PAPER 2: How did British society change 1939-75? THEME 2: Immigration

REVISION BOOKLET

PAPER 2 – THEME 2

Immigration

PAPER 2: How did British society change 1939-75? THEME 2: Immigration

What impact did WWII (1939-45) have on the British people?

WW2 led to many people meeting people from other cultures for the first time.

Americans GIs

American soldiers had a huge impact; about 3 million arrived

in the UK from 1942, many to rural areas. They were very

open and friendly and mixed with all groups, compared to the

class-conscious British.

They were especially popular with the girls! GIs were well paid

and were able to take British girls to the best clubs and restaurants. Around 80,000 British

women became “GI brides” and after the war emigrated to the USA.

There were tensions as well, with some local men and British servicemen saying “we don’t

like Yanks because they are over-sexed, over paid and over here”. This became apparent as

U.S soldiers were paid more than the British soldiers.

African American GIs

130,000 African Americans came to Britain. Although not class conscious, African Americans

suffered from harsh discrimination. Schools, cinemas, restaurants and many other ordinary

places were segregated.

Commonwealth Troops

Large numbers of Canadians, Australians, New Zealanders and Indians served in the British

forces, along with West Indians. They were usually warmly welcomed. Over 40,000

marriages between Canadians and British women took place. The 1948 British Nationality

Act gave British citizenship to members of Commonwealth countries.

Prisoners of War (POWs)

There were over 1,500 facilities which held prisoners. At its highest, the POW population

numbered 157,000 Italians and 402,000 Germans. POWs were generally treated well and

given the same food rations as the servicemen - and more than ordinary civilians in Britain.

They had access to medical care and paid wages (though low) for work done, much of it in

agriculture. At the end of the war around 25,000 Germans adopted Britain as their new

home.

Poles

Around 14,000 served in the RAF. At the end of the war Poland was technically free, but in

reality it was dominated by Russia, and so many Poles chose to settle in Britain - around

PAPER 2: How did British society change 1939-75? THEME 2: Immigration

120,000 in all. The Poles were generally popular in Britain and helped a lot when there was a

desperate shortage of workers after WW2. Their housing was often in militant camps and

former Prisoner of War camps. Many found they could be sacked with no compensation

because they were not British citizens.

What immigrants were living in Britain in 1945?

o Former POWs - many choosing to stay of their own free will. o Jews, Poles and other Europeans who had fled the chaos of wartime Europe. o Irish people, who formed the largest group in the UK.

After the war Britain desperately needed workers to help build houses and schools, and

work in the NHS and the transport system. Many came from Europe- but there was still not

enough.

1948: British Nationality Act

Impact of the Second World War

Positive Negative

What was this, and why was it so important?

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PAPER 2: How did British society change 1939-75? THEME 2: Immigration

Immigration from the Caribbean

Case study: Empire Windrush, 1948

A key moment in British history – the Windrush

was the first ship carrying Caribbean migrants

which was met by the newsreel cameras. It was

met by a small crowd wearing placards saying “Go

home!”. The significance of the Windrush was that

it first brought to public attention the arrival of

immigrants to Britain- and also highlighted how

some British people reacted negatively to them.

It must be remembered that there was no great rush of immigrants from the Caribbean

after Windrush. Main migration came in the 1950s. They were British citizens, many having

fought in the war, and had every right to settle in Britain.

“I first came to England during the war, in the RAF.

When I went back home there was no work so I

decided to come back. There was a boat coming

back, by the name of Windrush and it was only £28,

so I paid my fare and come back. I was in the war for

3 years came back in 1948 on the Windrush as the

opportunity for jobs in this country was better than

back home in Jamaica. After the end of the war, I got

demobbed, I had to go back home. Coming back to

England was quite pleasant, after I'd been before. I

didn't quite know what to expect. A lot of the other

passengers asked various questions, asking what to

expect, you know.”

Clinton Edwards

“I came here in 1948 my husband sent for me.

