Impact of Pesticides and Other Chemicals on the Environment

Azhari Omer Abdelbagi1, Adam Ali Mohamed2Ahmed M. Elhindi3

and Ali Mohamed. Ali4

Introduction

Chemicals are becoming indispensable part in our daily life. They are related to our nutrition, medicine, and use as pesticides, fertilizers, petrol, paints, cosmetics, glue, varnish, artificial fibers,…etc. despite these enormous use and benefits of chemicals they can cause and implicate some health and environmental problems. Examples of problems associated with them they can cause diseases like cancer, kidney, endocrine disrupting, and acute poisoning or cause environmental problems like ozone depleting, effect on terrestrial and aquatic animals, contamination on environmental media (air, water, food, land). All these are making clear to every one that “chemical safety – a national challenge” is not an empty phrase. Internationally big effort is made to safe use of chemicals which are reflected in Chapter 19 of Agenda 21 which identified the elements for the sound management of the chemicals as: adequate legislation; information gathering and dissemination; capacity for risk assessment; and interpretation; establishment of risks policy; capacity for implementation and enforcement; capacity for rehabilitation of contaminated sites and poisoned persons; effective education programmes and capacity to respond to emergencies. Also legally binding instruments like Rotterdam Convention, Basle Convention, and Vienna Convention are now ratified by many countries. In Sudan chemicals are managed in a piecemeal fashion, with control being introduced for specific group or class of chemicals and in specific area. For example pesticides are managed by Pesticides and Plants Protection Act, drugs and cosmetics managed by Pharmaceuticals and Poison Act, food and additives managed by Food Control Act. This approach left large group of chemicals like fertilizers, industrial chemicals consumer chemicals and environmental contaminants without any system of management. Sudan not produce chemical but amount imported each year rapidly increasing. Beside the loophole in the existing regulations and inadequate sectoral co-ordination and collaboration, health and environment are threaten by the large quantity of obsolete and stockpiles of pesticides and other chemicals that have been piled near residential area and scattered all over the country. Also empty containers and contaminated soils (spillage, and dumping sites) are another problems.

1 Department of Crop Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum orTraining Directorate, Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research, Sudan.2 National Chemical Laborotary, Ministry of Health

3National Centre for Research, Ministry of Science & Technology, Khartoum, Sudan.4 Higher Council for Environment & Natural Resources, Khartoum, Sudan.

Pesticides

Background

Trials for use of pesticides in Sudan started with the introduction of Bordeaux mixture in 1941 followed by the chlorinated hydrocarbon DDT for the control of cotton jassid (Jacobiasca lubica deBerg) in Gezira scheme in 1949. The success of the trial, which started with a single application against a single major pest, initiated the interest for expansion of the treated area and opens the way for subsequent introduction of other related compounds. The early 1950s witnessed the introduction of the organophosphate compounds, namely parathion. In the same decade and due to the outstanding increase in cotton prices during the Korean War, many products were tested and released for commercial use. Early in the sixties organophosphates became a reliable partner to the organochlorines for the control of the complex of chewing and sucking insect pests, when dimethoate was first used in 1960/61 season. The same decade witnessed the discovery of a new generation of insecticides, the carbamates, as well as an intensive screening effort to select the most suitable products from many brands and formulations available in the market.The period from early sixties to late seventies witnessed progressive intensification and expansion in the cropped areas with subsequent increase in pest complexity and damage. This necessitates increase in chemical treatment with negative impact on human health and the environment. The number of applications during the season has also risen to levels to average 9-11. Organochlorines were the major group of pesticides, which flourished during this period favored by their high potency against wide range of agricultural and public health pests, cheapness and environmental persistence. The problems arising from the increased use of pesticides coupled with the drastic change in the cotton pest complex led in the early 80s to the introduction of synthetic pyrethroids in order to replace DDT and the insecticides mixtures containing DDT which, were then banned. Early in the 1990s the Sudan Government declared integrated pest management (IPM) as its crop protection strategy and many attempts were made to reduce the use of pesticides and rely more on non-chemical means of crop protection. Nevertheless, the use of pesticides remains an important component of crop production policy, especially after the introduction of a new generation of pesticides, which is claimed to have better biological efficiency, less negative impact on the environment and more cost-effective performance, thus complying with IPM objectives. Among these new products are the BT toxins, the neonicotinoid imdacloprid, and the phenylpyrazole, fibronil. Currently there are over 600 products being registered for commercial use in the Sudan. However, only Limited number of the registered compounds dominates the local import despite the huge number of registered products. The desirability of certain products may be attributed to their superior efficacy under local conditions, safety and cheapness.The recent advancement in agrochemical industry with the tremendous efforts currently focused on the use of genetically modified crops is a new challenge facing crop protection policy in the Sudan which still stands fairly in the opposition of such technology for many logical reasons.

Pesticide Regulation in the SudanPesticides use in the Sudan was governed by the Pesticide Act / 1974 which was amended to Pesticide and Pest Control Act / 1994. The Act regulates all activities related to pesticides import, transport, storage, uses, formulation and any other related activities in the country. These functions were executed by the National Pesticides Council (NPC). The NPC is a multidisciplinary inter-ministerial committee, which includes representatives of all stakeholders within the country including the Ministries of Agriculture, Animal Resources, Health, Research Institutions, and Universities … etc. The council is chaired by the Under Secretary of the Ministry of Agriculture with the Director General of the Plant Protection Directorate (PPD) as the repertoire and Registrar of the Council. The Registrar is responsible for all administrative and executive functions of the Council. According to this act subsidiary councils can be formed in the 26 states of the Sudan. Similarly subsidiary central or regional, permanent or interim committees are formed to assist in performing specific functions mandated by the council.The 1994 Act is abroad general umbrella law with various explanations and specific details, which may require periodical revisions, dealt with in seven relevant bylaws, which are easy to amend on periodical terms as necessary. The last revision of these bylaws was done in 2002. A list of these bylaws is given below;

Trading and organization of the commercial handling of pesticides and pest control products bylaw for the year 2002.

Pesticides and pest control products inspection bylaw for the year2002. Organization of the storage and transport of pesticides and pest control products

bylaw for the year 2002. Protection of personnel dealing with pesticides and pest control products bylaw

for the year 2002. Importation of pesticides and pest control products bylaw for the year 2002. Registration of pesticides and pest control products bylaw for the year 2002. Formulation of pesticides and pest control products bylaw for the year 2002.

The registration system of pesticides in the Sudan:The registration of pesticides in Sudan can be summarized in the following points;

1. Applicants must first fill Form 1 for provisional registration and submit it to the registrar of the NPC.

2. The NPC passes the form to the technical committee which reviews the information given in the form according to the Pesticide and Pest Control Act/1994 and either recommends to the NPC to reject or accept the provisional registration of the pesticide.

3. Products approved for provisional registration shall be tested by relevant research institutions under local conditions and results of the test shall be approved by the National Pests and Diseases Committee (NPDC) which either recommends (or rejects) to the NPC the registration of the product for commercial use using the following measures;

Method of testing should follow the approved protocol; Residues of the product(s) tested in edible crops and/or the environment

should be within acceptable limits (Codex Alimentarius).

Standard treatment(s) must be included in every field assay and the standard should be an already registered product.

Test products are only recommended if their biological performance is as good as or better than that of the standard products.

