTE), which classified vocational and technical institutions

into: Vocational Schools, Polytechnics, Monotechnics and Colleges of technology. These are

made up of vocational/artisan training centres to produce artisans. This historical evidence

has shown that the vocational training/education existed in Nigeria during the olden days

before its transformation as it exists today.

2.2.3 Role of Vocational Skills Acquisition Training to National Development

Facts emerging from developed countries have revealed that effective training in vocational

skills acquisition seems to have greatly contributed to the technological excellence and

economic self-reliance of industrialised nations. In view of this, Ezeji and Okorie (1999),

while stressing the importance of vocational skills acquisition to national growth, asserted

that Nigeria’s social and economic problems will be drastically reduced, if people are given

adequate vocational skills acquisition training. Also, entrepreneurship training has been

discussed by many scholars as an avenue to generate employment. In developed countries,

entrepreneurship has played an important role towards the development of their economies.

This implies that the importance of entrepreneurship cannot be toyed with especially in

developing countries. This is because entrepreneurial activities have been found to be capable

of making positive impacts on the economy of a nation and the quality of life of the people

43

(Adejumo, 2000). In view of this, the importance of vocational skills acquisition and

entrepreneurship training to national development cannot be underrated taking into

consideration the intended objectives, which amongst others, include improved standard of

living of the people, employment generation as well as reduction in the rate of crime.

Vocational and technical education is not just a Nigerian issue. It has been a long time

discourse both in academic and practice. Though the issue in most developing countries

like Nigeria, has been a question of successful implementation of programme (Okorocha,

2012). In this era of vocational training/education globalization, information and

Communication Technology (ICT), emphasis is on vocational skills for the production of

self-reliant citizens. vocational training/education therefore, has the following roles to

play: Youth Empowerment in this 21st century characterised by knowledge explosion,

the emphasis should be on production of self-reliant citizens. Vocational

training/education should empower the Nigerian youths with requisite employability

skills that should be sustained. Also, vocational training/education schools should

produce men and women who, at the end of their education should be able to put

into use the skills they have acquired while in school. Institutions should partner with

industries and other businesses to enable students fit into the wider society on graduation,

either as individual workers in paid employment or self-employed persons and functional

members of the political society.

Vocational training/education should also empower the people socially and

economically, so that they will be able to participate in the making of decisions,

regarding policies affecting their lives, to make the citizens and nations to be self-reliant in

the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.

44

Ogundele, Akingbade and Akinlabi (2012) revealed that youth empowerment is influenced

through acquired skills. When youths acquire skills, they will be gainfully employed and be

useful to themselves and the society at large. Vocational and technical education should

play a crucial role in the social and economic development of a nation (Grootings and

Nelsen, 2006; King and Palmer, 2000). The development of a nation’s economy is

predicated on the quality of skilled human capital in the pool. Vocational education/

training equips students with skills that will make them to be productive entrepreneurs as it

encourages creative and innovative ideas; enlarges the economic gain and increases personal

freedom. The business environment is changing at a fast pace due to the rapid emergence of

technology and globalization. This has added to the increase in demand of valuable human

skills necessary to respond to such drastic changes for economic progress. As a channel

for entrepreneurial skills acquisition, vocational training/education play the role of

improving the economic situation of Nigeria through production and distribution of

goods in different areas of specialisation. This is achievable through the training of the

students in different specialised fields. In the long run, this will help the students to

establish their own enterprises as seen in China, Turkey, India, Japan among other

countries that have succeeded economically through vocational education. This is in line

with the views of Lawal (2014), who opined that for a country to advance socially,

economically and technologically, its citizens must be creative and productive with a

majority becoming job creators rather than seekers. The author concluded by emphasizing

that optimum attention and recognition is to be given to the promotion of vocational

training/education in Nigeria, if the country wants to attain great achievement of productivity

and sustainable economic environment and natural development. According to Sheieh,

Wang and Chon (2009), lifelong vocational education will gradually improve the

45

economic and social development of both the people and the country by making

vocational education a channel for exploitation of human resources.

2.2.4 Effort of Government toward Vocational Skills Acquisition and

Entrepreneurship Education in Nigeria

The inclusion of entrepreneurship in the university curricula is to help graduates acquire

increased understanding of entrepreneurship, equip them with entrepreneurial approach to the

world of work and prepare them to act as entrepreneurs and managers of new businesses

(Cotton, O’ Gorman & Stampfi, 2000). The government in Nigeria has over the years

established certain institutions aimed at providing credit facilities and support for existing and

budding entrepreneurs. These include the Nigerian Bank for Commerce and Industry (NBCI)

and the Nigerian Agricultural Development Bank. National Directorate of Employment

established in 1986 with the sole purpose of training unemployed youths and retired persons

for vocational skills acquisition, entrepreneurship or business development, labour based

works, rural employment promotion and job placement guidance and counselling (National

Directorate of Employment, 2010). The Obasanjo administration from 1999 - 2007

established the Small and Medium Enterprises Development Agency in Nigeria (SMEDAN)

with the sole aim of promoting the development of small and medium enterprises sector,

which is the hub of entrepreneurial activities. There were also several programmes, industrial

and trade associations, that through their activities, seek to promote the development of

entrepreneurship activities. Some of these include the National Association of Small-scale

industrialists, Chamber of Commerce and National Employers Consultants Assembly. Others

include the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) Entrepreneurial Programmes, National

Poverty Alleviation Programmes, and Industrial Training Fund to mention but a few. The

programmes are aimed at the acquisition of marketable and applied skills as well as basic

46

scientific knowledge. In spite of all these effort of the government to reduce unemployment

among graduates, the number of unemployed graduates continues to skyrocket.

2.2.5 Studies on Vocational Skills Acquisition training on Self-Employability

Potentials and Readiness

Vocational skills acquisition develops the potentials of individuals to go out of the job -

seeking bracket into using the innate potentials within to be useful to self, family and the

society. Ogundele, Akingbade and Akinlabi (2012) and Akpama, Esang, Asor and Osang

(2011) noted that skills acquisition and training reduces unemployment through youth

empowerment and social welfare service. This is in agreement with the findings of Adofu and

Ocheja (2013), whose study on the impact of skills acquisition and training on alleviating

unemployment/ poverty in Kogi State Nigeria found that over 60% of those trained in the

skills acquisition programme could afford the necessities of life. They therefore admonished

the government to develop skills acquisition programme to the point where it turns to

poverty/ unemployment reduction programme. Another study by Ekong and Ekong (2016) in

Akwa Ibom State, also found that vocational skills acquisition programmes embarked upon

by the National Directorate of Employment (NDE) reduced unemployment significantly in

the State.

The skills acquired will prepare young people for any specific job with a lifelong opportunity

for self – development because there will be competency, interest and job satisfaction to the

highly skilled person to effectively and efficiently carry out the job successfully for higher

productivity. The acquisition of skills will prepare the individual to fit in readily to self -

employment in all sectors of the economy. Skills acquisition can help in the formulation of

ideas, their integration for national development and the interaction of persons and ideas

47

(Ogundele, Feyisetan & Shaaba, 2014). Skills acquisition could advance the nation in the

following ways: A well trained person will be much more productive within the society; will

no longer be a burden to the nation, he or she cultivates better attitude to work; will be able to

show case his/her talents, make intelligent use of the brain for new discoveries and

innovativeness that will upgrade the individual’s status within the society; and the future

gains that would result from it are of greater significance to productivity (Ogundele,

Feyisetan & Shaaba, 2014).

2.2.6. Studies on Vocational skills acquisition training on Self-Employability Potentials,

Family Occupation background and Gender

Ikegwu, Ajiboye, Aromolaran, Ayodeji and Okorafor (2014) did a study on Human

empowerment through skills acquisition: Issues, impacts and consequences- A nonparametric

view. Their findings show that there is a relationship between skills acquisition and

entrepreneurial opportunity on self-employment. However, Menzies and Paradi (2003) did a

study on Entrepreneurship education and engineering students– Career path and business

performance. The results show that individuals who have participated in an elective

entrepreneurship course are more likely to be business owners than those who have not

participated. This agrees with Abdulkarim (2002) and Osuala (2004) that it is necessary to

empower individuals for self-employment through capacity building and entrepreneurship

education. The entrepreneurial potentials according to Mintzberg (1973) is the search for new

opportunities and progress with a high uncertainty. The most frequent traits and dimensions

of entrepreneurship have been derived from both earlier strategy and entrepreneurship

research. The three traits were: innovativeness, risk-taking and pro-activeness. Lumpkin and

Dess (1996) also added two additional traits in form of competitive aggressiveness and

autonomy. The purpose of these factors are that they work together to enhance the

entrepreneurial performance of an individual and the firm. These dimensions are autonomy,

48

innovativeness, proactiveness, competitive aggressiveness and risk-taking. These five

dimensions could both be used for measuring the entrepreneurial orientation of the firm or the

individual.

Rachid (2013) did a research on Gender and Youth Entrepreneurial Potential in United Arab

Emirates. His findings revealed that there was no significant difference on the overall

entrepreneurial potentials between males and females. Also, the findings strongly suggest that

youth entrepreneurship is not gender-bias and that both men and women reported similar

potentials. In line with these findings, Gupta, Daniel, Arzu and Arijit (2009), examined the

role of socially constructed gender stereotypes and their influence on the entrepreneurial

intentions of male and females. Their findings were not significant as Basu and Virick

(2008), who did a study on assessment of entrepreneurial intention among students, found out

that there is significant difference between students whose family are into business and those

who were not. Also, the presence of self-employed father had impact on students’ attitude

towards entrepreneurship. In line with this study, Singh and Prasad (2016), did a study on the

influence of family occupation on entrepreneurial intention of management students. Their

findings revealed that students with business background have a better chance of doing

business than those students whose parents did not involve in family business.

Singh and De-Noble (2003), found that having a close self - employed family relative

altogether have a strong positive relation to attitude on self - employment. In addition, a study

carried out by Stanworth, Blythe, Granger and Stanworth (1989), on the process of small

business start-ups, observed that majority of the respondents while growing up, had the

presence of role models, not only within their families but also within friends. The results

show that thirty-eight percent (38%) of those in business had self-employed fathers. This is

49

higher than the twenty percent (20%) reported by Curran and Burrows (1988), who were of

the opinion that cultural inheritance of entrepreneurship does indeed move within families.

Previous works have indicated that children of self-employed individuals are more likely to

be self-employed themselves than children whose parents were not self-employed (Fairlie,

1996). It follows therefore that every individual including the emotionally challenged, needs

acquisition of skills and knowledge in order to develop their potentials (Anike, 2014).

Idoko (2014), concluded that training through skills acquisition programmes will enhance the

sustainability of the youths in different fields of trade, which is possible when the culture of

creative ideas is instilled in youths to make them productive and self - reliant members of the

society. Magbagbeola (2004), posited that skills acquisition requires the accumulation of

different skills that enhances task performance through the integration of both theoretical and

practical forms of knowledge. He itemised the guidelines for the sustenance of skills

acquisition programme to include:

- Provision of training that gives the trainees the opportunities to acquire skills that

are appropriate for preparation in a field of trade for gainful employment.

- Provision of definite skills that relate to each trade that makes one a professional

in one field instead of the others; training done by competent, experienced and

qualified instructors; and requires much practice, patience, interest, ability,

aptitude and personality traits.

Others are that vocational skills acquisition requires conducive environment; the training

requires constructive human relationship, business skills, imitation and constructive ideas and

the principles guiding training in a particular field in terms of attitude, customer-relationship,

productivity, efficiency, supply and its demand needs to be appreciated (Magbagbeola, 2004).

50

However, Chen, Vanek and Carr (2004) noted that men tend to acquire more skills and are in

the top segment as entrepreneurs/ employers than women who are mostly over represented in

the bottom segments as home workers and unpaid contributing family workers because they

received or acquired lower skills.