He and his brother came up a year before. I

reached here the 22nd June, it was a lovely

day, beautiful, and they were all at the dock

waiting for me. I think it was Tilbury, I was very

excited. the journey took 22 days, and that was

a very long time. We enjoyed the journey, I

was coming up to meet my husband, I was very

anxious to come and meet him, because when

he left we were just married, we got married

and he left the following day. Imagine how

exciting it was for me.”

Lucile Harris

How similar are the two sources in showing why people came to Britain on the Windrush?

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PAPER 2: How did British society change 1939-75? THEME 2: Immigration

While the Empire Windrush was on its way to London, a debate took place in Parliament.

Some MPs were against the Nationality Act 1948, and imagined Britain swamped with new

arrivals. Others stated that many passengers had fought for Britain, and deserved the right

to stay - the economy needed them, and they would not stay longer than a year.

Of the 236 passengers, 202 found jobs straight away - mainly with London Transport and the

NHS.

Why did the Caribbean immigration increase in the 1950s?

o By the late 1940s, unemployment in Jamaica and other islands was a major problem. Sugar trade (the main export) collapsed.

o A British government investigation into conditions in the Caribbean found poor housing, poor wages, poor healthcare and inadequate education for the majority of the population.

o In 1952 the USA cut back from 65,000 to 800 immigrants a year from the Caribbean. This was in contrast to the British Nationality Act 1948.

o In 1956 London Transport started a scheme in which they paid for the migrants’ boat fares, and the workers paid back gradually out of their earnings.

o Many people in the British Empire admired Britain. o Good education system o Around 10,000 West Indian troops had served in armed forces surviving WW2 –

they saw the jobs available after war. o Job availability in catering, NHS and transport. o Success of previous immigrants. Most immigrants sent money back to their

families. Having an emigrant worker in Britain was the sign of a prestige family, allowed them to buy items such as a fridge or motorcycle.

o In 1954 around 24,000 West Indians arrived in Britain. In 1955 it was 26,000; in 1958 it was 115,000. The rise was due to men bringing wives and families to join

them.

A British cartoon from 1961. What is the cartoonist’s

message?

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PAPER 2: How did British society change 1939-75? THEME 2: Immigration

Asian migration in the 1950s

The Nationality Act 1948 gave the right to live and work in Britain to millions in India. After

India gained independence in 1948, the country was split into two - India and Pakistan. This

led to extreme violence and many communities were badly affected. Some groups such as

Sikhs from the Punjab region sought refuge in Britain, many going to the West Midlands,

working in engineering.

1950s migration from Asia meant different countries, backgrounds and religions, e.g.:

Hindus from Gujarat, Sikhs from Punjab and Muslims form Pakistan.

Some Asian migrants were highly educated professionals or successful business people in

their home countries - others were rural labourers who had never seen a city.

Why did Kenyan Asians come to Britain in 1967?

Asians, mainly from India, had settled in East Africa since the 19th century. Many stayed and

became prosperous. Kenya was a British colony which gained independence in 1963 - over

100,000 Asians lived there.

The Kenyan government, led by Jomo Kenyatta, gave the

Asians a choice: either became Kenyan or remain British.

95,000 decided to stay British and kept the British passport.

There had often been resentment towards Asians in Kenya,

as they were generally more successful and had higher

incomes then most black Kenyans. In 1967 the government

stated that all non-Kenyan Asians were foreigners, and could

only stay and work on a temporary basis! Many fled to

Britain.

This became high profile. From 1967 1,000 Kenyan Asians

began to arrive in Britain every week, and TV cameras

greeted them. In all 20,000 Kenyans arrived until 1968, when the government put a limit on

how many could come. This immigration was controversial and in 1968 had political

consequences (see later section).

Why did Ugandan Asians come to Britain in the 1970?

“I will make you feel as if you are sitting on fire. Your main interest has been to exploit the

economy for years, and now I say to you all - GO!!” - Idi Amin President of Uganda, August

1972.

As with Kenya, Asians in Uganda had played a large part in building up its economy, and this caused resentment among Uganda’s black African population.

In 1972 Amin asked Great Britain for financial help, but it was refused.

PAPER 2: How did British society change 1939-75? THEME 2: Immigration

August 1972: Amin condemned the entire Asian population as “bloodsuckers” and issued a law expelling them! All 60,000 had to leave within 90 days! He believed that Great Britain would have to take them, and this was in retaliation for not giving Uganda aid.