4. The NPC reviews the recommendation of the NPDC and either approves it or rejects.

The product is thus registered for commercial use

The pesticides market and use in various sectorsPesticide industry represents a significant fraction of the international trade. Herbicides constitute 44% of the manufactured pesticides while insecticides and fungicides constitute 33% and 18%, respectively. Currently there are more than 600 active ingredients and about 1000 known formulations used in the fields of agriculture, human and animal health. Developed countries consume 80% of the total production of pesticides while the developing countries consume 20%. Africa consumes about 4% of the total world production, which is worth about one billion USD per annum. The Arab world consumes about 2% of the world production which is equivalent to 0.5 billion USD per year. Several studies reported that the consumption of pesticides in developing countries may rise in the future to 35% of world production as a result of the expected horizontal and vertical expansion in the agricultural sector. Based on previous records and averages (before 1990’s), the annual imports of pesticides in the Sudan were estimated at 5000 metric tons (equivalent to 57 million USD and may reach 70 million USD in certain seasons) representing about 11% of the total imports of the Arab countries and they rank the third after Egypt and Saudi Arabia. The use of various types of pesticides in Sudan witnessed great change over time. Following the early nineties era the annual consumption dropped to 2160-3000 tons (equivalent to 35 million USD). The recent estimates were based on the average of five years, 1999-2003/4 (table 1-3). During this period, the purchase of insecticides account for 50%, followed by herbicides (25%) and others (fungicides, seed dressing materials and aerosols, 25%). Various factors (economic, change in area allotted for cotton and adoption of IPM in cotton) stands behind such drop. Like wise the annual sprays in cotton reached around 11 sprays by late seventies and early eighties and reduced to an average of 3-4 sprays per season for similar reasons. The oil production coupled with Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) signed last year are expected to create a great boast in the economy of the country and significantly more resources will be availed to production of more food which may lead to further expansion in agricultural activities and therefore more pesticide use. It is expected that use of pesticides may approach or exceed the previous figure (5000MT).The majority of the imported chemicals are used in the agricultural sector specially the irrigated schemes in central Sudan. Cotton (47% of annual import) is the major crop receiving most frequent spray followed by, vegetables (26%), sugarcane (15%), national pests (PPD, 7%) and public health sector (2%), (Table 2-3). Spraying of cotton, sugarcane and wheat (especially in irrigated schemes) is under the direct control of the ministry of agriculture. However minimum governmental supervision is given to spray operations in vegetable crops, which received an increased importance in recent years.

Like cotton, vector of major endemic diseases like malaria is under strict government control (The Federal Ministry of Health).

Table 1; Total import (liters or kilograms) of pesticides by various sectors in Sudan during the last five years (1999-2003)Sector/pesticide Groups

insecticides

herbicides

fungicides Seed dresser

avicides rodenticies

fumigants

total

Irrigated cotton schemes

ULVs 2344494 1234435 110021 52000 6392208ECs 2651258Total 4995752

Local market (vegetables)

482875 84418 42429 650 7164 617536

Sugarcane SSC! 26395 1072520KSC* 50020 957860Total 76415 1930380 2106795

Rain fed

MRF 2600 283960AAAID 49675 38120total 52275 322080 374355

PPD 926100 200 119900 5000 30000 1081200Public health+ 231906 231906

Total 6765323 3671313 42629 110021 119900 57650 37164 10804000% of total 62.619 33.981 0.395 1.018 1.110 0.534 0.344 100SSC: Sudanese Sugar Company, KSC: Kenana Sugar Company, MRF: Mechanized rain fed, AAAID: Arab Authority for Agricultural Investment and Development, PPD: Plant Protection Directorate.

Table 2; Sudan’s pesticides imports (liters or kilograms) according to the category of use, 1999 – 2003.

Category/season

1999/2000 2000/2001 2001/2002 2002/2003 2003/2004 Average

Herbicides 717940 818465 790204 759851 796380 776568 % 26 36 21 25 25 26

Insecticides 1184612 652647 2037172 1199855 2176213 1,450,100% 43 29 54 40 69 48

Others 880010 793830 937649 1077801 193988 776656% 32 35 25 35 6 26

Total 2782562 2264942 3765025 3037507 3166581 3,003,323% 100 100 100 100 100 100

As % of 5y 93 75 125 101 105 100Table 3; Sudan’s pesticides imports (liters or kilograms) by sector, 1999– 2003.

Sector 1999/2000 2000/2001 2001/2002 2002/2003 2003/2004 Average

Agric.Schemes

1071732 862988 2065250 1025310 2034259 1,411,908

% 38.5 38.2 54.8 33.7 64.2 47Sugar Co. 390760 645960 447300 483820 298400 453248 % 14 28.5 11.9 15.9 9.4 15Mech.Farming 15580 15520 22300 152415 260140 93191 % 0.6 0.7 0.6 5.0 8.2 3PPD 320000 - 205700 195000 360590 216258 % 11.5 0.0 5.4 6.4 11.4 7Min.of Health 110900 10004 74002 17500 14500 45381 % 4.0 0.4 2.1 0.6 0.5 2Private Market 873590 730470 950473 1163462 198692 783337 % 31.4 32.2 25.2 38.3 6.3 26Total 2782562 2264942 3765025 3037507 3166581 3003323 % 100 100 100 100 100 100As% of 5 years.

93 75 125 101 105 100

Future of pesticide use in SudanCurrently Sudan utilizes 15% of its vast cultivable land and the yields obtained from the crops grown are much lower than the genetic potential. One way to improve production and achieve the goals and targets of the economic plans of Sudan as a producer and exporter of agricultural commodities is the adoption of new technologies and strategies. As mentioned earlier the Sudan peace agreement couple with oil production is expected to create a great boast in the economy of the country and significantly more resources will be availed to production of more food which may lead to further expansion in agricultural activities and therefore more pesticide use. Therefore use of pesticides will increase in future as a result of the expected changes in agricultural policies, plans and strategies, which involve the following:

1. Expansion in the areas under production by rehabilitating the existing irrigated schemes and the development of new areas in the rain fed sector.

2. Intensification of production by relying more and more on modern external inputs which include pesticides and other crop protection materials.

3. Introduction of new crops such as sunflower, maize, sugar beet … etc. which requires the use of specific pesticides.

4. The envisaged expansion in areas under cane sugar would increase the demand for herbicides and plant growth regulators.

5. Containment of pest problems in horticultural and other high valued crops would gain an increasing importance.

6. The increasing tendency among agricultural production companies and individuals investing in the mechanized rain fed sector to use seed dressing materials, herbicides and insecticides.

7. Pests of national importance such as locusts, rats and birds, which appear in cyclic patterns, cover vast areas and cause serious losses to crops would need special provisions in future.

Levels in Environmental Medias

The available data is quite limited, poor and in most cases lack mainly important details. Further most of the data was done for personal interest or following specific incident. There no national plan for monitoring or research activities. Most of the available information was obtained from unpublished sources, some from local publications or local reports and few from papers published in international journals. The available data is mainly related to the category of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) from pesticides and other persistent chemical groups. Based on the above the obtained data was fragmented and difficult to compare in most cases, but for the purpose of this report the summary table (table 5) was attempted to give quick overview of levels in the Sudanese environment.

Table 5, Summary of the levels (ppb) of POPs in the Sudanese environment.