2.2.7 Vocational Skills Acquisition training on Self-Employability Readiness, Family

Occupation background and Gender

Anaele, Adelakun, Olumoko, and Kanu (2014), did a study on strategies for empowering

individuals for self-employment through technical and vocational education training in

Nigeria. Their findings show that the training on vocational and technical education

empowered individuals to go into self-employment. However, Peter, Patroesjka and Jolanda

(2013) did a study on Entrepreneurship education and self-employment: “The role of

perceived barriers.” The results show that entrepreneurial education is positively related with

being self-employed. The readiness for entrepreneurship of individuals is de ned as the

con uence of a set of personal traits (or features) that distinguish individuals with readiness

for entrepreneurship to be competent to observe and analyze their environment, in such a way

that they channel their high creative and productive potential in the right direction, which will

improve their readiness towards entrepreneurship. The readiness for entrepreneurship is

determined by a wide set of sociological, psychological and business management factors. It

appears that in measuring readiness towards self-employment, a wide set of items are related

with three essential elds: Personal/family-based characteristics, economic and

entrepreneurial background, and a set of psychological traits are considered. Alicia, José, Saiz

and Jesús (2016), are of the opinion that male graduates have higher participation in

entrepreneurship and to some behavioural differences regarding the readiness for

entrepreneurship between men and women. Powell and Ansic (1997), in their research on

business decision-making opined that, women shy away from high risk businesses than their

51

male counterparts especially as regards to financial commitment. To support this assertion,

Sexton, Bowman and Auken (1990), submitted that women are unlikely to apply for a loan to

finance a business venture. However, Shekhar, Joshi, & Sanwal, (2016), did a study on

gender difference and readiness for entrepreneurial traits of agricultural graduates, their

results show that there is no significant difference between male and female students

especially in the area of risk taking ability, problem solving ability, persuasiveness and

leadership ability.

Other studies had shown a blend between vocational skills acquisition and socio-economic

variables. Ayinde (2017), found that socio-economic status has no significant influence on

vocational skills acquisition among undergraduates in University of Ibadan. He however

recommended that vocational skills acquisition should be included in undergraduates'

university education, as this will serve to influence them to acquire vocational skills, which

will, in essence, serve to reduce unemployment. Cho, Kalomba, Mobarak and Orozco (2013),

in their study Gender Differences in the Effects of Vocational Training: Constraints on

Women and Drop-Out Behaviour discovered that women are significantly more constrained

in their decision-making than men, trained men and women report very similar gains in self-

reported skills, but men spend more time in training (probably due to the occupations, they

chose), which comes from men’s hours in self-employment. Also, attending training was

evidently much costlier for women. Trained women’s earnings are lower and they are less

likely to have started a business, the positive gains as measures of well-being and confidence

accrue to men to a larger extent. This implies that men are twice more likely to report

improvement in life after the training. However, they reported that the gender difference

observed was not statistically significant.

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Research has shown that an individual’s past business experience influences their decision

making and business performance (Dyke, Fischer & Reuber, 1992). Numerous studies

isolating the reasons why individuals become entrepreneurs have also identified previous

exposure to business, role models and networks as important (Hisrich and Brush, 1994; Kets

de Vries, 1977; Scherer, Adams, Carley, and Wiebe, 1989; Scott and Twomey, 1988; Taylor

and Thorpe, 2004). Taylor and Thorpe (2004), proposed that an individual’s networks act as a

resource for information that can influence decision-making throughout the entrepreneurial

process. Personal, family and peer influences can affect graduates’ entrepreneurial motivation

and career aspirations (Matlay, 2006) in both a positive or a negative way and thus previous

exposure to family business and role models is an important area to investigate further in

relation to an individual’s self-employment intentions.

2.3 Concept of Self-Employment

Ayinde (2017) observed that one of the weaknesses of the Nigeria's educational system is its

failure to prepare graduates for self-employment and business entrepreneurship but noted that

the trend has changed with diminished job creation and economic liberalization of the public

sector.

A self-employed person can never go hungry because the skill he/she acquired provides food

for him/her on a daily basis. Vocational skills acquisition helps the society not to depend on

white collar jobs, helps youths develop a positive attitude towards work and labour, reduces

poverty and helps youths to be self-reliant and independent (Anyaegbu, 2017).

Umar and Abubakar (2015), opined that people become self-employed because they want to

explore an existing opportunity, there is limited paid employment opportunities available,

they desire a change in lifestyle, they want to work at home in order to cater for their family,

53

children and/or they seek additional income. Many authors have used self–employment as

synonyms for entrepreneurship (Bjuggren, Johansson, & Stenkula, 2012; Rietveld, Hessels &

Zwan, 2014).

The self-employed also bears adequate risk by establishing new jobs and firms. Risk taking

and self-employment are two related words that have been of interest in entrepreneurial

research. In most definitions, entrepreneurs are associated with risk and risk taking attitude.

One of the most important factors in the entrepreneurs’ success is their risk taking. An

individual who wants to venture into self-employment has to be risk aversive in order to

succeed. Risk-taking refers to the tendency to engage in behaviours that have the potential to

be harmful or dangerous, but in some occasions, it provides the opportunity for achieving

something positive.

In recent years, the concept of entrepreneurship, has taken the centre stage basically due to

the relationship assumed to exist between entrepreneurial activity and economic

development. New firms are thought to create new employment opportunities (Parker and

Johnson 1996, Ashcroft and Love 1996). New firms are also thought to be involved

significantly in innovative activity, such that the role of innovative entrepreneurship is

viewed as a key transmission mechanism between the creation of knowledge and economic

growth (Audretsch, 2007). In addition, self-employment is an important occupational option

for many in the labour force. At any time, it may account for approximately a tenth of all

employed workers (Evans and Leighton, 1989).

The deduced importance of entrepreneurial activity has necessitated an extensive research in

an attempt to understand the traits of potential entrepreneurs, and the process of transition

into entrepreneurship.

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While many previous empirical studies has sought to determine what personal characteristics

separate the self-employed from the employed, less attention has been given to the reasons

that individuals cite for choosing self-employment. Moreover, previous research on

entrepreneurial motivations has predominantly focused on ‘push’ versus ‘pull’ factors, or to a

lesser extent the divergence between the necessity entrepreneur and the opportunity

entrepreneur. Opportunity entrepreneurs start their business venture voluntarily, that is as

individuals attracted into self-employment by perceived benefits such as independence,

wealth, satisfaction, and personal and family motivations. In contrast, necessity entrepreneurs

are ‘pushed’ into self-employment because of negative external forces, such as loss of job

and a subsequent lack of available paid-employment work.

Comprehensively, research has addressed the case for both ‘push’ and ‘pull’ theories by

examining the relationship between self-employment and unemployment. There is little

agreement here. However, theoretical arguments have been constructed in support of both a

positive and a negative relationship between self-employment and unemployment. On one

hand, the prosperity-pull factor suggests that individuals are more likely to attempt to start a

new firm under conditions of economic expansion, when incomes are growing and

opportunities are strong for market specialisations. Accordingly, a higher new firm formation

rate may be associated with lower local unemployment. High unemployment will inhibit the

market demand for products of the self-employed, and expose those who are self-employed,

to greater risk of falling incomes and possibly bankruptcy. This implies a negative

relationship between self-employment and unemployment On the other hand, according to

the ‘push’ hypothesis, increasing levels of unemployment reduce the prospects for finding

paid employment; as a result the expected returns from entrepreneurship become more

attractive, pushing people into self-employment (Storey, 1982; Storey and Johnson, 1987).

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Moreover, second hand capital becomes both cheaper and more readily obtainable, as

business closures increase in a time of recession.

Thus the recession-push hypothesis suggests that worsening economic conditions activate

previously dormant entrepreneurial ambitions, pushing individuals towards self-employment.

Therefore, the principal issue when using unemployment as an explanatory variable in an

empirical analysis of self-employment is one of identification. Unemployment will capture

both supply side and demand side effects. Whilst most cross sectional analysis has found a

negative association (Evans and Leighton, 1989 and Blanch and Meyer, 1994), majority of

times, series of studies report significant positive correlation between self-employment and

unemployment, reflecting the recession push hypothesis (Hamilton 1989).

There is the tendency that when an individual ventures into self-employment either through

the push or pull factor, the person is most probably going to remain self-employed. Some

authors have identified windfall financial gains as positively associated with transition into

self-employment (Georgellis, Sessions, and Tsitsianis, 2005). The transmission mechanism

here between such indicators of individual economic prosperity and entrepreneurship is

thought to be the relationship between the value of personal collateral and access to business

loan finance.

Nearly all cross-sectional studies, using individual-level data, suggest that motivations for

choosing self-employment are dominated by positive factors. However studies which sample

only the self-employed suffer from a potential selection bias, which may lead to differences

between stated (ex-post) motivation and actual motivations. That is, people may be reluctant

to admit to negative factors ex post, preferring to provide information which is consistent

with revealed behaviour. This potential caveat must be considered. Dennis (1996), reporting

findings from a survey of around 3000 new business founders in the USA in the late 1980s,

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suggests that people enter into self-employment because they want to and not because of lack

of available alternatives. In particular, just 8 percent of the sample described ‘the lack of

alternatives’ as a very important motivation for choosing self-employment. 57 percent

reported that using their ‘skills and abilities’ was a very important motivating factor. 54 per

cent reported that both ‘greater control over their life’ and ‘building something for the family’

were very important motivating factors for forming their own business. In a very small-scale

study, Hughes (2003), uses data from 61 Canadian female respondents in the province of

Alberta who are self-employed. In general ‘push’ factors were not found to be the primary

motivator behind the decision to become self-employed. In contrast most were motivated by

reasons such as independence and a positive working environment.

Similarly, using data from a much larger nationally representative survey of 3,840 self-

employed Canadians for 2000, the same author reports that ‘independence/freedom’ is the

most important motivator for both men and women, when entering into self-employment

(Hughes, 2006). 42 percent of men and 24 per cent of women cited this as their main

motivation. For women, ‘work-family balance’ and ‘flexibility of hours’ were the next most

cited reasons. For men ‘challenge’ and ‘prospects of more money’ were the next most cited

motivators. Overall Hughes suggests that over 71 percent of men can be classified as

‘opportunity’ entrepreneurs, with only 22 percent pushed into self-employment as a result of

the lack of other suitable opportunities. A further 7 percent of men could be classified as

‘work-family entrepreneurs’. For women, the percentages were 53 percent, 22 percent and 25

percent respectively, demonstrating for women, the far greater importance of work-family

relationships, when making the decision to become self-employed. (Hughes, 2003).

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Taylor (1996), using UK data from 1991 found that self-employed Britons were less likely

than those in paid-employment to regard pay and security as important job criteria, but were

more likely to cite enjoyment and work satisfaction than their paid-employment counterparts.

Smeaton (2003), using UK data from 1986 and 2000, found that in 1986 16 percent of men

cited ‘unemployment/redundancy’ as a motivating factor behind choosing self-employment,

whereas by 2000, this figure had risen to 26 percent. For women, the results were 5 and 10

percent respectively. The most cited reason for men in both 1986 and 2000, at 39 percent,

was a preference for being one’s own boss. For women in 1986, the most cited motivating

factor was ‘going into business with a family member’. By 2000, women cited ‘going into

business with a family member’ equally at 23 percent with ‘prefer to be own boss’ and ‘to

follow an interest’ as the most popular reasons. These results suggest that for both men and

women, despite lower rates of United Kingdom unemployment in 2000, the self-employed

seemed to have become more pessimistic about the availability of paid employment. Carter,

Gartner, Shaver, and Gatewood (2003), find evidence from United States data that the

motivation offered by nascent entrepreneurs when starting a business are dominated by self-

realisation, financial success, innovation and independence.