He had a slight change of mind with the second law, which said all professionals (doctors, lawyers and teachers etc.) committed treason if they tried to leave!

Great Britain tried to negotiate, but failed. Britain gave Ugandan Asians a choice of an Indian or British passport. The majority chose Britain as it seemed to offer stability. Almost 27,000 Ugandans flew to Great Britain with nothing more than they could carry.

Why did people emigrate to Great Britain, 1939-75?

PUSH FACTORS – Get away from PULL FACTORS – Attracted to

PAPER 2: How did British society change 1939-75? THEME 2: Immigration

What were the experiences of immigrants in Britain?

As a general point, many immigrants found Britain cold, depressing and grey when they

arrived. They found the food dull and unappetising. Worst of all was the shock that the

British people that they admired so much were unwelcoming and hostile to them.

Housing

During the war, black soldiers had been greeted warmly

in many communities. But once coming to the country

after the war, they came face to face with racial

discrimination and what at the time was called the

“colour bar”.

It was common for boarding houses to put up a notice

saying “No blacks” or “No coloured”.

Most West Indians were intending to stay for only a

short time in Britain. Also banks/building societies would

not give new immigrants loans and mortgages, and you

had to have lived in Britain for 5 years before applying for

a council house. This led to immigrants renting low quality houses, mainly in the area that

had been bombed in the war within inner city areas. No one else wanted these and it was

exploited by high rents.

Immigrants quite rightly wanted to live near each other, leading to West Indian

communities in poverty stricken areas of London - Jamaicans in Brixton, and Barbadians in

Notting Hill - and outside London: Moss Side (Manchester), Handsworth (Birmingham) and

Chapel Town (Leeds).

Jobs

Most found it easy to find a job but many were over qualified for the job they were doing.

However, pay was better than that at home.

It was hard to gain promotion. Many black nurses were discouraged from gaining

qualifications. Many immigrants did not apply for the jobs they were qualified for as they

knew they would not be considered seriously.

There was opposition from trade unions and white colleagues saw them as a threat. In

1958 the TUC called a resolution, calling for an end to all immigrant workers coming into the

country. Immigrants were accused of cashing in on the benefits system, even though many

came to the country in the first place at the government’s request, because there was a

shortage of workers.

Signs such as this were common

until the Race Relations Acts of the

mid to late 60s. What could

historians learn from this picture?

PAPER 2: How did British society change 1939-75? THEME 2: Immigration

Leisure

Two thirds of West Indian immigrants were single young men who found the “colour bar”

affected their leisure time. Some pubs banned black drinkers. Instead, they went to

unlicensed drinking clubs which added to tensions between white and black residents.

It would be wrong to assume all people were discriminatory. As Ivan Weekes stated in 1955:

“People were not all the same - it gave me two things: HOPE and COMFORT.”

1958: The summer of violence

By 1958 there were over 200,000 people from the Commonwealth living in Britain. It was a

tiny percentage, and in many rural areas you might never see a “coloured person”. But in

Brixton or Notting Hill immigrants would be all around you. Violence occurred as:

There was an economic downturn

Jobs were fewer - some white people blamed immigrants for “taking their jobs”

A new gang culture was emerging among white youths such as the “Teddy Boys”

Nottingham

Black people felt increasingly unsafe walking around the

streets of Nottingham, as there were a number of attacks on them. On the 23rd of August

1958 fighting broke out between groups of white and blacks in the St Ann’s Well Road area.

One response to this violence was that the MPs for Nottingham called for an end to

immigration in Britain.

Notting Hill

Notting Hill had one of the largest West Indian communities in Britain. The right wing Union

Movement, a fascist organisation led by Oswald Mosley, had been involved in racist attacks

against Jewish immigrants in the 1930s. They set up an office in Notting Hill producing

leaflets, calling on people to:

“Take action now… Protect your jobs… Stop coloured immigration… Homes for white people…”

Leaflets even showed pictures of black people with spears entering Britain. In late August

1958, gangs of around 400 Teddy Boys launched two night attacks on black people and their

property. The black people received no protection until they fought back.

