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“In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Americans looked beyond their borders and yearned for an empire. Merchants desired overseas markets, and adventurers wanted another frontier to conquer. Senator Albert Beveridge voiced the feelings of many when he proclaimed in 1900: ‘The Philippines are ours forever . . . And just beyond the Philippines are China’s illimitable markets. We will not retreat from either . . . The Pacific Ocean is ours.’ “ - TAJ

American Foreign Policy

Isolationism

In George Washington’s 1796 Farewell address, he advised Americans to increase trade with other countries but to have “as little political connection as possible.” He warned Americans to “steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world.”

Noninvolvement in world affairsMany believed we should follow

a policy of isolationism. Some pointed out that Washington supported trade with other countries and was not calling for complete isolationism from the world.

Expansionism

The United States had expanded to the West. The railroads expanded the nation from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. The government issued a report announcing the end of the “frontier.”

To many Americans, the frontier meant growth and opportunity.

The thought of no frontier was alarming.

Americans began to look beyond the nation's borders to frontiers overseas where they could expand trade and compete for political influence.

Foreign Trade

Treaty of Kanagawa

1853- Commodore Matthew Perry was sent on a mission to try to open trade relations with Japan.

Opened 2 sea ports to American ships.

Marked greater American involvement in Asia.

An Age of Imperialism

Toward an Empire

Powerful nations create large empires by exercising economic and political control over weaker nations. DRIVEN BY SEARCH FOR MATERIALS AND MARKETS.

Secretary of State, William Seward, pictured an American empire that dominated the Caribbean, Central America and the Pacific.

He believed to hold this empire together, there would be a canal across Central America linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Dreamer or Doer?

Purchase of Alaska

Seward purchased Alaska in 1867

Signed a treaty with Russia to buy the Russian colony for $7.2 million

“Seward’s ice box”

“Seward’s folly”

“polar bear

garden”When gold was discovered in Alaska, then people started realizing it was a wise purchase.

A Sense of Mission

Americans believed that they could “lift up” people they considered “uncivilized” by sharing Christianity and Western civilization with the rest of the world.

Josiah Strong

“imperialism of righteousness”

Alfred Thayer Mahan Improved and enlarged Navy.

Protect Shipping

Access to world markets

American Interest in Latin

America

Building Sea Power

“Sea power is essential to the greatness of every splendid people.”

–Alfred Thayer Mahan

Hawaii1867, Seward acquired the two small Pacific Islands of Midway (3,000 m. west of CA.) Important stopping point for American ships going to China.

Needed more.

A chain or 8 large & 100 or so smaller islands 2,000 m. west of California.

Missionaries & Sugar Growers

American Planters Revolt

1820- Christian missionaries to Hawaii

1830- American firm introduced sugar cane

Missionaries and traders began buying land and starting sugar cane plantations

-Business GREW- Americans took control of most of the land and businesses and influenced politics

-Hawaiian sugar exported to the US without tariffs- exports soared

1887- In return for renewal of the trade agreement, the United States pressured King Kalakaua to allow it to establish a Naval Base at Pearl Harbor

Pressured by American sugar producers, Congress revised the tariff laws- eliminating the exemption for Hawaii

Sugar prices dropped- to avoid a new tariff, planters decided to make Hawaii a territory of the United States

Queen Liliuokalani wanted Hawaiians to regain economic control of their islands– Took away powers of American sugar planters

They overthrew Liliuokalani

“Now, to avoid any collision of armed forces and perhaps the loss of life, I yield my authority.”

John Stevens (American diplomat in Hawaii) arranged for marines to assist in the planter’s revolt

Stevens recognized the new government and wanted a treaty of annexation- to add Hawaii to the U.S.

After William McKinley became President, Congress approved the annexation of Hawaii in 1898. It became a U.S. territory in 1900.

On trade route between U.S. and Australia

U.S., Great Britain and Germany all secured trade rights in Samoa…competition

The 3 nations met in Berlin and decided to divide up the islands (without consulting Samoans)

Islands of Samoa

Annexation

China and the Open Door

Rivalries in China

Islands in the Pacific were like stepping stones to a larger prize – CHINA.

By late 1890s, Japan and the leading European powers had carved out SPHERES OF INFLUENCE in China – sections of the country where each of the foreign nations enjoyed special rights and powers.

Japan held island of Formosa and parts of Chinese mainland; Germany controlled the Shandong area in east-central China; Great Britain and France held a number of Chinese provinces and Russia moved into Manchuria and other areas in northern China.

An Open Door to China

In the U.S., some business and government leaders feared they would be pushed out of the profitable China trade.

Secretary of State, John Hay, wanted to protect and expand American trading interests in the country.