Though the difficulty a person may face while looking for a paid job may likely push him/her

to self-employment, one may equally consider the wage rate from a paid employment. In a

related study, Rees and Shah (1986), found evidence that provides support for self-

employment/paid-employment decisions being made rationally on the basis of a

consideration of the expected earnings differential in the two states. Taylor (1996) also finds

that individuals appear to be attracted to self-employment because of higher expected

earnings. Similarly, Clark and Drinkwater (2000), suggest that the difference between an

individual’s predicted earnings in paid and self-employment exerts a powerful influence upon

the employment decision. On the other hand, other studies, including Gill (1988) and Earle

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and Sakova (2000), questioned this finding. Extensive literature has shown the traits/

characteristics of an entrepreneur but this is not the case with self-employment as views on

reasons adduced for venturing into self-employment differ. Therefore it remains a topic for

research on the likely reasons why people choose self-employment.

2.4 Concept of Entrepreneurship

Henry (2003) views entrepreneurship as the engine driving the economy of nations, creating

new industries, young entrepreneurs, employment and wealth. Also Agbionu (2008), opined

that entrepreneurship involves a process aimed at creating wealth for the purpose of growth,

development of the environment and eradication of unemployment for national sustainability.

Lending voice to the concept of entrepreneurship, Nwokolo (1997), defines entrepreneurship

as the ability to set up a business enterprise as different from being employed. It involves the

acquisition of skills, ideas and management abilities necessary for self reliance. The

importance of entrepreneurship cannot be overlooked. These include reducing

unemployment, poverty, and crime. With the zeal of entrepreneurship, very valuable jobs will

be created not just for the entrepreneurs but also for others (George & Archibong 2010).

Entrepreneurship is the act of identifying, initiating, organising and bringing a vision to

life, be it a new product, service, process, organisational strategy, promotional strategy

or a niche market (Akinwumi, 2012). Aside employability, entrepreneurship capacities enable

graduates through self determination to create their own future, exploit the opportunities that

emerge in the complex unpredictable world and contribute better to their economic

development and social well being (Anyaneme, Anyachebelu, Nwaokolo & Izuchi 2009).

Koh (1996), identified five main psychological characteristics associated with

entrepreneurship namely: need for achievement, locus of control, propensity to take

risk, tolerance of ambiguity, self-confidence and innovativeness.

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Entrepreneurship according to Anerua and Obiazi (2009), is the process of perceiving

business opportunities, mobilising both human and material resources and initiating action(s)

under an enterprise which is characterized by risk taking, innovation and creativity to meet

individual group or societal needs. Entrepreneurship skills therefore are business skills that an

individual acquires which will enable him/her to function affectively in the business world as

an entrepreneur or self-employed person in order to enhance one’s financial status and the

society at large.

Acquiring skills through entrepreneurship will enable unemployed graduates to be self-

reliant, employers of labour and creators of wealth. Uloko and Ejikonye 2010 opined that

when youths are empowered through the acquisition of entrepreneurial skills there is the

possibility that they will use the skills to create new avenues for wealth.

In the same vein, Lankard (2003) sees entrepreneurship education as that which provide the

learners with basic knowledge, skills, attitudes and ideas that will equip the individual for

self-employment. Entrepreneurship training therefore brings out the innate abilities and

potentials of an individual to be creative. The role of entrepreneurship education is to identify

potential entrepreneurs through the traits and characteristics they possess and portray and

with adequate and relevant training/education, invoke in them the potentials and readiness for

self-employment.

2.4.1 Entrepreneurship in the Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, the term entrepreneur was used to describe both an actor and a

person who managed large production projects. In such large production projects, this

individual did not take any risks but merely managed the project using the resources

provided, usually by the government of the country. A typical entrepreneur in the Middle

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Age was the cleric, the person in-charge of great architectural works such as castles and

fortifications, public buildings, abbeys and cathedrals.

2.4.2 Entrepreneurship in the 17th Century

The connection of risk with entrepreneurship emerged during the 17th century. An

entrepreneur was perceived as a person who entered into a contractual arrangement with the

government to perform a service or to supply stipulated products. Since the contract price

was fixed, any resulting profits or losses were the entrepreneur’s. One entrepreneur in

this period was John Law 1, a Frenchman, who was allowed to establish a royal bank, (Will

& Durant, 1965). The bank eventually evolved into an exclusive franchise to form a trading

company in the new World, the Mississippi Company.

2.4.3 Entrepreneurship in the 18th Century

In the 18th century, the person with capital was differentiated from the one who needed

capital. In other words, the entrepreneur was distinguished from the capital provider (the

present day venture capitalist). One reason for this differentiation was the industrialisation

occurring throughout the world. Many of the inventions developed during this time were

reactions to the changing world, as was the case with the inventions of Eli Whitney

and Thomas Edison (Lakwete, Angela. 2004; Albion, Michele Wehrwein. 2008).

2.4.4 Entrepreneurship in the 19th and 20th century

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, entrepreneurs were frequently not distinguished

from managers and were viewed mostly from an economic perspective The entrepreneur

organises and operates an enterprise for personal gain. He pays current prices for the

materials consumed in the business, for the use of the land, for the personal services he

employs, and for the capital he requires. He contributes his own initiative, skill, and

ingenuity in planning, organising, and administering the enterprise. He also assumes

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the chance of loss and gain, consequent to unforeseen and uncontrollable

circumstances. The net residue of the annual receipts of the enterprise, after all costs have

been paid, he retains for himself, (Ely & Hes, 1937). Eli Whitney was an American inventor

best known for inventing the cotton gin.

Thomas Alva Edison was an American inventor, scientist, and businessman who developed

many devices that greatly influenced lives around the world, including the phonograph, the

motion picture camera, and a long-lasting, practical electric light bulb. Andrew Carnegie is

one of the best examples of this definition (Morris, 2005). Carnegie invented nothing, but

rather adapted and developed new technology in the creation of products to achieve economic

vitality. In the middle of the 20th century, the notion of an entrepreneur as an innovator was

established. Joseph Schumpeter known for his theory of dynamic economic growth,

envisioned entrepreneurs as follows:

The function of the entrepreneur is to reform or revolutionise the pattern of

production by exploiting an invention or more generally, an untried technological

method of producing a new commodity or producing an old one in a new way, opening a

new source of supply of materials or a new outlet for products, by organising a new

industry. (Schumpeter, 1952).

The concept of innovation and newness is an integral part of entrepreneurship in this

definition. Indeed, innovation, which is the act of introducing something new, is one of the

most difficult tasks for the entrepreneur (Hisrich and Peters, 2002). This ability to innovate

can be observed throughout history, from the Egyptians who designed and built great

pyramids out of stone blocks weighing many tons each, or the Great Big Temple in

Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu–India, that was built with extraordinary design to Apollo Lunar

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module, that was sent to Moon and laser beams. Although the tools have changed with

advancement in science and technology, the ability to innovate has been present in

every civilization. Interest in entrepreneurship today arises from the recognition that it

is an activity that is important for the socio-economic development of a nation.

Entrepreneurship is not confined to any particular industry, country or group of

persons; it exists in everybody but depends on an individual’s desire. People with

enterprising behaviour have been found in all societies, and in all types of economic

circumstances. Whilst the term usually refers to just an individual, it is also possible to find

whole organisations, that can be classified as entrepreneurial in the way they do business

and seek to grow (Schaper, 2004). An entrepreneur is an enterprising individual, who builds

capital through risk and for initiative.

Entrepreneurship has been simply captured as the use of human courage to seek investment

opportunities and establish a profit-oriented enterprise (Ikeme & Onu, 2007).

Entrepreneurship is the means through which we create something new. The process though

may take a long time and effort but at the end, it brings about good results, financial benefits

as well as personal satisfaction. Entrepreneurship involves creation process, conscious

devotion of time and effort, involves risk and has some rewards. Gana (2001) defined

it as willingness and ability of an individual to seek out investment opportunities in an

environment and be able to establish and run an enterprise successfully based on

identified opportunities. Hisrich and Peters (2002), simply captured the term as the dynamic

process of creating incremental wealth. They went further to explain that entrepreneurship is

the personalised version of actualising one’s desire, ambition, and expression.

Entrepreneurship education is oriented towards different ways of realising opportunities.

This is what makes entrepreneurship education distinctive in its focus on realisation of

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opportunity. Watson (2010), views entrepreneurship education as a process through which

individuals identify opportunities, allocate resources and create values.

Entrepreneurship education seeks to provide students with the knowledge, skills and

motivation to encourage entrepreneurial success in a variety of settings. Entrepreneurship

education, according to Paul (2005) is structured to achieve the following objectives.

1. To offer functional education for the youths that will enable them to be self-

employed and self-reliant.

2. Provide the youth / graduates with adequate training that will enable them to be

creative and innovative in identifying novel business opportunities.

3. To serve as a catalyst for economic growth and development.

4. Offer tertiary institution graduates with adequate training in risk management,

to make certain risk bearing feasible.

5. To reduce high rule of poverty.

6. Create employment generation.

7. Reduction in rural– urban migration.

8. Provide the young graduates with enough training and support that will enable them

to establish a career in small and medium sized businesses.

9. To inculcate the spirit of perseverance in the youths and adults which will enable

them to persist in any business venture they embark on.

10. Create smooth transition from traditional to a modern industrial economy.

The economic importance of the entrepreneur has been recognised for several

decades. Welber (1930) put forward the thesis that the protestant ethic is spirit of capitalism

(Green, 1959). Other writers have discussed from different perspectives, the importance of

entrepreneurship to different countries in the industrial era.

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Schumpeter (1947) who is, perhaps believed to be the first major economist to

analyse the role of entrepreneurship in economic development, attributed innovation to

the entrepreneur. He described entrepreneurship as the engine of economic development. He

argued that to study the entrepreneur is to study the central figure in modern economic

history.

In the theory of distribution put forward by Say (1909), a neo-classical economist, the

entrepreneur plays a crucial role, though he or she is not a production factor. Unlike

the capitalist, the entrepreneur directs the application of acquired knowledge to the

production of goods for human consumption.

From the above advantages/benefits, entrepreneurship should be taught to students in

all disciplines in institutions of higher learning. It is not out of place to say that many

business ideas emerge from non-business disciplines but are often waved aside or ignored

because students are not sufficiently educated in the knowledge and skills required.

2.5 Concept of Unemployment

In Nigeria, recent development has shown that 80% of the graduates from Nigerian

universities find it difficult to get employment every year (Nwafor, 2009). Unemployment

remains a nagging issue in under developed and developing countries. Fajana (2000) and

Standing (1983) opined that unemployment is the state of worklessness, experienced by

persons who are members of the labour force, who perceive themselves and are perceived by

others as capable of work. Unemployed people are in the following categories: those who

have never worked after graduation and those who have lost their jobs. Anene and Iman

(2012) opined that the rising rate of insecurity cannot be divorced from the debilitating

effects of poverty and unemployment which have enveloped the country. Unfortunately, most

of the previous studies on graduate unemployment in developing countries like (Falae, 1973,

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Diejomaoh & Orimolade, 1979), have swept this important issue under the carpet.

Unemployment especially among graduates could lead to loss of human capital which may

affect the economy of any country as well as the social wellbeing of the people. The statistics

given by the Manpower Board and the Federal Bureau of Statistics has it that Nigeria has a

youth population of about 80 million, representing 60% of the total population of the country

with 64 million of them unemployed, while 1.6 million are underemployed (Awogbenle &

Iwuamadi, 2010). Nigeria’s unemployed can be grouped into two categories namely: the

older unemployed, who lost their jobs through retrenchment, redundancy or bankruptcy and

the younger unemployed, most of whom have never tasted what it is to be employed

(Oyebade, 2003).