PAPER 2: How did British society change 1939-75? THEME 2: Immigration

The Murder of Kelso Cochrane

In May 1959, Kelso Cochrane from Antigua was stabbed to death in Notting Hill by 6 white

youths on his way home from a hospital appointment in Paddington. The police never

arrested the killers and were accused of not doing enough. 1200 people turned up at

Cochrane’s funeral to show their anger and sorrow.

Consequences

Violence was widely condemned and most British people were appalled by it. It was an

exceptional act that shocked and caused a stir in society. Many white people had protected

their black neighbours during the violence in 1958.

In interviews, almost all white and black people said positive things about each other.

Violence was blamed on a tiny minority of black people and white people intent on stirring hatred to reduce immigration.

The black community felt that the police had not protected them from violence.

Immigration became a political issue. The government was condemning violence yet limiting new Commonwealth immigration.

Racism needed tackling - and better relations did develop. The St Pancras Carnival was set up by Claudia Jones in 1959 - later to become the Notting Hill Carnival.

What was the Asian experience?

Many settled in textile towns, in areas like Yorkshire and Lancashire

By 1971, 10% of the population of Bradford was Pakistani

One of the Largest communities was Leicester - by 1981 nearly 25% of its population was from an Asian background

In some ways Asians experienced the same as Caribbean migrants.

BUT there were differences:

Whereas Caribbean immigrants regarded themselves as British, very few Asians did. They had lower expectations of Britain.

There was often a language barrier.

Many Asian immigrants kept links to their home country. Single men often went home to find a bride.

Many Asians kept themselves to themselves, which left them less exposed to abuse or discrimination.

Many Asians went into business such as owning shops or restaurants. Therefore, there was less discrimination at work and some became very successful - but many still remained poor.

PAPER 2: How did British society change 1939-75? THEME 2: Immigration

What was the political response to immigration?

This has been tricky for politicians, as they have to balance:

Needs of the economy and immigrant workers

Voters, as many were anti-immigration

Immigrants themselves needed protection of law

Preventing racial tensions

Government Measures 1962-1976

Name of Act What it changed

1948 British Nationality

Act

1962 Commonwealth

Immigrants Act

1965-66 Race Relations

Act and Race Relations

Board

1968 Commonwealth

Immigrants Act

1976 Racial Equality Act

PAPER 2: How did British society change 1939-75? THEME 2: Immigration

Did politicians help?

In the early 1960s the government seemed to be inactive towards the immigration

problems, or tried to discourage people from coming to the country.

In 1966 Roy Jenkins, the Home Secretary in the Labour government, announced that many

of the immigrants now in the country intended to live in Britain rather than stay a few years.

This would mean the country and the immigrants should work together to achieve

successful integration. At the same time, organisations such as CARD (Campaign Against

Racial Discrimination) was set up 1965.

Enoch Powell’s “Rivers of Blood” speech

This was a controversial moment in immigration history.

Despite government legislation, new Commonwealth immigration continued to rise, and it was no longer single people who wanted to stay but whole families.

The arrival of Kenyan Asians in 1967 had focused media and political attention on immigration again.

A far-right political party called the National Front was formed in 1967, and was dedicated to ending immigration and repatriating (sending home) all immigrants. The National Front was an extremist party and to a certain extent easy to dismiss

A British cartoon from 1962. What message

is the cartoonist giving?

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PAPER 2: How did British society change 1939-75? THEME 2: Immigration

its views. BUT it was less easy to ignore the views of well-respected politician Enoch Powell.

Powell’s “Rivers of Blood” speech about immigration ended his political career. He was sacked by the Conservative leader Edward Heath from the Shadow Cabinet.

But 300 of the 412 Conservative constituency associations stated Powell was a “brave prophet”.

In London, dock workers stopped work and marched through London in support of him.

The speech caused a mighty stir, and sorted opinion on either side of the government.

Extracts from Enoch Powell’s so-called “Rivers of Blood” speech, 1968

“A week or two ago I fell into conversation with a constituent, a middle-aged, quite ordinary

working man employed in one of our nationalised industries.