Compartment\ chemical

Intentional POPs pesticidesa Unintentional POPs(dioxins, furans & PCBs)

DDT or metabolites

Heptachlor orheptachlor epoxide

aldrin diedrin HCH

Soil ND-5530 ND-1000 ND-560 ND-2.21

ND-20

NDA

surface water c 0.01-4.05b 0.04-5.5b 0.02-0.05 ND NDAGround water c ND ND ND ND ND NDAMarine water ND-350 ND-4500 NDA NDA ND NDASea sediments ND ND NDA NDA ND NDAAir NDA NDA NDA NDA NDA NDAFishes 270-16000 NDA NDA NDA NDA NDABirds 50-5560 NDA NDA 70-

5500NDA

Cotton seeds 20-4000 NDA NDA NDA NDA NDASorghum 3-120 NDA NDA NDA NDA NDAWheat 20-2160 NDA NDA NDA NDA NDAFruits &vegetables

ND-70 NDA NDA NDA NDA NDA

Animal milk 10-109000 30-1280 10-30 ND-120

NDA

Animal fats 470-1210 ND ND ND NDAHuman milk 8-71830 40-3250 2-470 2-

480NDA

Human blood (occupationally exposed)

10-2010 1280 (average) 10 (average)

10-384 34-120

NDA

Human blood 4-618 1-170 NDA ND-82 ND- NDA

(general population)

92

a The POPs pesticides mentioned in the table where the only ones which were studied in the Sudan.b Total metabolites.c Excluding water sources near highly contaminated storage areas (Qurashi pesticide store).NDA: No data available.ND: Not detected.For a comprehensive review of the pesticides levels in various environmental compartments see the relevant consultancy reports of the POPs national implementation plan (HCENR, 2005).

Comment and analysis Most of the research activities were done following specific incident, or for

personal interest of the scientist involved. There is no strategic research plan whether at the national or institutional level. The research done so far is very limited, sporadic with many gaps either in the

topic or the area covered. Most research activities executed fall within the pesticide category only, research

on other chemical groups is currently lacking as well as there is no future plans to cover such area at national, institutional or personal levels.

The distribution of pesticide residues in the various environmental compartments received the lion share of the research done though it is incomplete and lack many important details.

Specific environmental compartments such as soil, human blood and milk as well food received much of these efforts.

Little or no research was done to study environmental fate, trends in human and the environment.

The findings of many of these research efforts were published in local reports, thesis, proceedings of local meetings and seminars, therefore they are of limited access to analyzers, policy makers or international community.

Most of the studies were done in 1980’s and are highly accredited due to the availability of best analytical instruments and quality assurance at that time. However methodologies followed in some of the later studies although quite acceptable but were executed with old equipments of low sensitivity and capacity and therefore they might underestimate the residue levels in the analyzed samples. This could be attributed to economic and political sanction placed against the country.

The fact that there is no national strategic plan caused overlapping of many of these research efforts and some degree of repetitions.

Levels detected based on these fragmented studies were not high compared to other developing countries.

Suggested measures to improve the situation

Setting of national and strategic plan for continuous monitoring of hazardous chemical residues in various environmental compartments;

Similarly a national plan for research should set forward and follow the strategic goals of the whole country and research activities should serve the specific goals set-out in the development plan;

Laboratories should equipped with advanced research facilities and including necessary equipments, trained staff, good access to international literature and data bases as well as validated methodologies;

Training and availability of technical and logistic support to monitoring activities which adhere to the endorsed monitoring plans;

Following integrated pest management program utilizing all available methods in integrated manner to reduce the use of pesticides in various sectors;

Similarly releases of other hazardous chemicals in the environment have to be managed and reduced to the minimum;

Enforcement of laws and regulations as well as other guidance in area of chemical safety during handling and use;

Awareness raising in the whole community addressing the hazards of chemicals and how the humans and environment can be protected.

Application of pesticides and exposed population in various sectorsVarious methods of application were known in the Sudan; however some methods greatly dominate the use. The common methods can be listed below;

Mixing grains with protectants of low mammalian toxicity to control stored products pests.

Baiting for the control of locusts, grasshoppers and rodents. Dusting for the control of agricultural and public health pests (restricted use). Fumigation for the control of stored products pests, seeds and goods moving

through ports. Granular application for the control of soil and seedling pests. Treatment of water for the control of aquatic weeds, disease vectors (snails) and

ectoparasites of animals (dipping). Seed-dressing against soil and seed borne pests and diseases using various crude

and sophisticated equipment and devices. Spraying of liquid preparations by manual and motorized equipment, tractor

mounted sprayers (herbicides) and aerial application for the control of pests of field crops and migratory pests.

Aerosols.Since insecticides has great health concern, it may be of great value to elaborate

more in their quantities used, method and time of application in various sectors and exposed human population. This information is summarized in table 21 and elaborated in the following sub-titles;

Table 21; Season and method of application commonly used in various sectors dealing with pesticides.

Expected

exposed peopleTime of application

Method of application

Total insecticides (Liters or Kg)

Sector/insecticides

Loading/ mixing, residents,

consumers of cotton oil and

products

Aug-Dec or Jan

Air (cotton & wheat), Knapsack (vegetables)

4995752Irrigated cotton scheme

Workers/farmers and consumers

Aug-Oct or Nov-

Feb

Knapsack sprayers

482875Local market (vegetables)

Workers/farmers AugTractor mounted

77060Sugarcane

workersJul-SeptTractor mounted

52275Rain fed (sorghum+sesame)

workersSept-Jan/Feb

Vehicle mounted, personal operated or air

926100PPD (locust+other national pests)

Workers and residents

Augt-Jan/Feb

Mostly Knapsack sometime vehicle mounted sprayer or other personal operated machine*

231906Public health

Irrigated cotton schemes (mainly cotton)The application of pesticides in cotton is done based on regular survey of pest

level and under direct supervision of plant protection department. Aerial application was adopted since the sixties of the last century. Due to economic and practical reasons the aerial application is done without any care to axis of wind direction. Farmers’ villages and seasonal workers camps were located within the area and not far from cotton fields where exposure to pesticide drift is unavoidable. Irrigation canals which represent the major source of drinking water to farm animals as well as significant portion of human residents (as primary or secondary source) were scattered in the area and in many cases at an average of five meters buffer zone from cotton fields. These canals represent a second

source of exposure to farmers and other villagers. Currently cotton received an average of 3-4 sprays per season as mentioned earlier.

VegetablesThe increased importance of vegetables as alternative cash crop to farmers led to

significant expansion of their cropped area with associated increase in pest complexity and urgent need or chemical intervention. Application of pesticides in vegetable crops was significantly increased favored by their high economic value. Vegetables received an average of 17% of all imported OPs. Its share in other types of pesticides was similarly high. Vegetables currently received an average of 3-5 sprays per season. The major problem in vegetable crops is the meager government control. Farmers themselves analyze the pest situation and decide for control measures needed. They decide the type of pesticide to be used, its dosage rate, method and time of application..etc. Farmers normally used knap sack sprayers for application and care little about personal protection, decontamination of body and spray equipments. Many of them eat, drink, smoke or snuff during application. Minimum attention is given for reentry intervals and safety period and therefore many cases of farmers or consumer poisoning were reported.

Public HealthPublic health workers and public also get fare share of exposure to pesticides

which were used as adulticide or larvicide of mosquitoes, the vector of malaria pathogen. Other vectors of humans and/or animal diseases such as sand fly tsetse fly …etc were also subject to control operations. The important exposed population includes the malaria control workers and residents. Although the control operations in this sector are under government control, yet some workers perform the application of pesticides with minimum precautionary measures of personal protection and/or proper body and equipment decontamination procedures. Previous work indicated a depressed cholinesterase activity of various types of workers involved in mosquito control campaigns.