The International Labour Organisation (ILO, 2004) cited in Oduma (2012), defined

unemployment as when people are without jobs and they have actively searched for work

within the past four months. It is a situation where people that are willing to work and accept

wages, find no jobs. Unemployment is very high and growing at 12% (2005) and 16% (2016)

with poverty rate at 54.5% (2004) and 69% (2010), (NBS, 2010, 2016), coupled with a

chronic shortage of skilled workers and technicians. Ironically, African Development Fund,

(2017) reported that despite employment opportunities that abound in the industrial and

manufacturing sectors, a large number of graduates lack the requisite skills and knowledge

needed to be employed due to a disconnect between the industries’ needs and the training

provided in the formal setting.

Gbagolo and Eze (2014), highlighted the causes of unemployment in Nigeria as follows: An

upsurge in the output from tertiary educational institutions and the inelastic absorptive

capacity of the labour market for the services of university and polytechnic graduates; the

imbalance between the kinds of workers wanted by employers and those looking for jobs

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caused by inadequacy in skills, location, or personal characteristics; workers with inadequate

education or training and young workers with little or no experience, who may be unable to

get jobs because employers believe that they will not produce enough, to be worth paying the

legal minimum wage or the rate agreed on with the union. Others are corruption in high

places; competition in specific industries or companies; and advances in technology, thereby

replacing workers’ tasks with machines.

2.5.1 Types of Unemployment

There are basically four major types of unemployment;

1) Cyclical unemployment.

2) Structural unemployment.

3) Seasonal unemployment.

4) Classical unemployment

Cyclical unemployment is unemployment that results when the overall demand for goods

and services in an economy cannot support full employment. It occurs during periods of

economic growth or during periods of economic contraction. Cyclical unemployment in

directly related to the level of macro- economic activity, which is the aggregate or combined

activity of all persons and entities involved in an economy. This aggregate activity is cyclical

instead of linear- economic activity tends to rise and fall instead of always rising or always

falling. When economic activity increases, we call this an expansionary phase of the business

cycle because it represents economic growth. Unemployment tends to drop during periods of

growth because consumers are buying more and businesses are producing and selling more.

These increases in production and sales usually require more people, resulting in increased

living and an overall reduction of the rate of unemployment. On the other page, when

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economic activity slows or contracts, unemployment will increase. During times of slow

growth, no growth or a period of economic contraction, a recession, demand for products and

services declines. Employers make less, sell less and do not need many employees. They will

lay off those employees who are not needed, which raises unemployment rate.

Structural unemployment: This type of unemployment exists when there are jobs available

and people are willing to work but there are insufficient number or qualified people to fill the

vacant jobs. This implies that employers can neither find enough workers nor can workers

find jobs for which they are qualified. Structural unemployment often occurs when the

demand for specific types of labour changes as the economy changes (Krugman, 2010).

Also, when an industry declines, there will not be skilled manpower to manage the new

industry. Furthermore, new technology can replace skilled workers and they find themselves

unemployable in other industries.

Seasonal unemployment: This results from the regular changes in the season. Workers

affected by seasonal unemployment include resort workers, ice-cream vendors, crop

harvesters, construction workers and school employees.

Classical unemployment is also known as real wage unemployment or induced

unemployment. It usually occurs in three situations:

Unions negotiate higher salaries and benefits.

Long term contracts set a wage that has become too high due to a recession.

The government sets a minimum wage that is too high.

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The result is that companies must pay more per employee, so they can afford fewer

employees. Those that are laid off are victims of classical unemployment. Other types of

unemployment are frictional unemployment, underemployment among others.

2.6 Appraisal of Literature Review

This study was aimed at determining the impact of vocational skills acquisition and

entrepreneurship training on the self-employability readiness and potentials among

unemployed graduates. In this chapter, relevant literatures have been reviewed based on

available literatures. Reviewed literatures have been reviewed with the aim of having an in-

depth knowledge on concepts of career Counselling, vocational skills acquisition, self-

employability potentials/readiness, entrepreneurship and unemployment. It shows that,

dependency on white-collar jobs by graduates of tertiary institutions is one of the major

reasons for the high rise in unemployment. The literature also shows that, this dependence

stems from our system of education that places more emphasis on certification rather than on

vocational skills and entrepreneurial abilities.

Also, the literature highlighted on the efforts of the government to encourage vocational skills

acquisition and entrepreneurship training through the establishment of vocational skills

acquisition and entrepreneurship centres, agencies and projects, although their impact seems

not to have been felt, taking into consideration the high unemployment rate among tertiary

graduates in Nigeria. Furthermore, the literature showed that tertiary graduates are not ready

to acquire skills as they feel that such skills are meant for those that are not graduates,

therefore they roam the streets in search of white collar jobs. Some have the notion that they

do not have the potentials to acquire such skills and are not ready to embark on vocational

skills and entrepreneurship training. The literature reviewed, therefore suggests that graduates

69

of higher institutions should be ready to explore their potentials and level of readiness to

acquire skills as it may propel them towards self-employability. The lack of literature on the

self employability readiness and potentials of unemployed graduates has created a gap

between the literature reviewed and this research work, hence the need for this study.

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CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter focused on the following sub-headings: research design, area of study,

population, sample and sampling technique, establishing psychometric properties of the

instruments, administration of instruments and statistical method of data analysis.

3.1 Research Design

The research designs for this study were descriptive and quasi-experimental pre-test and post-

test control group designs. The purpose of the descriptive design was to apply a baseline

assessment and isolate the unique elements in the population for the study, while the use of

quasi-experimental design is to tease out the influence of the training instruction on the

participants. It consists of the experimental and control groups. One group was exposed to

training instructions and the second group was the control group.

3.2 Area of Study

The study was carried out in Delta State. Delta state is an Oil and Agricultural producing

state in Nigeria, situated in the south south geo-political zone. It was created on 27th of

August, 1991 from the defunct Bendel State. At inception, Delta State was made up of twelve

political divisions, called Local Government Areas (L.G.A), which were later increased to 19

in 1996. Presently, the state is made up of 25 Local Government Areas and has 12

educational zones. It is divided into three senatorial districts, which are Delta North, Delta

South and Delta Central. Delta State was chosen for this study due to the high rate of

unemployment, cultism, kidnappings, political violence and militancy among youths.

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This is in spite of the fact that it is one of the richest states in the country in terms of the

revenue it receives from the federation account (Aghanenu, 2012).

3.3 Population of the Study

The population for this study comprised all unemployed graduates in Delta State. These

include graduates of different fields of study from Universities, Colleges of Education, and

Polytechnics. These graduates have never been employed since graduation. The target

population has minimum educational qualification of Nigeria Certificate in Education

(N.C.E) and Ordinary National Diploma (OND).

3.4 Sample and Sampling Procedures

The sample for the study comprised 118 unemployed graduates drawn from three local

government areas of Delta North Senatorial District. The local government areas are:

Oshimili North, Aniocha South and Aniocha North. Multi-staged technique was adopted in

the sampling process. Firstly, simple random sampling technique was used to select one

senatorial district from the three existing senatorial districts in Delta state. Secondly, three

local government areas were randomly selected from Delta North Senatorial District. The

researcher visited the traditional rulers in the three local government areas used. They in turn

invited the youth leaders who were duly informed of the researcher’s mission in their

communities. The youths, among them unemployed graduates, were gathered and selected

using simple random sampling technique.

The baseline assessment for the study was done by administering the Perceived Skills

Acquisition Scale (PSAS) to the participants, to identify graduates’ self-employability

readiness and potentials. An initial sample of 300 graduates completed the PSAS. Only

participants whose scores were below 30 were qualified for the main study because they

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would have performed below the average score, while the total score was 60. Only 118

participants (64 males and 54 females) qualified to be part of the study. The male and female

unemployed graduates that were qualified for inclusion into the experimental programme

were randomly assigned to treatment and control groups respectively. For the experiment,

vocational skills acquisition training was randomly assigned to the first and second local

government areas; while the control group was assigned randomly to the third local

government area. The selection process is described numerically as shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Baseline Assessment Results and Distribution of participants by Local

government area, Age, gender and groups

Pre-treatment Assessment results

LGA Mean Age Male Female Total Above 30 Below 30 Male Female

LGA 1 24.34 58 48 106 65 41 23 18

LGA 2 25.65 54 47 101 62 39 21 18

LGA 3 24.83 50 43 93 55 38 20 18

Total 25.04 162 138 300 182 118 64 54

Table 1 shows that out of 300 initial sample, 118 participants were selected for the

programme. The group in local government areas 1 and 2 received training on vocational

skills acquisition, while LGA 3 (the control group) was the waiting group.

Table 2: Baseline Assessment Results and Distribution of participants by Local

government area, Age and Family Occupational Background

Pre-treatment Assessment results

LGA Mean Age SE E R D Total Above

30

Below

30

SE E R D

LGA 1 24.34 38 41 19 9 107 66 41 17 15 5 4

LGA 2 25.65 36 43 13 6 98 59 39 14 19 3 3

LGA 3 24.83 28 35 22 10 95 57 38 9 14 8 7

Total 25.04 102 119 54 25 300 182 118 40 48 16 14

SE=Self-Employed Parents, E=Employed Parents, R=Retired Parents, D=Deceased Parents

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The table 2 above showed that out of the 102 participants whose parents were self-employed,

40 met the requirements. Out of the 119 participants whose parents were employed, 48 met

the requirements, also out of 54 participants whose parents were retired, 16 met the

requirements, and out of 25 participants whose parents were deceased, 14 met the

requirements.

3.5 Instrumentation

Four major instruments were used to obtain relevant data for this study. They are:

3.5.1 Personal Data Questionnaire (PDQ)

This includes age, gender, family background, personal income, skills of interest and

educational qualifications of the participants.

3.5.2 Entrepreneur Potential Inventory (EPI)

This 13 item questionnaire was adapted by the researcher from the one used by Galloway and

Keogh (2006). The purpose of the instrument is to assess entrepreneurship potentials among

graduates. The instrument has a 4- point likert scale ranging from strongly agree (4), agree

(3) disagree (2) and strongly disagree (1).

The reliability coefficient of the instrument is 0.78.

S/N ITEMS SA A D SD

1. I have a high level of drive to do business.

2. I set long term business goal and stick to them.

3. I have the physical stamina to work long hours in business.

4. I am willing to borrow to fund my business.

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3.5.3 Business Readiness Index (BRI)

This 20 item index adapted for this study is a modified version of the one used by Linan and

Chen (2009). The instrument is designed to assess the level of business readiness among

tertiary graduates. The instrument has a 4- point Likert scale ranging from very low (1) low

(2), High (3) and very high knowledge (4). The reliability coefficient of the instrument is 0.82

using test-retest reliability.

S/N ITEM VERY

LOW

LOW

HIGH VERY

HIGH

1 How much do you know about the operation of the

kind of business you want to start?

2 How well can you identify your target market?

3 How knowledgeable are you about the buying

habits of your customers?

3.5.4 Perceived Skills Acquisition Scale (PSAS)

This is a 15-item perceived skills acquisition instruments on a 4-point option developed by

the researcher. The instrument is designed to assess the level of tertiary graduates interest in

skill preferences and factors that could motivate participants in different skills. The factors

could be prior experience, confidence, hereditary, gender, ability and personality of the

graduates. The responses ranged from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The content

validity was determined by the researcher’s supervisors and other experts from Guidance and

Counselling Department. A test-retest reliability of the instruments was carried out to

determine the psychometric property. The scoring of the instruments ranged from 4,3,2,1 for

positive statements and reversed for negatively worded statements, where responses are SA,

A, D, SD. The addition of the direct and reverse gave the overall scores. The maximum score

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was 80 while the minimum scores was 20. This instrument was validated during the pilot

study. Below are some samples of the item in PSAS.