Proposed and OPEN DOOR POLICY- each foreign nation in china could trade freely in the other nation’s spheres of influence.

The Boxer Rebellion

BOXERS – A secret Chinese martial arts society

Led an uprising against the “foreign devils” in China.

Out of the Boxer Rebellion came a second Open Door proposal- stressing the importance of keeping china’s independence and respecting its borders. Alarmed by the rebellion, the other foreign powers accepted Hay’s policy.

Japan

Treaty of Portsmouth

Strained Relations

Eager to expand its power in Asia, Japan began to ignore the Open door policy. Japan’s actions led to war with Russia and conflict with the United States. Japan and Russia clashed over Manchuria- 1904- Japan attacked the Russian fleet- starting the Russo-Japanese War. By 1905- both countries resources were depleted and they were ready to make peace.

Summer 1905- Japan and Russia signed the Treaty of Portsmouth.

Recognized Japan’s control of Korea with pledge that Japan would halt its expansion.

Americans resented the increase of Japanese immigrants during the Russo-Japanese War.

Limits were put on immigration. Japanese resented it.

Some Americans called for WAR.

1907- President Roosevelt sent 16 white battleships on a cruise around the world to display the nation’s naval power. This “Great White Fleet” impressed the Japanese. The two nations resolved many of their differences.

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War Fever

The Cuban RebellionCubans under Spanish Rule (centuries)

Jose’ Marti, leader of independence movement, fled to U.S. to gather money, arms and troops.

He went back and led the people in a revolt.

Thousands of Cubans died.Attracted sympathy from the U.S.

Presidents Grover Cleveland, then, William McKinley opposed in American involvement.

American press reported the tragedy in Cuba in detail.

Newspapers, like Joseph Pulitzer’s World and William Randolph Hearst’s Journal, competed with shocking reports on the revolution. Their “yellow journalism” (sensational, biased, reporting, fueled the flames of U.S. war sentiment.

“You furnish the pictures, and I’ll furnish the war.” -William Randolph Hearst

“Remember the Maine”

President McKinley was pressured.

He sent battleship, Maine, to protect American citizens and property in Cuba.

While it was anchored at Havana Harbor, an enormous explosion shattered the Maine and killed 260 officers and crew members.

American newspapers immediately blamed the Spanish.

The slogan ”REMEMBER THE MAINE” became a really for revenge.

April 25, 1898, Congress declared war on Spain.

War in the Philippines

Fighting in Cuba

Although the events in Cuba triggered the Spanish-American War, the first military action of the war took place in the Spanish colony of the Philippines (1000s of miles away.)

May 1, George Dewey led a surprise attack on the Spanish fleet at Manila Bay, destroying most of the ships.

American troops, with help of Filipino rebels led by Emilio Aguinaldo, captured the city of Manila.

May 19- Spanish fleet entered the harbor of Santiago (southeastern shore of Cuba)

American naval force blockaded the coast, trapping the Spanish in the harbor.

17,000 American soldiers landed at Santiago.

The Rough Riders

“A Splendid Little War”

-John Hay

Theodore Roosevelt resigned his position as Assistant Secretary of the Navy to join the fighting in Cuba.

He led the First Regiment of U.S. Cavalry volunteers, known as Rough Riders (former cowhands and college students.)

The Rough Riders joined African American soldiers of the Ninth and Tenth Regiment at the Battle of San Juan Hill. They captured San Juan Hill.

2 days later, the Spanish fleet tried to break out of Santiago. In a 2-hour battle the fleet was destroyed.

This defeat marked the end of Spanish resistance in Cuba.

U.S. captured Puerto Rico, east of Cuba.

August 12, Spanish signed an armistice- a peace agreement ending the war.

Cuban Protectorate

New Government for

Puerto RicoAcquiring the Philippines

AcquisitionsU.S. and Spain signed Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898, marking the official end of the war. Dissolved most of the Spanish Empire.

A country that is technically independent, but actually under the control of another country.

Territory of the United States

Troops remained in Cuba.

1901, The U.S. agreed to grant Cubans full independence. As long as their new constitution gave the U.S. certain rights. (Platt Amendment)

Foraker Act – New Puerto Rican government set up by the U.S.

Jones Act (1917) made Puerto Rico a territory of the U.S.Granted American citizenship to Puerto Ricans

Many anti-imperialists

1901, U.S. transferred authority in the Philippines from military to civilian government headed by William Howard Taft.

Philippines did not gain full independence until 1946.

• Americans and Europeans had dreamed of building a canal across the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean to eliminate the long sea voyage around South America.

• Now that the U.S. controlled territories in both oceans it was even more important.