Plant Protection Directorate (locust and other national pests):Plant protection directorate (PPD) is the federal body responsible for the control

of desert locust and other national pests. Beside this it also host the pesticide registrar office with its director general being the registrar of pesticides in the country. PPD has its own team which involved in the control of desert locust and other national pests. Although personal protection equipments were made available to the working team, yet many workers do not follow the correct procedure and are quite careless in using protective measures. The hot weather conditions make protective clothes uncomfortable. Previous work indicated a depressed cholinesterase activity among various categories of workers.

Human Poisoning by PesticidesThe work done in this issue is limited to few sporadic reports on poisoning cases. Even these reports were incomplete, poor and limited to pesticides only. On the other hand reports were completely lacking in case of industrial chemicals. All cases reported were confined to acute poisoning while no reports or studies on chronic or sub-chronic

poisoning. Until recently, poisoning by pesticides or other chemicals attracted little public or medical attention. Poisoning may sometimes goes unrecognized, undiagnosed or unreported and hence the registration of poisoning cases is very poor (Alindi, unpublished; Elzorgani et al., 1993). The only partially documented cases can be extracted from the record of the National Chemical Laboratories of the Ministry of Health where samples of food stuff and sometimes biological samples were sent for laboratory diagnosis and evidence. However it had been quoted by the laboratory authority that preliminary investigation and tackling of the poisoning incidents is also poor. In most cases the consumed food is sent without biological samples from the victims such as; blood, urine, vomitus..etc. Postmortem examination in cases of death is rarely done for social believes and habits. Cases of wrong sampling sometimes happen and as a result laboratory analysis may be not be in consistent with observed symptoms. Sometimes cases were treated locally and local authority does not seek any further analysis especially if cases are mild. Below (table 21) are excerpts of the reported poisoning cases (Alhindi, 1985; Elzorgani et al.,1993) where pesticides are involved; these are the proven cases where laboratory analysis is consistent with the observed symptoms.Table 21. The reported poisoning cases due to pesticides (1958-1991).No. Date Place Victims

NoDeaths Pesticide Food type

1 1958 Not recorded

8 Unknown Arsenic water

2 1970 Tong 13 5 Zinc phospide

Dura

3 1970 White Nile

13 5 Torbidan Unknown

4 1979 Elobied 13 4 Aldrin Gorrasa (wheat)

5 1980 Nyala unknown Unknown Endrin Cake (wheat)

6 1981 Gadaref 4 3 Endosulfan fish7 1881 Gabel

Mara30 Unknown Endrin Tea (sugar)

8 1982 Elobeid 22 Unknown Endrin Bread9 1983 Gadarif Unknown Unknown Endosulfan Wheat bread

10 1983 Rufaa 100 Unknown Endosulfan Wheat bread

11 1984 Marawi 23 Unknown Endosufan Hilumur (drura))

12 1984 Elobied 2 2 Endosulfan Dura

13 1984 Wau unknown Unknown Endosulfan Assida(Dura)

14 1985 Mahmya unknown 6 Endosulfan Kisra(Dura)15 1985 Shuak Unknown Unsown Endosulfan Dura

16 1985 Domer unknown Unknown Endosulfan Kisra (Dura)

17 1985 Elobeid 6 1 unknown Unknown18 1955 Dongola Unknown Known Aldrin+thiram wheat

19 1987 Marawi 10 Unknown Endosulfan Kisra (Dura)

20 1988 Kenana 4 Unknown Dieldrin water21 1991 Elabydia 250 31 Endosulfan Dura22 1991 Dongola 13 3 Endosulfan Asida (dura)

Source: National Chemical Laboratories of the Ministry of Health; Al Hindi, 1985; Elzorgani et al.,1993.The following conclusion can be drawn from the data above

• Cases are mostly caused by organochlorine insecticides (Endosulfan, Aldrin, Dieldrin & Endrin);

• Endrin has been banned since 1965 due to high toxicity to agricultural workers in cotton fields, but still responsible for incidences in the eighties;

• Aldrin and Dieldrin have also recently been banned due to international concern of their persistence in the environment;

• Endosulfan is still in use for cotton pests (accounts for 40-60% of the annual spray) but has been greatly misused;

• The majority of poisonings occurred in the north and western part of the country where there in no intensive use;

• Contamination of food was deliberately for officially unintended usage, contamination during transportation or dressed seeds.

• There is no authority responsible for undertaking regular toxicovigiance to identify threats to the community.

Animal poisoningDocumented cases include farm animals and fishes. As mentioned by Elzorgani et al (1993) reports and documentation of farm animal poisoning in Gezira scheme, where aerial spraying of pesticides is heavely practiced for more than four decades, are very poor as the administration of the scheme accept no responsibility of compensation and farmers are warned to keep their animals out of the treated area. Their report mentioned that cases of animal poisoning were very common as a result of direct exposure to spray or grazing on treated crops. Further the seen of floating dead fishes in canal water of irrigated schemes following aerial spraying with of chlorinated insecticides, particularly enodsulfan and endrin is very common. In 1957 the application of DDT in the Blue Nile for control of mideges resulted in considerable fish mortality (Brown et al., 1961; Elzorgani et al., 1993). Other cases of mass fish poisoning due to un identified organochlorine insecticide were reported (Abdel Aziz, 1975).Resistance to pesticides:

This topic was extensively reviewed by Bashir (1997). According to this paper, the phenomenon of resistance to pesticides was studied in Sudan in four major cotton

pests; Bemisa tabaci, Aphis gossypii, Earias inulana (Boisd) and Podagrica punticolis. The resistance of field strains of B. tabaci to seven insecticides including DDT was studied in the growing season of 1981/1982. The results reported slight resistance to DDT which ranks among the last group of tested chemicals (Dittrich and Ernst, 1983). Seven subsequent studies were conducted by the Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC) and University of Gezira on B. tabaci resistance to pesticides. Cotton aphid was known as a late season pest in cotton. It gains importance in 1987 when severe infestation occurred throughout the season. Some authors attributed this to the successful control and removal of the competitive B. tabaci and J. lybica and to the suppression of the natural enemies through the use of broad-spectrum and persistent pesticides (Bashir, 1997). The first study on the resistance of this pest was done in 1988 followed by two later studies. The Third pest is the spiny boll worm which was reported as important pest of cotton in 1908 in the Zeidab scheme (King, 1908). By 1976 it was spread allover the cotton growing areas (Eltayeb, 1976). The first work on resistance to this pest was reported in 1984 by Azer, (1984) who studied the susceptibility of this pest to three insecticides, including DDT, through four generations of larval selection. He reported that the insect started to develop resistance to these pesticides in the third and forth generations. DDT ranked the second in susceptibility. A later study on this pest was done by Mohamed et al., (1993) who also studied the resistance of cotton flea beetle. On the other side the use of DDT was still authorized for public health purposes, although was under consideration by the National Pesticide Council (NPC). Application of DDT in this sector is under the authority of the National Malaria Control Program (NMCP) and criteria for selecting a geographical area for indoor application of DDT are; malaria endemicity and vector susceptibility. The timing of application depends on malaria endemicity, season (more vector during rainy season), and availability of budget. Resistance and susceptibility of vectors of human diseases to DDT was studies and monitored regularly by the National Administration for Malaria, Schistosomiasis and Leishmaniasis (NAMSL), Federal Ministry of Health (MOH). According to July 2004 report of the NAMSL, monitoring of resistance to DDT is carried out regularly all over the country. The standard WHO adult susceptibility test kit and methods were used. Four practical doses are used for insecticides under use in Sudan; DDT (4%), malathion (5%), fenitrothion (1%),deltamethrin (0.05%) and permethrin (0.75%). A total of 65 sentinel sites representing the various epidemiological strata in 16 states of northern Sudan (the remaining 10 states are excluded for security reason) are regularly monitored every three years. According to the NAMSL report of July 2004 the malaria vector (Anopholes arabiensis) is still susceptible (mortality range; 41-100%) to DDT in 16 states of northern Sudan (tested by the WHO standard procedure and test kits).