S/N ITEM SA A D SD

1 I am very good in technical job because I have

learnt it from my father.

2 I am very confident that I can do well in jobs that

provide services to people.

3 I am very creative in doing jobs that are neat in

nature because of my family hereditary.

3.6 Pilot Study

A pilot study was carried out before the main study in order to have a tryout on the

experimental conditions on a small scale to determine the psychometric properties of the

instruments. The pilot study was conducted in three council wards in Oshimili south local

government area. Ten participants were randomly selected in each of the council wards which

brings the total to thirty participants. The research instruments were administered to the

participants and after one week they were re-administered to the same group of participants.

Thereafter, the scores of the two tests were correlated using Pearson Product Moment

Correlation Statistics to estimate their reliability coefficient. The test-retest reliability

coefficients of the instruments are presented in Table 3.

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Table 3: Test-retest reliability Coefficient of the Research instrument

Instruments Variable No of Items No of participants Test Mean Sd Rtt

Perceived Skills Acquisition

Scale

PSAS 15 30 1ST

2ND

29.46

31.06

2.31

2.40

0.879

Business Readiness Index

BRI 20 30 1st

2ND

39.16

39.56

1.14

1.16

0.752

Entrepreneur Potential

Inventory

EPI 13 30 1ST

2ND

27.70

29.86

2.24

2.80

0.729

Table 3 shows that the test-retest reliability indices of perceived skills acquisition Scale gives

0.879, Business Readiness Index gives 0.752 and Entrepreneur Potential Inventory gives

0.729. The values were adjudged to be high; hence they were suitable and reliable to be used

for the study.

3.7 Procedure for Data Collection

With a letter of introduction obtained from the Head of Department of Educational

Foundations, University of Lagos, addressed to Delta State Ministry of Labour and

Productivity, the researcher sought permission to organise workshops and seminars for

unemployed graduates in Delta State.

3.8 Appointment and Training of Research Assistants

Three counsellors who hold a Bachelor of Arts in Education B.A. (Ed) in Guidance and

Counselling from recognised universities were appointed as research assistants for the

administration and collection of completed research instruments. The research assistants have

spent a minimum of two years in the profession. They were properly trained for a period of

one hour per week for two weeks.

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3.9 Intervention Procedure

This study was carried out in three phases:

Phase 1: Pre-treatment assessment: One week before the experiments, the instruments were

administered to the participants to assess their level of self employability potentials and

readiness.

Phase 2: Treatment sessions: This was in two stages, in the first stage, all participants were

engaged in career counselling while at the second stage, participants’ were treated based on

the experimental conditions. The treatment group met once a week for six weeks. Each

session lasted for two hours.

Phase 3: Post-treatment sessions: All the instruments were re-administered to the participants

in the experimental group.

Detailed Treatment Procedure

1. Career Counselling

This therapy was designed to assist participants in planning their education/training and

enable them to become more employable by helping them to: understand and appreciate their

talents; relate effectively to others; explore career alternatives; develop appropriate

educational and vocational training plans; implement and complete their plans; integrate

successfully in society and the labour market.

Session 1- The researcher established rapport with the participants. She introduced the goals

and objectives of the therapy to them. Group norms and duration details were discussed with

the participants. Also, the researcher explained the objectives of the Counselling programme,

its procedures, duration and roles to the participants.

Session 2 - The researcher began the discussion session based on the following:

Understanding the importance of values, work, friends, family, income and self-fulfillment to

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personal and career development; developing a sense of control over one's own life and work

and exploring one's own abilities, potentials, needs, aspirations, self-monitoring, self-

defeating behaviours, self-help skills and use of resources; Strengthening one's orientation to

the future and identifying steps to be taken, anticipate opportunities and barriers, plan a

timetable on steps to the future, seek and identify opportunities, and take action.

Session 3- The researcher hinged this session of discussion on the following: Examining a

variety of occupations, learn about the education and training, licensing, certification or

registration, working conditions and work-life style of the occupations. Learning decision-

making and applying it to one's own career decisions including setting specific targets.

Examining own self-awareness and tendency to analyse past experiences including what one

has and has not accomplished and the reasons for successes and disappointments; developing

the transition skills of continuously developing one's competencies in the face of adversity

and opportunity, obtain information on the transferability of one's skills to new opportunities,

and engaging in continuous learning.

2. Vocational Skills Acquisition and Entrepreneurship Training

This training was designed for participants to enable them develop various skills of interest

and also help them to be self-employed.

Session 1-The researcher leads the group discussion in line with these: The business world; How

does it differ from the public sector? Identify as many types of vocational skills and products as

possible. Generating and screening business ideas; understanding the concept of a “business idea”

and the pros and cons of learning the particular skill of interest. Introduction to market research;

Learn how to conduct a small-scale market research on the product quantity. Location and quality.

Business ideas and market research; Present your business idea(s) in relation with the results of the

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market research to a mentor or friend to enable you share ideas.

Session 2- The session begins with Screening and Validating Business by considering market

demand. Availability of raw materials, appropriate technology and potentials for profitability is

discussed. Also, introduction to business planning: the importance of business planning and how

to develop a business plan. Select location for business; various factors to take into account for

selecting a location for a business and the best possible locations for business were considered.

Product costing and budgeting; understanding basic budgeting principles; integrate all cost factors

into budget and identify all possible costs involved in the business in order to define the cost of the

product and gain margin.

Session 3-The researcher in the session focused on; developing financial plan: identifying capital

needed and sources for project capital. Knowledge on legal requirements; Learning about legal

requirements and registration offices for self-employment and small business, also taxes and other

social benefits. Finally, participants are assisted to develop action plan for six months, starting

from the day they complete the vocational skill of interest. The researcher got feedback from the

participants. The participants answered questions raised by the researcher. There was a review of

all previous sessions with the participants having better perspective on acquiring vocational skills

and putting them to use.

This training was designed to expose the unemployed graduates to entrepreneurial opportunities in

their immediate environment. This intervention impacted on the entrepreneurial potentials and

readiness of unemployed graduates towards entrepreneurship achievement or development.

Session 4: The researcher in this session discussed the following topics; Seeking Opportunities

and taking initiative: taking initiatives by doing things without being asked to or forced by events.

Identifying unusual opportunities to start new businesses, obtain finance, equipment, land, work

space or assistance. Risk taking and demand for efficiency and quality: risk taking in business and

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evaluation of alternatives. How to take action to reduce risks or control outcomes in situations

involving a challenge or moderate risk. How to develop or use procedures to ensure work is

completed on time or that work done is in compliance with agreed standards of quality. Persuasion

and Network: How to use deliberate strategies to influence or persuade others. The researcher

trained the participants on the importance of social networking in business. Examples are

Facebook, twitter, Linkedin, Instagram among others.

Session 5: Participants underwent training in this session with the researcher based on: Persistence

and commitment and the work contract: How to take action when faced with significant obstacles.

How to take action subsequently or switch over to an alternative strategy to meet a challenge or

overcome an obstacle. How to take personal responsibility for the performance necessary to

achieve goals and objectives. How to take the place of their workers to get a job done. How to

make customers’ satisfaction a prerogative and to develop long term good will over short term

gain. Information Seeking: How to seek information from clients, supplies or competitors. How to

carry out personal research on ways of providing a product or service and the need to consult

experts for business or technical advice.

Session 6: In this session, the researcher discussed more topics such as: Goal Setting, Systematic

Planning and Monitoring: How to articulate clear and specific short/long term goals. How to plan

on breaking large tasks down into time-constrained sub-tasks. How to keep financial records and

use them to make business decisions. Independence and self-confidence: How to seek autonomy

from the rules or control of others. How to stick with opposition or lack of success at the

beginning of the business. How to exude confidence in own ability to complete a difficult task or

when they meet with a challenge. The researcher got feedback from the participants. The

participants answered questions raised by the researcher. There was a review of all previous

sessions with the participants having a new and positive perspective about entrepreneurship

training and development.

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Control Group

The participants in the control group (waiting list) did not receive any treatment. However, the

participants in the control group completed the pre-test and post-test assessment measures. At the

end of the study, the participants in the control group were invited to take vocational skills

acquisition training. This gave them the opportunity to also benefit from the intervention

programme.

3.10 Method of Data Analysis

Data analysis was carried out using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)

software version 23. Descriptive Statistics was used to summarize and present the data

obtained. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test for significance of the post

test results in the presence of the pre – test scores and protected t -test was applied in the

presence of significance. Level of significance is set at p < 0.05.

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CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSES, PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

The data collected from the various instruments were analysed using both descriptive and

inferential statistics appropriate for each hypothesis. The means and standard deviations for

pre-test and post-tests assessment measures were computed while Analysis of covariance was

used to test the hypotheses. All hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

4.1 Test of Hypotheses

4.1.1 Hypothesis One

H0: Vocational skills acquisition training will not have significant effect on posttest scores of

self-employability potentials among unemployed graduates.

The hypothesis was tested using one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The results of

the analysis are presented in Tables 1, 2 and 3.

Table 4: Descriptive Data on Pre-test and Post-Test scores of self-employability

potentials in the experimental group and control.

Group Pre-test Post- Test Mean

Differences N Mean S.D Mean S.D

Vocational Skills Training 80 25.64 0.92 39.13 4.35 13.49

Control 38 25.71 1.23 28.03 2.09 2.32

Total 118 25.66 1.02 35.55 6.42 9.89

Evidence from Table 4 shows that vocational skills training group had the higher mean

difference of 13.49 on self-employability potentials among unemployed graduates than the

control group that had a mean difference of 2.32. To determine whether significant difference

exists in self-employability potentials among unemployed graduates due to training

83

conditions, Analysis of covariance statistics (ANCOVA) was done and the result presented in

Table 5 below.

Table 5: Analysis of Covariance on the Difference in Participants’ Self-employability

potentials across the experimental and the control group.

Sources Sum of

Square

Degree of

Freedom

Mean of

Square

F Sig

Corrected Model 3177.106 2 1588.553 110.711 .000

Covariate(Pre-Potentials) 3.635 1 3.635 .253 .616

Experimental Condition 3162.723 1 3162.723 220.420 .000

Within Group 1650.088 115 14.349

Total 4827.195 117

The data in the Table 5 above shows that a calculated F-value of 220.420 obtained is greater

than F-critical value of 3.92, given 1 and 115 degrees of freedom at 0.05 level of significance.

Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. This shows that the experimental group has a

significant influence on self-employability potentials. This therefore suggests that the training

on vocational skills among unemployed graduates was significantly effective in improving

the participants’ self-employability potentials. As a result, a pair-wise comparison was done

to determine which group differs from one another. The result is presented in Table 6.below.

Table 6: Protected t-test analysis of differences between groups in terms of self-

employability potentials

Group Vocational

n = 80

Control

n = 38

Vocational 38.13a 14.92*

Control 10.10 28.03

a = Group mean are in the diagonal; difference in group means are below the diagonal while protected t – values are above the diagonal.

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Table 6 shows that training on vocational skills has significantly higher impact on self-

employability potentials as the mean of self – employability potentials of the vocational skills

group is greater than the control group (t = 14.92; df = 116; critical t = 2.00; p < 0.05). This

further showed that the training received on vocational skills was better in increasing self-

employability potentials among unemployed graduates.

4.1.2 Hypothesis Two

H0: Vocational skills acquisition training will not have significant impact on post-test scores

in self-employability readiness among unemployed graduates.

The hypothesis was tested using one - way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The results of

the analysis are presented in the Tables 4, 5 and 6.

Table 7: Descriptive Data on Pre-test and Post-Test scores of self-employability

readiness in the experimental and control groups.