In 1879, a French company got a lease from Columbia to construct a canal across the isthmus of Panama- between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific ocean. Their efforts failed.

Isthmus- a narrow strip of land connecting two larger bodies of land.

In 1901, the U.S. bought the lease for $40 million. In 1903 Secretary of State, John Hay, negotiated a treaty for a 99-year lease on a strip of land across Panama for a $10 million payment and $250,000 annual rent.

Columbians rejected the treaty due to the low price offered.

Panama

The Panama Canal

Revolution in Panama

Panamanians had revolted against Columbia before- unsuccessfully, but felt that the Americans might back them up.

On November 2, 1903 the American warship, Nashville, moved into the port on Caribbean coast of Panama

Encouraged by this show of support, the Panamanians revolted and declared their independence. When the Columbians tried to stop them the U.S. intervened.

Panama was independent.

John Hay signed a treaty with the new nation for the 10-mile strip of land to build the canal.

This angered many Latin Americans and some members of Congress.

“I took the canal zone and let Congress debate. While the debate goes on, the canal does also.”

-President Roosevelt

The Grand Opening

Building the canal was tough. Panama was described as “a damp, tropical jungle, intensely hot, swarming with mosquitoes.” diseases- yellow fever and malaria.

Many workers died.

William Gorgas, an army doctor, went to Panama to help fight the disease.

The canal opened on August 15, 1914- reducing shipping costs by cutting more than 7,000 miles off the voyage from New York to San Francisco.

It also helped extend American naval power as ships could now move freely from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean.

Not commonly known is the fact that the two oceans have different sea levels, and different levels of high tide. At the entrance to the Panama Canal, the Pacific Ocean can rise as much as 20 feet, but 45 miles away, the difference between high tide and low in the Atlantic is just three feet. The longest part of the canal, sandwiched between gigantic sets of locks at either end, is manmade Gatun Lake and the Gaillard Cut. Gaillard Cut actually rips through a low point in the mountain chain that runs all the way from Alaska to the tip of Argentina. The Panama Canal has six locks, three near either end. From the Pacific Ocean, near Panama City, the Miraflores Locks' two chambers each raise vessels 27 feet. A short distance away, the Pedro Miguel Lock lifts shipping a further 31 feet. Most of the passage through the canal is at 85 feet above sea level.

Roosevelt Corollary Dollar Diplomacy

Policing the Western Hemisphere“Speak softly and carry a big stick.” - African proverb quoted by Theodore Roosevelt.

U.S. should respond to foreign crisis, not with threats, but with military action.

He believed we needed an “international police power” to keep the world from falling into anarchy- disorder and lawlessness.

After incidents in the Caribbean region and a revolution in the Dominican republic, Roosevelt began a policy that gave the U.S. right to intervene in the affairs of Latin American nations when them seemed unstable.

The U.S. applied Roosevelt’s Corollary when it took control of the Dominican Republic’s finances and sent troops to Cuba to stop a revolution.

Roosevelt’s successor, William Howard Taft, wanted to substitute “dollars for bullets” linking American business interests to diplomatic interests- intervening when American businesses were threatened.

American investments in Latin America grew.

Relations with Mexico

In 1910, Mexico entered a turbulent period that threatened American investments and revealed the weaknesses of the “dollar diplomacy.” This led to military intervention.

The brutal dictator of Mexico, Porfrio Diaz, was overthrown by a popular reformer, Francisco Madero. Two years after taking power he was overthrown and killed by General Victoriano Huerta.

President Woodrow Wilson failed to recognize Huerta’s “government of butchers.”

Wilson’s Moral diplomacyWilson attempted to follow a foreign policy based on moral principles. This policy faced many challenges in Mexico.

Mexican civil war broke out. He hoped the Huerta government would fall. When that didn’t happened, he authorized sales of weapons to Huerta’s rival, Venustiano Carranza. With help of American troops, Carranza eventually took power.

Victoriano Huerta.

Venustiano Carranza

Francisco “Pancho” Villa

Civil war did not end with Huerta’s resignation. Rebel leader Francisco “Pancho” Villa led an uprising against Carranza.

Because of American support of the Carranza government, he seized and shot 16 Americans. (trying to damage relations between the U.S. and Carranza government). The U.S. did not take action against Mexico.

Villa and his rebels crossed the border into New Mexico, burned the town of Columbus, and killed 18 more Americans.

This outraged Americans. The president sent General John Pershing into Mexico to capture Villa. They went after him for more than a year.

America’s attention turned to a war raging in Europe and President Wilson withdrew the troops from Mexico.

Coming close to war caused resentment between the U.S. and Mexico.

America’s experience in Mexico showed that it would use its power if it was believed that its interests of honor was threatened.