Effects on non-target organismsAs in other areas few fragmented studies were done in this area for personal interest of some researchers or following specific accident. There are no plans of monitoring such effects. The non-target organisms studied include mainly arthropods such as pollinators and natural enemies. Toxicities to such organisms were reported under field or

experimental plots or in the laboratory (Kabashi et al., 2003; Fadlelmoula, 2005; Mabior, 2000). Studies on movement in the environmentThis area have not been touched by researchers except one study which was done on the short range movement of contaminants (some pesticides) from Qurashi pesticide store, Hasahesa (Babiker,1998).

Studies on the metabolic fate and biological effects This area have not been touched by researchers except few studies conducted on the fate of C14 DDT on fishes, birds, plants (cotton and vegetables) and rats (Elhabieb et al., 1995; Abbas, 1997). The first author looked at uptake, distribution and metabolism of C14 DDT in the fish Oreochromis niloticus. This fish had been exposed to 0.05 ppm of C14 DDT in water over a three weeks period. The result showed a rapid uptake of this insecticide and the labelled material was distributed in the different organs. The highest concentration was found in the liver (31.05 mg/Kg) while the lowest concentration was found in the muscles (0.191-0.836 mg/Kg). The amount of radioactivity in the alimentary canal ranged from 2.123- 8.487 mg/Kg and in the brain there is a build-up of 1.09-21.479 mg/Kg. The fish was able to metabolize the p,p DDT into p,p-DDE and p,p-TDE. About 80% of the insecticide was found as p,p-DDE. The concentration of p,p-TDE was found in the alimentary canal, while the concentration of DDE was found in the muscles. All the three compounds (p,p DDT, p,p-DDE and p,p-TDE) were found in th aquarium water. The second author (Abbass, 1997) studied the fate of C14 DDT in the domestic fowl. Her study was focussed on the distribution of DDT and its various metabolites in the different tissues and organs of this domestic chicken. Sirag et al (1999) studied the relationship between some organochlorines (DDT, HCH and heptachlor) and an oranophosphorus pesticides (chlorpyrifos) and the occurrence of certain neurological symptoms. They reported that DDE accounts for 64% of total blood DDT. No correlation was found between the concentration of the identified pesticides and body weight, age, duration of exposure and occupation. Attempts to correlate the concentration of DDT with occurrence of some neurological symptoms such as chronic head ache and tremor did not reveal any significant correlation. The study concluded that; DDT should not be blamed alone, but also other pesticides for harmful effects on humans. DDT use for vector and pest control should be re-evaluated taking in consideration its ecological impact. The spray-men were identified as the high risk group who should be protected by protective clothing suitable for hot climate. Other ChemicalsChemicals Import:

Sudan dose not produce chemicals but the amount imported is rapidly increasing as shown in the following table:

Chemicals unit 2004 2003 2002M. Ton

Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity

Medicines & Value 111770 79769 65202

Pharmaceuticals Products Organic & Inorganic Chemicals

Value 98346 70359 57562

Perfumes & Cosmetics

29559 16663 20985 17368 19272 10723

Manufactured Fertilizers

29612 130223 20011 131086 18191 127572

Insecticides 6833 1705 4630 2666 1889 1066Explosives 5505 2545 4493 2306 2001 635Tanning & Dying Materials

10907 9185 7061 8098 5124 6867

Others 33155 23990 37216327487 231298 206457

Source: Statistical Year Book for The Year 2004

Chemical LegislationsLegal instruments required to manage all aspects of chemicals in the Sudan are far from being sufficient or efficient. Legislation addressing chemicals are contained in different instruments, the most important of direct relevance are the Pesticides and Plant Protection Materials Act, 1994; the Food additives Regulations, 1977; the Environmental Protection Act, 2001; the Ozone Layer Depleting Substances Regulations; and the Pharmacy and Poison Act, 1963.It is worth mentioning that the chemicals fertilizers, industrial chemicals and consumer chemicals are not covered by any legislation. Food additives are regulated through the Food Additives Regulations. The Ministry of Health issues a selected list of items, based on the decisions of JECFA and it is regularly reviewed and amended. Again this instrument suffers from the common weakness of finance and follows up facilities. The Environment Protection Act is an umbrella legislation delineating the necessary polices and guidelines for the protection and improvement of the environment. It supports other acts pertaining the pollution control. As such, it is involved in all aspects of chemical management.The Ozone Layer Depleting Substances Regulation, regulate the import and use of chemicals in accordance with Vienna Convention and Montreal Protocol. Imports of all products containing ozone layer depleting substances are prohibited. The Pharmacy and Poisons Act partly covers some industrial chemicals. This act dates back to 1963 and is currently being reviewed and amended. It is however strongly advised that a separate legislation governing the industrial chemicals should immediately set forth.

Health and Environmental Impact of Chemicals:

There are many problems associated with chemical production, trade and use in the country. World wide it is estimated that chemical exposure at work alone is responsible for about 4% of all deaths from cancer. Many studies showed that the chemical pollution of the environment has long-term effects on human life. It is therefore essential that chemicals manufacture, use, storage, transport and disposal should be controlled. Recently there are international and national growing interest to reduce chemicals adverse effects in human life and their impact in the environment. In Sudan only the status of chemical pollution in Sudanese water (marine, surface, and groundwater); food poisoning; hazardous wastes; occupational health and accidents; and air pollution has recived a small degree of concern.Surveyed data about pollution of Sudan's coast line of the Red Sea revealed that:- The degree oil spreading and pollution along the Sudanese coast is still not so serious.- The most polluted area is the harbor due to the direct discharge of oil from the power

station, shipping activities and the oil terminal.Surface water comprises the River Nile and its tributaries, wades, dams and irrigated canals were generally free from pollution. However, eminent threat from increase use of fertilizer, pesticides application and miss use and some industrial activities cannot be ignored in the future. Regular monitoring is lacked. Groundwater (surface wells and boreholes) in some parts of the country have high concentration with certain elements such as sulphate, sodium, fluorides and nitrates which present as natural compounds of the groundwater. However, the authority to shut down the wells and boreholes in which such elements exceed the seted limits. Food contamination with chemicals, especially for residue, is not well monitored within the country. Only information available are those for sporadic cases of poisoning by pesticides and datura seeds.Hazardous wastes of real concern are pesticides, industry and biomedical activities. Some studies reveal the presence of small quantities of analytical and confiscated chemicals at Custom custody. The wastes, which need a prompt action, are the huge quantities of stockpiles and obsolete pesticides and the asbestos wastes. Health problems related to production, import or uses of chemicals are dealt with in general patients hospitals and clinics. No separate specialized clinic or centres are established in the country.

Dioxins and Furans (PCDD/PCDF) are toxic compounds and act as endocrine disruptors and immune suppressors. An adverse effect of PCDD/PCDF includes e.g. developmental neurotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, immunotoxicity, endometriosis and cancer.