Group Pre-test Post- Test Mean

Differences N Mean S.D Mean S.D

Vocational Skill Training 80 39.16 2.31 50.10 2.85 10.94

Control 38 39.52 1.76 42.31 2.06 2.74

Total 118 39.29 2.15 47.58 4.51 8.30

Evidence from Table 7 shows that Vocational skills Training group had a higher mean

difference of 10.94 on self-employability readiness among unemployed graduates than the

control group with a mean difference of 2.74. To determine whether significant difference

exists in self-employability readiness among unemployed graduates due to training

conditions, Analysis of covariance statistics (ANCOVA) was done. The result is presented in

Table 8 below.

85

Table 8: Analysis of Covariance on the Difference in Participants’ Self-employability

readiness across the experimental group.

Sources Sum of

Square

Degree of

Freedom

Mean

Square

F Sig

Corrected Model 1573.240 2 786.620 112.877 .000

Experimental Condition 1551.775 1 1551.775 222.675 .000

Covariate(Pre-Readiness) 1.603 1 1.603 .230 0.632

Within Group 801.412 115 6.969

Total 2374.653 117

Significant at 0.05; df = 2 & 114, F-critical = 3.05; F-cal=136.91

The result in the Table 8 above shows that a calculated F-value of 222.675 is greater than F-

critical value of 3.92, given 1 and 115 degrees of freedom at 0.05 level of significance.

Therefore, hypothesis 2 was rejected. This shows that there is significant difference between

the experimental group and control group on self-employability readiness. This therefore

suggests that the training on vocational skills among unemployed graduates were effective in

improving the participants’ self-employability readiness. As a result, a pair-wise comparison

was done to determine which group differs from the other. The result is presented in Table 9

below.

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Table 9: Protected t–test analysis of difference between groups in terms of self-

employability readiness

Group Vocational

n = 80

Control

n = 38

Vocational Skills 50.10a 15.07*

Control 7.81 42.31

a = Group mean are in the diagonal; difference in group means are below the diagonal while protected t – value are above the diagonal.

Table 9 shows that participants who received training on vocational skills acquisition had a

significantly higher impact on self-employability readiness than those with control group (t =

15.07; df = 116; t – critical = 2.00; p < 0.05). This further showed that the training received

on vocational skills was better in increasing self-employability readiness among unemployed

graduates.

4.1.3 Hypothesis Three

H0: Gender and experimental conditions will not have significant impact on self-

employability potentials among unemployed graduates.

The hypothesis was tested using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) statistics. The results

of the analysis are presented in Tables 10 and 11.

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Table 10: Descriptive Data on Post-test scores of self- employability potentials among

unemployed graduates in the Experimental and Control Groups due to gender.

Gender

Groups

N

Pre-test Post-Test Mean Difference

Mean S.D Mean S.D

Male Vocational skills 44 25.61 0.92 39.39 4.21 13.77

Control 20 25.85 1.18 27.60 2.26 1.75

Total 64 25.69 1.01 35.70 6.63 10.02

Female Vocational skills 36 25.67 0.93 38.81 4.55 13.14

Control 18 25.56 1.29 28.50 1.82 2.94

Total 54 25.63 1.05 35.37 6.23 9.74

Evidence from Table 10, shows that among male participants, those exposed to Vocational

skills had a mean difference of 13.77, while Control Group had a mean difference of 1.75.

For female participants, those exposed to Vocational skills acquisition had a mean difference

of 13.14, while Control Group had a mean difference of 2.94. To determine whether

significant difference exists on self-employability potentials due to gender between the

groups, Analysis of Covariance was done and the result was presented in Table 11.

Table 11: Analysis of Covariance of the effect of experimental conditions on self-

employability potentials due to gender

Sources Sum of

Square

Degree of

Freedom

Mean

Square

F Sig

Corrected Model 3190.482a 4 797.621 55.068 .000

Covariate(Pre-Potentials) 2.658 1 2.658 .184 .669

Experimental Condition 3119.502 1 3119.502 215.373 .000*

Gender .513 1 .513 .035 .851

Exp. Condition *Gender 13.009 1 13.009 .898 .345

Within Group 1636.713 113 14.484

Total 4827.195 117

*Significant at 0.05; df = 1 & 113; F-cal = 215.373; F-critical = 3.92. Not significant at 0.05; df = 1 & 113; F-cal= 0.035; F-critical = 3.92

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The result from Table 11 revealed that there is no significant gender difference on self-

employability potentials among unemployed graduates since calculated F-value of 0.035 is

less than the critical F-value of 3.92, given 1 and 113 degrees of freedom at 0.05 level of

significance. Also, there is no significant interaction effect of experimental condition and

gender on self-employability potentials among unemployed graduates since calculated F -

value of 0.898 is less than Critical F-value of 3.92 given 1 and 113 degrees of freedom at

0.05 level of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis is not rejected.

4.1.4 Hypothesis Four

H0: Gender and experimental conditions will not have significant impact on self-

employability readiness among unemployed graduates. The hypothesis was tested using

Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) statistics. The results of the analysis are presented in

Tables 12 and 13.

Table 12: Descriptive result on Post-test scores of self- employability readiness among

unemployed graduates in the experimental and control groups due to gender.

Gender

Groups

N

Pre-test Post-Test Mean Difference

Mean S.D Mean S.D

Male Vocational skills 44 38.98 2.50 50.52 2.63 11.55

Control 20 39.60 1.14 42.45 2.44 2.85

Total 64 39.17 2.18 48.00 4.55 8.83

Female Vocational skills 36 39.39 2.06 49.58 3.07 10.19

Control 18 39.50 2.33 42.11 1.64 2.61

Total 54 39.43 2.13 47.09 4.44 7.67

Evidence from Table 12 showed that male unemployed graduates exposed to vocational skills

had a mean difference of 11.55 while the control group participants had a mean difference of

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2.85. In addition, the female unemployed graduates exposed to vocational skills had a mean

difference of 10.19, while the control group participants had a mean difference of 2.61. To

determine whether significant difference exists on self-employability readiness due to gender

between the groups, Analysis of Covariance was done and the results was presented in Table

13.

Table 13: Analysis of Covariance on Effects of Experimental Condition and Gender on

Self-employability readiness among Participants

Sources Sum of

Square

Degree of

Freedom

Mean

Square

F Sig

Corrected Model 1591.106 4 397.777 57.366 .000

Covariate(Pre-Readiness) .909 1 .909 .131 .718

Experimental Condition 1532.500 1 1532.500 221.011 .000*

Gender 10.249 1 10.249 1.478 .227

Exp. Condition *Gender 2.145 1 2.145 .309 .579

Within Group 783.546 113 6.934

Total 2374.653 117

Not significant at 0.05; df = 1 & 113; F-cal = 0.309; F-critical = 3.92

The result from Table 13 showed that there is no significant gender difference on self-

employability readiness among unemployed graduates, since calculated F- value of 1.478 is

less than the critical F-value of 3.92, given 1 and 113 degrees of freedom at 0.05 level of

significance. Also, there is no significant interaction effect of experimental conditions due to

gender on self-employability readiness among unemployed graduates, since calculated F-

value of 0.309 is less than Critical F-value of 3.92, given 1 and 113 degrees of freedom at

0.05 level of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis is not rejected.

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4.1.5 Hypothesis 5

H0: Experimental conditions and family occupational background will not have significant

impact on post-test scores of self- employability readiness of unemployed graduates.

The hypothesis was tested using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) statistics. The results of

the analysis are presented in Tables 14, 15 and 16.

Table 14: Descriptive Data on Post-test scores of self-employability readiness in the

Experimental and Control Groups based on family occupational background.

Groups N Pre-test Post Test Mean Difference Mean SD Mean SD

Self-employed Vocational

Skill

31 39.29 2.16 52.10 1.42 12.81

Control 9 39.90 3.02 43.78 1.64 3.89

Total 40 39.43 2.35 50.23 3.81 10.80

Employed Vocational

Skill

34 38.97 2.66 49.24 2.90 10.27

Control 14 39.50 1.29 42.29 1.77 2.79

Total 48 39.13 2.34 47.21 4.12 8.08

Retirees Vocational

Skill

8 39.38 1.60 47.63 2.56 8.25

Control 8 39.63 1.51 41.63 2.01 2.00

Total 16 39.50 1.51 44.63 3.83 5.13

Deceased Parent Vocational

Skill

7 39.29 2.14 48.29 2.50 9.00

Control 7 39.14 0.90 41.14 2.41 2.00

Total 14 39.21 1.58 44.71 4.40 5.5

Table 14 showed that the mean difference for participants who had vocational skills training

was higher than the control group for all family occupational background categories. To

determine whether significant difference exists on self-employability readiness due to family

91

occupational background between the groups, Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was

carried out and the result is presented in Table 15.

Table 15: 2 x 3 ANCOVA Tests of the effects of Experimental Conditions and Family

occupational Background on Post-test self-employability readiness.

Source

Sum of

Squares df

Mean

Square F sig

Corrected Model 1829.099 8 228.637 45.681 .000

Covariates (Pre-Readiness) 3.722 1 3.722 .744 .390

Experimental Conditions 1023.733 1 1023.733 204.539 .000*

Family occupation Background (FOB) 162.036 3 54.012 10.791 .000*

Experimental Group * Family 14.784 3 4.928 .985 .403

Within Group 545.554 109 5.005

Corrected Total 2374.653 117

*Significant at 0.05; df 1 & 109; F-cal= 204.539, F-critical= 3.92

11*Significant at 0.05; df 3 & 109; F-cal= 10.791, F-critical= 2.68

Not Significant at 0.05; df 3 & 109; F-cal= 2.47, F-critical= 2.68

Table 15 shows that a calculated F-value of 204.539 for experimental conditions was

significant at 0.05 with degree of freedom 1 and 109 because it was greater than f-critical

value of 3.92 (p < 0.05). The calculated F-value of 10.791 for family occupational

background was also significant since it was greater than the F-critical value of 2.68 at 0.05,

given 3 and 109 degrees of freedom. The calculated F-value of 0.985 for interaction effect

between experimental condition and family occupation background was not significant at

0.05 with degree of freedom 3 and 109 since it was less than f-critical of 2.68 (p > 0.05).

Hypothesis five was therefore not rejected. It was concluded that there is no significant

interaction effect of experimental condition and family background on self-employability

92

readiness. Since there was significant difference between experimental conditions and family

occupational background. Further post-hoc analysis of data was done to determine which

family occupational background had higher significant impact on self-employability

readiness across the groups. The result of the analysis is presented in Table 16.

Table 16: Protected t – test analysis of difference between family occupational

background in terms of self-employability readiness

Group Self-employed

n = 40

Employed

n = 48

Retirees Deceased

n = 16 n=14

Self-Employed 50.23a 3.54* 4.97* 4.48*

Employed 3.02 47.21a 2.21* 1.96

Retirees

Deceased

5.60

5.51

2.58

2.49

44.63a -0.06

-0.09 44.71a

a = Group mean are in the diagonal; difference in group means are below the diagonal while protected t – value are above the diagonal.

Table 16 shows that participants whose parents were self-employed had a significant higher

self-employability readiness than participants whose parents were employed (t = 3.54; df =

86; critical t = 2.00; p < 0.05), retirees (t = 4.97; df = 54; critical t = 2.00; p < 0.05), and

deceased parents family (t-cal = 4.48; df = 52; critical t = 2.00; p < 0.05). Similarly,

participants whose parents were employed had a significant higher self-employability

readiness than those whose parents had retired (t = 2.21; df = 62; critical t = 2.00; p < 0.05)

but not from participants whose parents were deceased (t-cal = 1.96; df = 54; critical t = 2.00;

p > 0.05). However, participants whose parents were retired and deceased do not differ

significantly on self-employment readiness. (t = -0.06; df = 28; critical t = 2.05; p > 0.05).