After a sentence or two about the weather, he suddenly said: "If I had the money to go, I

wouldn't stay in this country." I made some deprecatory reply to the effect that even this

government wouldn't last for ever; but he took no notice, and continued: "I have three

children, all of them been through grammar school and two of them married now, with

family. I shan't be satisfied till I have seen them all settled overseas. In this country in 15 or

20 years' time the black man will have the whip hand over the white man."

I can already hear the chorus of execration. How dare I say such a horrible thing? How dare I

stir up trouble and inflame feelings by repeating such a conversation?

The answer is that I do not have the right not to do so. Here is a decent, ordinary fellow

Englishman, who in broad daylight in my own town says to me, his Member of Parliament,

that his country will not be worth living in for his children.

It almost passes belief that at this moment 20 or 30 additional immigrant children are

arriving from overseas in Wolverhampton alone every week - and that means 15 or 20

additional families a decade or two hence. Those whom the gods wish to destroy, they first

Enoch Powell

Conservative MP for Wolverhampton, which was one of the centres of the Caribbean and Asian population.

He had been tipped as a future Prime Minister.

He had been Health Secretary in the 1960 and had led the drive to recruit 18,000 Indian doctors into the NHS.

In April 1968 in a speech to the Conservative political centre, he put his career on the line.

PAPER 2: How did British society change 1939-75? THEME 2: Immigration

make mad. We must be mad, literally mad, as a nation to be permitting the annual inflow of

some 50,000 dependants, who are for the most part the material of the future growth of the

immigrant-descended population. It is like watching a nation busily engaged in heaping up

its own funeral pyre.

As I look ahead, I am filled with foreboding; like the Roman, I seem to see the River Tiber

foaming with much blood."

What is Powell’s main argument about immigration?

What evidence is used to back up the argument?

What is the main purpose of the speech?

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“Powell for PM!” Enoch

Powell’s speech divided

opinion on immigration.

PAPER 2: How did British society change 1939-75? THEME 2: Immigration

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PAPER 2: How did British society change 1939-75? THEME 2: Immigration

What was the situation by 1975?

In the 1970s Britain’s economy was in crisis. There was high unemployment

and inflation, strikes in many industries, and government debts grew. In 1973

industries had to reduce to a 3 day working week to conserve energy supplies

It was a time of racial tension, with massive unemployment as Great Britain needed fewer workers, and some saw immigration as part of the problem.

In 1972 Leicester City Council warned “the entire fabric of our city is at risk” because of the immigrant population beginning to outnumber the white population.

The right wing anti-immigration party the National Front was gaining supporters. In Leicester it gained 18% of the vote in a local election.

The idea of “equal opportunity” was not fully achieved in the 1970s. Schools seemed to have lower expectations of Black and Asian students. Black and Asian communities faced higher unemployment rates.

Racial violence

“Skinheads” became infamous for “Paki-bashing”, particularly in the Asian

communities of Bethnal Green, Newham and Southall.

Summary - DO NOT generalise on immigration.

Choose 3 pieces of information from your booklet:

How life was bad for

immigrants between

1950-73:

How life was good for

immigrants between

1950-73:

PAPER 2: How did British society change 1939-75? THEME 2: Immigration

TOPIC TEST – Immigration

1. Name 5 groups of people from different cultures that arrived in Britain

as a result of WWII.

2. Name 2 jobs or industries that immigrants commonly worked in.

3. What was the Windrush?

4. Give 2 reasons why Caribbean immigrants were attracted to Britain.

5. From which 2 African countries did many Asian immigrants arrive in

the 1960s and 70s?

6. Who was Idi Amin?

7. What happened in Nottingham and Notting Hill in 1958?

8. Who was Kelso Cochrane?

PAPER 2: How did British society change 1939-75? THEME 2: Immigration

9. Give 3 ways in which immigrants were discriminated against.

10. Name 3 government acts introduced from the 1940s to 70s to deal

with immigration.

11. Who was Enoch Powell, and what was his infamous 1968 speech

about?

12. Give 2 examples of how racial tension had increased by the mid-1970s.