Figure 1: Shows their sources, environmental transport and major human exposure pathways

Atmosphere

Animals

PlantInhalation

Combustion sourcesThermal sourcesIndustrial Processes

Ingestion of vegetables

ChemicalsProducts

Water/Coast/Ocean

Ingestion of meat and diary products

Ingestion of seafood

Environmental Transport Human Exposure

Fish/shellfish

Residues, Disposal, Dumps, Hot Spots Land

PCDD/F Sources

Atmosphere

Animals

PlantInhalation

Combustion sourcesThermal sourcesIndustrial Processes

Combustion sourcesThermal sourcesIndustrial Processes

Ingestion of vegetables

ChemicalsProductsChemicalsProducts

Water/Coast/Ocean

Ingestion of meat and diary products

Ingestion of seafood

Environmental Transport Human Exposure

Fish/shellfish

Residues, Disposal, Dumps, Hot SpotsResidues, Disposal, Dumps, Hot Spots Land

PCDD/F Sources

The quantities of dioxin and furans releases from all categories according to inventory conducted by Sudanese team under the POPs enabling project are summarized in the below table:

Cat Source Categories Annual Releases (g TEQ/a)

Air Water Land Products Residues Total %

1 Waste Incineration 0.203 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.203 0.02

2 Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metal Production

5.612 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.1 6.712 0.68

3 Power Generation and Heating

24.133 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 24.133 2.43

4 Production of Mineral Products

0.214 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.214 0.02

5 Transportation 0.178 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.178 0.02

6 Uncontrolled Combustion Processes

345.240 0.000 52.409 0.000 535.6 933.249 94.11

7 Production of Chemicals and Consumer Goods

0.000 0.000 0.000 23.992 0.000 23.992 2.42

8 Miscellaneous 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.00

9 Disposal/Landfills 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 2.9 2.9 0.29

10 Identification of Potential Hot-Spots

1-9 Total 375.6 0.0 52.4 24 539.6 991.6

% 37.88 0.00 5.29

An estimated 991.6 g TEQ of PCDD/PCDF was released into the environments of Sudan in 2003. Uncontrolled combustion processes had the largest impact with an emission of 933.3 g TEQ/a, which is 94.1% of total emission. Within this category the main contributing subcategories were uncontrolled waste burning with an estimated emission of 802.5 g (81.0% of total emission), followed by forest fires (98.3 g; 9.9% of total releases) and open burning of impacted agricultural residue (28.8 g; 2.9%).

Other sources contributing to the total emission in the percent range were from category 3 household heating and cooking (28.6 g; 2.9%) and from category 7 the leather production (23.8 g; 2.4%). Point sources with potential locally high emissions and therefore with potential impact on the human heath are e.g. metal production, leather industry and hot spots. For example three small enterprises emit an estimated 5 g TEQ/a directly “to the neighbourhood” by open burning of cables. The releases to the 5 compartments/media – air, water, land, residues and products – were assessed. According to the toolkit approach, the main emission vectors were to residues (539.6 g; 54.4% of total releases) and air (375.6 g; 37.9% of total releases) with minor releases to land (52.4 g, 5.3% of total releases), product (24.0 g; 2.4% of total releases) and water (0.01 g; 0.0% of total releases)

International CommitmentsThree international conventions are important in pesticides and chemical management; Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm conventions. These conventions provide life-cycle (integrated) approach to chemicals management. They been have developed based the paragraph 49 of chapter 19 of Agenda 21,5 adopted at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992. The paragraph, emphasized the importance of the life-cycle approach by stating that Governments, through cooperation with relevant international organizations, should consider adopting polices based among other things on the life-cycle approach to chemicals management covering manufacturing, trade, transport, use and disposal and that they should undertake concerted activities to reduce risks from toxic chemicals taking into account the entire life cycle of the chemicals. Further in 2002, representatives at the World Summit on Sustainable Development set a goal of ensuring the sound management of chemicals worldwide by 2020. As an important milestone towards achieving that goal and towards ensuring a coherent approach to chemicals management at all levels, Governments and stakeholders have developed the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM), which was adopted by the International Conference on Chemicals Management at its first session, in February 2006. Below is a summary of the key provisions of the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm conventions.

A. Basel Convention The Basel Convention establishes a written prior informed consent (PIC) procedure to control the transboundary movement of hazardous chemicals and wastes. The Convention was adopted in 1989 and entered into force in

5 Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3(14 June 1992, vol. I, Resolutions adopted by the Conference (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.93.I.8 and corrigendum), resolution 1, annex II.

1992. As of March 2006, the Convention had 168 contracting Parties. The Convention provides technical support to help countries manage and dispose of such wastes in an environmentally sound manner and to reduce their generation. In the first decade after its entry into force, work under the Convention focused primarily on developing a global system of control on transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and criteria for their environmentally sound management.

The obligations of Parties to the Convention are to report specified information to the Secretariat; build the necessary infrastructure and facilities to identify and dispose of wastes in an environmentally sound manner; minimize waste generation and the export of waste; control waste exports on a shipment-by-shipment basis through the PIC procedure; monitor the effects of hazardous waste management on human health and the environment, develop and use low-waste technologies; and – for those with the means to do it – to assist other countries in developing and strengthening their infrastructure and capacity to manage hazardous wastes.

B. Rotterdam ConventionThe Rotterdam Convention was adopted in September 1998. The objective of the Convention is to promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts among Parties in the international trade in certain hazardous chemicals in order to protect human health and the environment from potential harm and to contribute to their environmentally sound use by facilitating information exchange about their characteristics, by providing a national decision-making process on their import and export, and by disseminating those decisions to Parties.

The Convention was developed based on the voluntary PIC procedure established jointly by FAO and UNEP in 1992. The Convention entered into force in February 2004 and, as of 19 January 2006, the convention had 102 Parties. FAO and UNEP jointly provided the secretariat during the interim PIC procedure and entry into force. The joint Secretariat was developed to benefit from synergies between the work on pesticides in FAO and that on industrial chemicals in UNEP.

The main obligations of the Convention Parties are to notify the Secretariat of their final regulatory actions to ban or severely restrict chemicals; propose severely hazardous pesticide formulations causing problems under the conditions of use in developing countries and countries with economies in transition; provide import decisions for the chemicals listed in Annex III; respect the import decisions of importing Parties for chemicals listed in Annex III; control the export of chemicals that are banned or severely restricted domestically; strengthen national infrastructures and institutions so as to implement the Convention effectively; assist other countries in developing the infrastructure and capacity necessary to manage chemicals and to implement the Convention; promote chemical safety and awareness; and participate in the exchange of information on those chemicals that are

banned or severely restricted and also on severely hazardous pesticide formulations.

C. Stockholm ConventionThe Stockholm Convention aims to protect human health and the environment from POPs and to reduce or eliminate production and use of POPs and releases of POPs from unintentional production and from stockpiles and wastes. The Stockholm Convention was adopted in 2001 in response to calls for global action to reduce the dispersal of these chemicals into the environment, sometimes to places far from their source. It came into force in May 2004 and, as of 31 January 2006, it had 118 contracting Parties. The Convention currently lists 12 chemicals or groups of chemicals. These comprise pesticides, industrial chemicals and unintentionally produced by-products. Eight of these chemicals are also listed in Annex III to the Rotterdam Convention. The Stockholm Convention establishes criteria and procedures for considering the listing of additional chemicals.