This further showed that parents being self-employed had a significant impact on self-

employability readiness of unemployed graduates. To determine which experimental

93

conditions had a significant impact on self-employability readiness, further post-hoc analysis

of data was done and it was presented in table 17 below

Table 17: Pair wise Comparison of the Mean Difference between Experimental

Conditions and self-employability readiness

Group Vocational

n = 80

Control

n = 38

Vocational Skills 50.10a 15.07*

Control 7.81 42.29a

a = Group mean are in the diagonal; difference in group means are below the diagonal while protected t – value are above the diagonal.

Table 17 shows that participants who received intervention on vocational skills acquisition

had significant higher self-employability readiness than those in the control group (t-

cal=15.07, df = 116; t-crit. = 1.96; p < 0.05). This further showed that the training received on

vocational skills was better in increasing self-employability readiness among unemployed

graduates.

4.1.6 Hypothesis 6

H0: Experimental conditions and family occupational background will not have significant

impact on post test scores of self- employability potentials of unemployed graduates.

The hypothesis was tested using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) statistics. The results of

the analysis are presented in Tables 18, 19, 20 and 21.

94

Table 18: Descriptive Data on Post-test scores of self-employability potentials in the

experimental and control groups based on family occupational background.

Family Occupational

Background

Groups N Pre-test Post Test Mean

Difference Mean SD Mean SD

Self-employed Vocational Skill 31 25.58 0.67 42.68 4.00 17.10

Control 9 25.67 1.23 29.22 2.39 3.56

Total 40 25.60 0.81 39.65 6.77 14.05

Employed Vocational Skill 34 25.59 0.99 37.35 2.70 11.77

Control 14 25.57 1.28 27.93 2.34 2.36

Total 48 25.58 1.07 34.60 5.04 9.02

Retirees Vocational Skill 8 25.75 1.04 36.13 3.52 10.38

Control 8 25.13 0.99 27.50 1.51 2.38

Total 16 25.44 1.03 31.81 5.17 6.34

Deceased Parent Vocational Skill 7 26.00 1.41 35.43 1.90 9.43

Control 7 26.71 0.95 27.29 1.25 0.57

Total 14 26.36 1.22 31.36 4.50 5.00

Table 18 showed that the mean difference for participants who had vocational skills training

was higher than the control group for all family occupational background categories. To

determine whether significant difference exists on self-employability potentials due to family

occupational background between the groups, Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was

carried out and the result is presented in Table 19.

95

Table 19: 2 x 3 ANCOVA Tests of the effects of Experimental Condition and Family

occupational background on Post - test self-employability potentials.

Source Sum of Squares Df

Mean Square F

Sig.

Corrected Model 3858.219 8 482.277 54.251 .000

Covariates (Pre-Potentials) 0.065 1 0.065 .007 .932

Experimental Conditions 2014.501 1 2014.501 226.611 .000*

Family occupation Background (FOB) 298.949 3 99.650 11.210 .000*

Experimental Group * Family 104.471 3 34.824 3.917 .011*

Within Group 968.976 109 8.890

Corrected Total 4827.195 117

*Significant at 0.05; df 1 & 109; F-cal = 226.611, F-critical= 3.92

*Significant at 0.05; df 3 & 109; F-cal = 11.210, F-critical= 2.68

*Significant at 0.05; df 3 & 109; F-cal = 3.917, F-critical= 2.68

Table 19 shows that a calculated F-value of 226.611 for experimental conditions was

significant at 0.05 with degree of freedom 1 and 109 because it was greater than f-critical of

3.92 (p < 0.05).

The F-value calculated of 11.210 for family occupational background was also significant

since it was greater than the F-critical value of 2.68 at 0.05, given 3 and 109 degrees of

freedom. In addition, calculated F-value of 3.917 for interaction effect between experimental

condition and family occupation background was significant at 0.05 with degree of freedom 3

and 109 since it was greater than f-critical of 2.68 (p < 0.05). Hypothesis six was therefore

rejected. It is concluded that there is significant interaction effect of experimental conditions

and family background on self-employability potentials. Since there was significant

difference between experimental conditions and family occupational background, further

post-hoc analysis of data was done to determine which family occupational background had

higher significant impact on self-employability potentials across the groups. The result of the

96

analysis is presented in Table 20.

Table 20: Protected t – test analysis of difference between family occupational

background in terms of self-employability potentials

Group Self-employed

n = 40

Employed

n = 48

Retirees

n = 16

Deceased

n=14

Self-Employed 39.65a 4.01* 4.16* 4.25*

Employed 5.05 34.60 1.91 2.17*

Retirees 7.84 2.79 31.81 0.26

Deceased 8.29 3.25 0.45 31.36

a = Group mean are in the diagonal; difference in group means are below the diagonal while

protected t – value are above the diagonal.

Table 20 shows that participants whose parents were self-employed had a significant impact

on self-employability potentials than participants whose parents were from employed (t =

4.01; df = 86; critical t = 2.00; p < 0.05), from retirees (t = 4.16; df = 54; critical t = 2.00; p <

0.05), and from the deceased family (t-cal = 4.25; df = 52; critical t = 2.00; p < 0.05).

However, all other comparisons except employed and deceased (t = 2.17; df = 60; t – critical

= 2.00; p < 0.05), had no significant impact on self-employability potentials. This further

showed that participants whose parents were self-employed had a significant impact on self-

employability potentials. To determine which experimental conditions had a significant

impact on self-employability potentials, further post-hoc analysis of data was done and it was

presented in table 21 below

97

Table 21: Pairwise Comparison of the Mean Difference between Experimental

Conditions and self-employability Potentials

Group Vocational

n = 80

Control

n = 38

Vocational Skills 39.13a 15.07*

Control 7.81 28.03

a = Group mean are in the diagonal; difference in group means are below the diagonal while

protected t – value are above the diagonal.

Table 21 showed that participants who received intervention on vocational skills had a

higher significant self-employability potentials than those in the control group (t-cal = 15.07;

df = 116; t - crit. = 2.00; p < 0.05). This further showed that the training received on

vocational skills was better in increasing self-employability potentials among unemployed

graduates.

4.2 Summary of findings

The following are the summary of the findings:

1. Vocational skills acquisition had significant impact on post - test scores of self-

employability potentials among unemployed graduates.

2. The participants exposed to vocational skills acquisition training performed better on

post - test scores of self-employability readiness than those in the control group.

3. Gender and experimental conditions do not have significant impact on self-

employability potentials among unemployed graduates.

4. Gender and experimental conditions do not have significant impact on self-

employability readiness among participants.

5. There is no significant interaction effect of experimental condition and family

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background on self-employability readiness of unemployed graduates.

6. There is significant interaction effect of experimental condition and family

background on self-employability potentials.

4.3 Discussion of Findings

The first hypothesis stated that vocational skills acquisition training will not have significant

impact on post-test scores of self-employability potentials among unemployed graduates. The

findings indicated that there is a significant impact of the training on self-employability

potentials. The reasons for these findings could be attributed to the vocational skills

acquisition training received. The findings confirmed Okala’s (2004) study on

Entrepreneurship skill development: An initiative to change the youths’ attitude towards

employment in Nigeria. His results show that entrepreneurs’ potentials (traits/characteristics)

which inadvertently produce commitment and determination, leadership, opportunity,

obsession, tolerance of risk, ambiguity and uncertainty, creativity, self-reliance, ability to

adapt, and motivation, are highly needed for a successful entrepreneur. The natural

possession of these in-born characteristics among unemployed graduates were effective in

improving the participants’ self-employability potentials. The result is also in agreement with

recent findings on the potentials of vocational skills acquisition in reducing unemployment/

poverty, improving welfare of the people and empowering the youths among which are

unemployed graduates (Ekong and Ekong, 2016; Adofu and Ocheja; Ogundele, et al, 2012;

and Akpama, et al, 2011).

The second hypothesis stated that vocational skills acquisition training will not have

significant impact on post test scores of self-employability readiness among unemployed

graduates. The findings indicated that vocational skills acquisition training has significant

99

impact on self-employability readiness as participants exposed to vocational skills acquisition

training performed significantly better on post - test scores of self-employability readiness

than those in the control group.

This finding is consistent with the natural factors used to describe an entrepreneur, as stressed

by Makhbul & Hasun (2011), who did a work on Entrepreneurial Success: An exploratory

study among entrepreneurs. The summary of their findings shows that an entrepreneur or self

- employed must have a drive for achievement and must possess internal locus of control,

self-confidence, independence, innovativeness, good communication and decision-making

skills, high self-efficacy, opportunity recognition, perseverance, social skills, honesty, trust,

accountability, spirituality, good ethics, determination, and flexibility. One of the arguments

that accounts for the secrets of self-employed success is the willingness to take risks

(Makhbul & Hasun, 2011; Brinkman, 2000), through creativity and innovation, foresight and

imagination. Concurrently, Izedunni and Okafor (2010), added that experience has shown

that a successful self - employed entrepreneur makes careful calculation. In the same vein,

Arogundade (2009) states that failure of people to take risks, to a very high extent, affects the

level of productivity and entrepreneurial activities in Nigeria. That neither must he/she shy

away from necessary and unavoidable risks, which consequently results in tolerance of risk,

ambiguity and uncertainty, creativity, self-reliance and ability to adapt and motivation

required as criteria for being ready for self-employment in the pursuit of success.

The third hypothesis stated that gender and experimental conditions will not have significant

impact on self-employability potentials among unemployed graduates. Based on the results

obtained from the data, it was found out that there was no significant difference between male

and female participants on self - employability potentials. In support of this study, Rachid

(2013) did a research on gender and Youth Entrepreneurial Potential in United Arab

Emirates. His findings revealed that there is no significant difference on the overall

100

entrepreneurial potentials between males and females. Also, the findings strongly suggest that

youth entrepreneurship is not gender-biased and that both men and women reported similar

potentials. In line with these findings, Gupta, Daniel, Arzu, and Arijit (2009) examined the

role of socially constructed gender stereotypes and their influence on the entrepreneurial

intentions of male and females. Their findings were not significant. However, this finding

was at variance with the assertions of Chen, Vanek and Carr (2004) (in Mansson &

farnsveden, 2012) who noted that men tend to acquire more skills and are in the top segment

as entrepreneurs/ employers than women, who are mostly over represented in the bottom

segments as home workers and unpaid contributing family workers, because they received or

acquired lower skills.

The fourth hypothesis stated that gender and experimental conditions will not have significant

impact on self-employability readiness among unemployed graduates. Based on the results

from the analysis, it was found out that there was no significant gender difference on self-

employability readiness based on gender across the experimental conditions. In support of

this view, Shekhar, Joshi, and Sanwal, (2016) did a study on gender difference and readiness

for entrepreneurial trait of agricultural graduates. Their results show that there is no

significant difference between male and female students, especially in the area of risk taking

ability, problem solving ability, persuasiveness and leadership ability of both genders, were

found to be non- significant. The reason stated by boys for non-willingness for

entrepreneurial venture was 'lack of financial assistance' and for girls it was 'lack of family

support'. However, this finding also agreed with the finding of Cho, Kalomba, Mobarak, and

Orozco (2013) who discovered that vocationally trained men and women reported very

similar gains in skills, men invests more extra time in further skills development after the

training, women training was costlier, and the positive gain as measured by well–being and

confidence accrue more to men than women. They equally reported that men are twice likely

101

to report improvement in life due to the training but that the result was not statistically

significant.

The fifth hypothesis stated that experimental conditions and family background will not have

significant impact on self-employability readiness of unemployed graduates. The findings

indicated that there is no significant interaction effect between family occupational

background and experimental conditions on self-employability readiness. This finding is not

consistent with the natural factors used to describe an entrepreneur, as stressed by

Drennan, Kennedy and Renfrow (2005),who did a study on family business experiences in

the development of entrepreneurial intentions. Their findings revealed that family business

experiences enhance the perception of desirability and feasibility of starting a business. In

line with this study, Chrisman, Chua and Steier (2003) did a study on an introduction to

theories of family business in entrepreneurship. Their findings revealed that involvement of

family in entrepreneurship creates a profound opportunity for understanding how

entrepreneurial qualities develop.