The main obligations of the Parties to the Convention are to eliminate or restrict the intentional production, use, import and export of POPs; reduce or eliminate releases of unintentionally produced POPs; reduce or eliminate POPs releases from stockpiles and wastes; report on the measures taken to implement the Convention; provide data on production, import and export of POPs; promote information exchange, awareness and education about the Convention; support research on listed and candidate POPs and their alternatives; support national activities to implement the Convention; and assist other countries in improving their capacity to implement the Convention. Following its third meeting, in 2007, the Conference of the Parties to the Convention will be convened biennially.

Sudan obligations in these conventions;As specified by the Environment Protection Act (2001) Sudan is committed to comply with all relevant provisions of the multi environmental agreements, MEAs, signed, ratified, acceded or approved by the Sudanese government. As mentioned before three internationals conventions had relevance to pesticides and other hazardous chemicals; Basle, Rotterdam and Stockholm conventions. Below is a summary of Sudan position in the three conventions;

Table 4; Summary of Sudan obligations under the three chemical conventions.

Chemical Convention

Sudan position

Fulfilment of key obligations

Rotterdam Convention

Party since April 2004,

Sudan fulfilled all obligations regarding import responses for the 28 pesticides listed in annex three.

Failed to submit any import response regarding the 11 industrial chemicals, inter-ministerial committee was established to prepare the required responses with slow

progress.

Submitted only one notification about one pesticide (aldicarb) under voluntary procedure.

Appointed a DNA to act on behalf of the government.

No proposal for SHPF, or export notification yet.

Basle Convention

Ratified in 2006, the convention not yet entered into force to Sudan

No obligations yet

Stockholm Convention

The cabinet and the parliament approved the ratification, deposition of signature in the process.

No obligations yet

Main Challenges, Obstacles and the way forwardAs mentioned above Sudan is currently committed to the Rotterdam convention only, the other two will soon present further obligations upon becoming party. The main challenges and obstacles can be summarized in the following;

Legal and regulatory support;

1. Pesticide and Pest Control Products Act of 1994 provide a suitable instrument governing the use of pesticides and pest control products in the country and therefore can provide a tool for executing necessary obligations regarding pesticides; it might need some revisions or updated bylaws to accommodate obligations created by the relevant international conventions.

2. There is an urgent need to draft and adopt a law for industrial chemicals to fulfil all obligations required by the three conventions regarding this group of chemicals. The draft of interim bylaw based on the environmental law of 2001 need to be revised and adopted to provide some legal background for decisions on such chemicals.

3. There is an urgent need to adopt an umbrella law for chemical to synergise and integrate the work on relevant obligations regarding chemicals subject to international conventions.

Administrative arrangements;

1. Administrative arrangements had to be made to provide support for necessary decisions before legal support was put in place.

2. The existing administrative systems had to be empowered and supported with trained and qualified staff as well as necessary facilities;

Access to information, information exchange and coordination;

1. As mentioned earlier many of key provisions of these conventions require good access to information as well as an efficient mechanism of information exchange and quick dissemination of decisions between all relevant stakeholders within the country.

2. Good coordination between all stakeholders and syncronisation of efforts for sound management of chemicals.

Cooperation at regional and international levels;

Many of the activities can be executed through technical assistant from the region or from the international community. All of the three conventions call for provision of technical support to developing countries and countries with economies in transition. Therefore there is an urgent need to make use of such provisions.

Recommendations:1- Establishment of sound chemicals management system involving all concerned

parties from government, agricultural workers, industry, research institutes, non-governmental organizations and academia through multi-stakeholder committee.

2- Overarching legislation should be developed or at least develop legislation to fill the gaps which are identified in the following areas:

Industrial and consumer chemicals – legislation which per se: their importation, use, packaging, labelling…..etc.

Hazardous products Fertilizers Sited standards and acceptable limits for chemicals release in

environmental media (including water, air, soil) and in food and consumer goods

Compliance scheme to monitor, enforce and promote observance of legislative provisions

3- building the capacities and capabilities of the institutions concerned with chemicals management. This should include:

education and training and awareness availability of resources needed sufficient safety information about chemicals (e.g. MSDS and labeling) development of infrastructure for regulatory system (e.g. accredited

laboratories) development of PRTR

4- development of awareness programme which cover all health and environmental impact of chemical and their judicious and safe use

5- establishment of poison control centres with sufficient clinical and analytical capacities in addition to functions of treatment and prevention

6- incorporation of the provisions of the international conventions in which the country is party, in policy and programmes of chemicals management

7- establishment of pesticides use surveillance and monitoring programme to obtain information on use conditions and their impact on the environment

8- evaluation of obsolete and unwanted chemicals, especially obsolete pesticides and their environmental risks (inventory survey, and risk assessment)

9- establishment of mandatory or voluntary pesticide containers procedure10- development of monitoring programme for reduction of unintentionally produced

chemicals like dioxins and furans11- development of programme to remove use all electrical transformers and

capacitors which contain PCBs as cooling agents.

ReferencesAbbadi, K. H. (1974). Progress report on DDT residues in human milk in Gezira, Sudan, (unpublished).

Abbadi, K. H. (1980). Progress report on dieldrin residues in ground nut in Kordofan province, (unpublished).Abbadi, K. H. and Elzorgani, G. A. (1981). Residues of DDT in soil of the Sudan Gezira. 1st international congress for soil pollution and protection from pesticides residues, Zagazig University, Egypt. 22-28 August 1981.

Abbadi, K. H. (1979). Survey on cotton seed, cotton seed cake and cotton seed oil. (unpublished).

Abbas, E. A. (1997). Fate of DDT in domestic fowl. PhD. Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum.

Abdelbagi, A. O; Elmahi, M. A. and Osman, D. G. (2000). Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide residues in the Sudanese soils of limited or no pesticide use. Arab Journal of Plant Protection 18, 35-39.

Abdelbagi, A. O. Elmahi, A. M. And Osman, D. G. (2003). Organochlorine insecticides residues in Sudanese soil of intensive pesticide use and in surface soil of Qurashi pesticide store. U. of K. J. of Agric. Sci. 11: 59-68.

Abdelbagi, A. O., Elgailani, O. & Elskeikh, S. A. Ongoing PhD research, Facuty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum.

Abd Ellatif, A. M. (1993). Factors threating the marine and coastal environment of the Red Sea in the Sudan. Sudanese Environment Conservation Society (SECS), Khartoum.

Abdelatif, G. Abdelbagi, A. O. and Tagelsid, M. Ongoing PhD research, Institute of Environmental Studies, University of Khartoum.,

Abu Baker, O. A. (2005). Level and movement of the pesticide contaminants in the dangerous area of Port Sudan harbour and their impact on humans and aquqtic organisms. PhD thesis, Facuty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum.Ali, T. M. (2005). The potential of naturally occurring soil microorganisms in degrading endosulfan α, β and lindane; A case study of Qurashi pesticide store. M. Sc. Thesis, Facuty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum. Alhindi, A. M. (1981). NCL report (unpublished).

Alhindi, A. M. (1982). NCL report (unpublished).

Alhindi, A. M. and Sidra, M. (1982). NCL report (Unpublished). Alhindi, A. M. (1994). Food contamination, pesticide poisoning episodes and methods of sampling. Training Course on the use of Pesticides (in arabic), Khartoum, Sudan.

Altahir, M. O. Some organochlorine pesticide residues in Wad Medani vegetable market (unpublished).

Azer, R. E. (1984). Laboratory studies on the susceptibility of Erias insulana (Boisd) to different insecticides. M. Sc. Thesis, University of Khartoum.

Babiker, M. Y.(1998). Level and movement of some pesticides in Qurashi store area, Hasahesa province, Central Sudan. M. Sc. Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum.

Bashir, N. H. H. (1997). Cotton pest resistance in Sudan: Status Quo. In integrated pest management in vegetables, wheat and cotton in the Sudan: A participatory approach. Dabrowski, Z.T., (ed.). FAO/ Government of the Sudan. Cooperative project, GCP/SUD/025/NET, Wad Medani, Sudan. Pp 21

Brown, A. W, A. ; Makinley, D. J. Bedford, A. W. and Qutobadin, M. (1961). Insecticide operations againist chironomid midges along the blue Nile. Bull. Ent. Res. 4: 789-800.

Dabrowsky,Z. T. (1997). The impact of FAO/ARC pest management project on vegetables, wheat and cotton in the Sudan. In: integrated pest management in vegetables, wheat and cotton in the Sudan: A participatory approach. Dabrowski, Z.T., (ed.). FAO/ Government of the Sudan. Cooperative project, GCP/SUD/025/NET, Wad Medani, Sudan. Pp 25.

Dittrich, V. and Ernst, G. H. (1983). The resistence pattern of whitefly on Sudanese cotton. Mitteilung euder Deutschen Gesellschaft fur Allgemeine and Angewandte Entomo;ogie 4:96-97.

Elamin, E. M. (1997). The development of integrated pest management in the Sudan: A historical perspective. In: integrated pest management in vegetables, wheat and cotton in the Sudan: A participatory approach. Dabrowski, Z.T., (ed.). FAO/ Government of the Sudan. Cooperative project, GCP/SUD/025/NET, Wad Medani, Sudan. Pp 13

Elbashir, A. M. (1998). Organochlorine insecticides level s in human blood samples collected from residents in areas of limited and intensive insecticides use in the Sudan. M. Sc. Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum.

Elbashir, E. S. (1986a). Future cotton pest control strategies. In: Crop pest management in the Sudan. Elbashir, S., Eltigani, K. B., Eltayeb, Y. M. and Khalifa, H. (Eds.). Proceedings of a symposium held in Khartoum, Feb. 1978. Khartoum University Press, Khartoum, Sudan, pp 233-241.

Elbashir, E. S. (1986b). The package deal strategy of cotton pest control. In: Crop pest management in the Sudan. Elbashir, S., Eltigani, K. B., Eltayeb, Y. M. and Khalifa, H. (Eds.). Proceedings of a symposium held in Khartoum, Feb. 1978. Khartoum University Press, Khartoum, Sudan, pp 107-114.

Elbashir, S., Eltigani, K. B., Eltayeb, Y. M. and Khalifa, H. (1986). Crop pest management in the Sudan In: Crop pest management in the Sudan. Elbashir, S., Eltigani, K. B., Eltayeb, Y. M. and Khalifa, H. (Eds.). Proceedings of a symposium held in Khartoum, Feb. 1978. Khartoum University Press, Khartoum, Sudan, pp 434.

Elmahi, M.A.(1996). The distribution of some chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide residues in the Sudanese Soils. M. Sc. Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum.

Elgadi, M. (1991). Hasahesa Pesticide grave yard. Oxifam Report, Sudan.

Eltayeb, Y. M. (1976). Some aspects of the biology and control of the spiny bollworm (Erias insulana Boised.) in the Sudan. Gezera Agric. Res. Station, Wad Medani Sudan

Eltom, M. (1997). Residue of some organochlorine pesticides in human and animal milk in the Gezira area, Sudan. M. Sc. Thesis, University of Gezira.

Elzorgani, G. A. (1975). Residues of DDT in cotton seed after spraying with DDT and Torbidan, Pesticide Science, 6: 457-460.

Elzorgani, G. A. (1976). Residues of organochlorine insecticides in some fishes and birds in the Gezira of Sudan. Pesticide Science, 7: 150-152.Elzorgani, G. A. (1982). The status of DDT residues in Sudan. Progress report. Agric. Res. Corp., Wad Medani, Sudan.

Elzorgani, G. A. and Musa, A. (1976). Organochlorine insecticides in the blood of occupationally people in Sudan. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 16: 15-17.

Elzorgani, G. A. and Ahmed, M. M. (1981). Residues in cotton seed oil and cake resulting from the combined application of DDT and Dimethoate , IAEA TEC-DOC, 29, 243.

Elzorgani, G. A. and Ali, M. T. (1981). An indicator fish for monitoring DDT pollution in the Nile. The 3rd annual general meeting of the African Association of insect Scientist (AAIS), Khartoum.

Elzorgani, G. A., Abdullah, A. M. And Ali, M. E. T. (1979). Residues of insecticides in fishes in lake Nubia. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 22: 44-48.

Elzorgani, G. A., Alhindi, A. M., Osman, K. K. And Abbadi, K. H. (1993). Report on pesticides and their environmental hazards in Sudan. FAO contract service agreement.

Elzorgani, G. A.; Alamin, N. M. and Mohamed, I. A. (1994). A case study of Guarashi area, Hasahesa, Sudan. 4th International Conference, Environmental Protection is a Must, Alexandria, Egypt.

Guddoura, E. M., (1997). Sustainable integrated pest management and integrated services for vegetables and fruit farmers in the Sudan. In integrated pest management in vegetables, wheat and cotton in the Sudan: A participatory approach. Dabrowski, Z.T., (ed.). FAO/ Government of the Sudan. Cooperative project, GCP/SUD/025/NET, Wad Medani, Sudan. Pp 206-210.

King, H. H. (1908). Report on economic entomology, third report, Wellcome Res. Labs., 201-248.

Mohamed, H. A., Bashir, N. H. H. and Eltayeb, Y. M. (1993). Susceptibility of three insect pests of cotton to insecticides and mixtures. Insect Sci. Applic., 14 (2): 193-197.

Mohamed, I. A. (1995). A study on DDT residues in human milk in the Gezira. M. Sc. Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum.

Mohamed, I. A., Elzorgani, G. A. and Abdel Fattah., K. M. (1999). DDT residues in human milk in central Sudan, Sudan Journal of Agric. Res. 2:69-72.

Mukhtar, N. E.; Abdelbagi, A. O. and Tagelsid, M. Ongoing PhD research, Institute of Environmental Studies, University of Khartoum.,National Administration for Malaria, Shistosomiasis and Leishmaniasis (AMSL), Federal Ministry of Health. Draft questionnaire for reporting by parties that use DDT on the amount of DDT used, condition of such use and its relevance in disease management strategies (a three years reporting period; 1998-2002), report of July 2004.

PIC (1998). Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in the International Trade. Text and annexes. UNEP and FAO.

POPs (2001). Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). Text and annexes. UNEP and FAO.

Saad, A. (1975). Pesticide chemicals in the Sudan. National Council for Research

Technical Bulletin No. 1

Saad, A. (1991). Pesticide use in the Sudan: past , present and future. Workshop on the role of Sudanese Agrochemical Association (SAGA) in promoting safe and proper use of pesticides, Khartoum, Sudan. Sirag, M.A., Bruggmann, J., Edith, E., Mohamed, I.A., Eltom, M. S. (1999). Identification of concentration of organochlorine residues in blood of Sudanese workers at Gezira Agric. Scheme. University of Gezira report, Faculty of Medicine, 10 pp.

UNESCO National Commission (2000). Vulnerability of ground water resouces of the Sudan to pollution risks. Technical report.