The sixth hypothesis stated that experimental conditions and family background will not have

significant impact on self-employability potentials of unemployed graduates.

The findings indicated that there is a significant interaction effect between family occupation

background and experimental conditions on self-employability potentials among unemployed

graduates. This finding is consistent with the natural factors used to describe an entrepreneur,

as stressed by Basu and Virick (2008), who did a study on assessment of entrepreneurial

intentions among students. Their study found out that there is significant difference between

students, whose family are into business and those who are not. It also went further to state

that the presence of self-employed father had impact on students’ attitude towards

entrepreneurship. In line with this study, Singh and Prasad (2016), did a study on the

102

influence of family occupation on entrepreneurial intention of management students. Their

findings revealed that students with business background have a better chance of doing

business than those students who were not involved in family business. However, this finding

negates the findings of Ayinde (2017), who found that socio-economic status like family

occupational background has no significant impact on vocational skills acquisition among

undergraduates in University of Ibadan

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CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary of the Study

The study investigated the impact of vocational skills acquisition on self-employability

readiness and potentials among unemployed graduates in Delta state, Nigeria.

The study exposed the scourge of graduate unemployment globally especially in developing

countries. Nigeria as a country has a high rate of unemployed graduates. This situation affects

them psychologically, financially, socially and morally.

The study established that the increasing rate of unemployment among tertiary institutions’

graduates is an indication that the graduates do not possess the needed vocational skills and

entrepreneurship training that may enable them to establish their own business. In view of

this, they roam-about the street searching for unavailable jobs. In order to satisfy their needs

and wants many of them are lured into various social vices such as Arson, rape, political

violence, kidnapping among others.

Also, the study proved that the government in a bid to curb unemployment in Nigeria has

established various agencies and embarked on different projects. Agencies such as National

Directorate of employment and Projects such as SURE-P, G-WIN and YOU-WIN for girls

and women respectively.

In 2007/2008 academic year vocational skills acquisition and entrepreneurship training were

included in the curriculum of tertiary institutions. Subsequently, in 2012, vocational skills

acquisition and entrepreneurship training was introduced in the National Youth Service Corps

(NYSC) to prepare graduates for the world of work. Inspite of all these efforts, the impact is

not significant going by the increasing number of unemployed graduates. These graduates

104

most probably fail to recognise the importance of vocational skills acquisition. Therefore, it

becomes glaring that they should be exposed to career counselling which will make them to

discover their interests, potentials and readiness to acquire vocational skills and set up own

businesses.

Furthermore, the study revealed that for someone to veer into self-employment, such a person

should have some traits or potentials such as; innovativeness, proactiveness, creativity, not

being risk aversive among others. Also there should be self-employability readiness, which is

the ability to set up a business, run it with little or no outside help and obtain good success.

In a bid to determine the self-employability readiness and potentials among unemployed

graduates, vocational skills acquisition comes to the rescue. The unemployed graduates were

made to acquire vocational skills. They were also given training on entrepreneurship. This

was to encourage them to think of setting up their own businesses, thereby becoming

entrepreneurs employers of labour as well as creators of wealth.

Although, people believed that men are more prone to go into self-employment more than

women. This study has proved that there was no difference in gender as regards

establishment of own businesses. This implies that anybody can become self-employed, no

matter the gender. Gender therefore does not impede on an individual’s desire to acquire

skills or become self-employed.

Family, occupational background has been established in this study to be a factor to reckon

with as regards self-employability potentials.

Individuals whose families have business backgrounds were found to have the potentials to

set-up a business enterprise more than those without such background. However, the study

105

indicated that individuals’ self-employability readiness was not determined by his/her family

occupational background.

Finally the study viewed vocational skills acquisition and entrepreneurship training as a

panacea for graduate unemployment. Therefore graduates and undergraduates alike should be

exposed to this training early enough so as to prepare them for a better employment option.

5.2 Conclusion

From the discussion of the findings based on the data collected, the following conclusions are

drawn:

Unemployment among youths of tertiary institutions has become a societal menace that

should be of grave concern to all and sundry. The purpose of seeking formal education is to

acquire knowledge, obtain a certificate and subsequently get employment, to be able to

sustain oneself with the basic needs and wants of man. Unfortunately, this is not to be as

graduates roam the streets searching for white collar jobs that are not available.

The graduates are frustrated, sad and at times go into all manners of crime and criminality in

order to survive. They are useless to themselves, their families, friends and their society at

large. In view of the importance or role of these graduates, who are mostly youths in the

society, it becomes imperative for this study to investigate the factors that brought about this

unemployment quagmire among graduates. Factors such as lack of employable skills, self-

interest, being risk aversive, not being innovative or creative and not having task approach

skills that will enable them to venture into self-employment or become entrepreneurs. This

study therefore found out the impact of vocational skills acquisition training on the self-

employability readiness and potentials among unemployed graduates in Delta State, Nigeria.

The participants were exposed to career counselling, as well as vocational and

entrepreneurship training. It confirmed the researcher’s expectation that the use of the

techniques can be the bridges through which unemployed graduates can discover their

106

potentials and readiness for self-employment. Engage themselves meaningfully so as to

become not only creators of wealth but also employers of labour. The study showed

significant effect of experimental conditions on self-employability potentials and self-

employability readiness.

5.3 Contributions to Knowledge

1. The study demonstrated that unemployment among graduates would be reduced

with the acquisition vocational skills and entrepreneurship training.

2. This study established that individuals whose family occupational background is

business has the high tendency to tilt towards self-employment or

entrepreneurship.

3. Furthermore, the study established that being a man or a woman does not

determine your occupational choice. This implies that any individual exposed to

vocational skills acquisition and entrepreneurship training no matter the gender

stereotype can be self-employed.

4. Finally, the study developed a conceptual model that counsellors can use in assisting

graduates and undergraduates to understand the importance of acquiring vocational

skills and entrepreneurship training.

5.4 Recommendations

On the basis of findings of this study, the following recommendations are made:

Career counsellors should as a matter of importance counsel undergraduates on the

importance of discovering their potentials and readiness to explore self-

107

employment/entrepreneurship. This may make them tilt towards self-employment

thereby reducing unemployment.

Curriculum planners and policy makers should accord vocational skills acquisition and

entrepreneurship their rightful place in tertiary institutions. These will expose graduates

early enough to self-employment and entrepreneurship.

Graduates and undergraduates as well should be orientated about the importance of

vocational skills acquisition. This will make them not to look down on vocational skills

training but rather make themselves available to acquire vocational skills when

necessary.

5.5 Implications for Counselling

1. This study indicated that career counsellors can utilize vocational skills acquisition

and entrepreneurship training in helping unemployed graduates as well as

undergraduates to counter unemployment. Exposure to this training showcased the

importance of vocational skills acquisition and entrepreneurship training towards

making the unemployed graduates to realise their self-employability readiness and

potentials.

2. The study revealed that counsellors can use vocational skills acquisition effectively

through creating awareness among unemployed graduates as regards its importance

towards having a better employment alternative.

3. The efficaciousness of the treatment packages is a welcome development for

counselling. Application of these interventions on a regular basis in tertiary

institutions as well as among unemployed graduates can help to reduce

unemployment among these graduates. It is therefore imperative that counsellors

should clamour for the proper institutionalisation of vocational skills acquisition and

108

entrepreneurship training policy in tertiary institutions, where students will be

exposed to this training early enough, so as to prepare them for the challenges of

work.

4. Finally, this study implied that career counsellors should be knowledgeable in

different counselling and intervention strategies geared towards convincing

unemployed graduates to aspire to acquire vocational skills and entrepreneurship

training which in turn will awaken the interest in them to be self-employed.

5.6 Suggestions for Further Study

The study was limited to Delta State, Nigeria. It is key to duplicate this empirical study in

other parts of the country.

Secondly, vocational skills acquisition and entrepreneurship training were used as therapeutic

instruments for this study. However, other strategies could equally be developed and utilised

to discover their effectiveness in discovering the self-employability readiness and potentials

of unemployed graduates, towards reducing unemployment.

Thirdly, the study concentrated on unemployed graduates. It could be duplicated on

unemployed youths who are not tertiary institutions graduates.

109

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APPENDICES

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATION

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

UNIVERISTY OF LAGOS

RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

Instruction: The purpose of the questionnaire is to gather information on how vocational

skills acquisition on the self-employability readiness and potentials of unemployed graduates.

You are kindly required to make objective and since responses based on prior experiences,

vocational skills and entrepreneurship training you have required.

Any information provided will be treated with strict confidentiality.

Thank you.

Section A

Bio Data

Gender: (a) Male (b) Female

Age: (a) 20-25 (b) 26-30 (c) 31 and above

Exposure to skill acquisition training (a) Yes (b) No

Educational Qualification: (a) NCE (b) B.Sc/HND (c) M.Sc & Others

Father’s Occupation: (a) Self-employed (b) Employed

(c) Retiree (d) Deceased (e) Others

Mother’s Occupation: (a) Self-employed (b) Employed

(c) Retiree (d) Deceased (e) Others

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Section B

Perceived Skill Acquisition Scale

Below are statements that you may agree or disagree with. Using the 1-4 scale, indicate much

you agree or disagree with each statement by ticking the corresponding box.

The responses are Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D), Strongly Disagree (SD)

S/No Statements SA A S SD

1 I mastered the sills needed to set up my own business.

2 I received adequate skills to do my job well.

3 Information I needed to establish my business was provided.

4 I acquired adequate skill from my trainers

5 I am capable of using my acquired skills to meet my needs.

6 I gained confidence in ability to see my skills.

7 I am able to see my skills in my current position.

8 The skill acquisition helped to improve my work ability.

9 I achieved my goals through the skills training.

10 I have the skill to manage my business successfully.

11 I am confident of my abilities to succeed at work using my

skills.

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Section C

Business Readiness Index

The following questions are meant to find out you’re the self-employability readiness.

Circle the number on the scale of 1-4 to indicate your knowledge and/or readiness in the areas

addressed where Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D), Strongly Disagree (SD)

S/No SA A S SD

1 I will do well if I start a business now.

2 I have an idea of the type of business I want to do.

3 I can set achievable goals for the business I want to do.

4 I am sure that my product or service will sell.

5 I am not afraid of competition.

6 I can identify my target market.

7 I know what my customer desire.

8 I know the amount of money I need to start my business.

9 Profit from my business can sustain my family.

10 I can raise money from my saving for my business.

11 The business can give me an adequate return on my investment

of time and money.

12 I can face the risks involved in being self-employed.

13 I can get credit facilities.

14 Having my own business would create time for me to take care

of my home.

15 I would have economic independence if I have my own

business.

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16 Having a close relative who own a business would not

influence me.

17 Friends who own businesses live better.

18 Being a co-owner in a previous business venture has gingered

me to own a business.

19 Working in a small business venture has equipped me to start

own business.

20 My spouse or family supporting my business can help me

succeed.

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Section D

ENTREPRENEUR POTENTIAL INVENTORY

These items are to measure you self-employability potentials. Read each item and mark your

appropriate responses with a tick ( √ ).

The responses are Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D), Strongly Disagree (SD)

S/No Items SA A S SD

1 I am a leader.

2 I like to make my own decisions.

3 Others turn to me for help with making decision.

4 I enjoy competition.

5 I have will power and self discipline.

6 I plan ahead.

7 I like people.

8 I get along well with others.

9 I take responsibility.

10 I complete projects and tasks once I start them.

11 Getting along with people easily would help me as a business

owner.

12 The skills that I have learnt would transform my life.

13 Gender cannot be a barrier to starting own business.