Sociology Paper 1 (November 2007)

Section A: Research Methods

1. Interviewing is a common technique used by sociologists to gather data. Interviews may be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. They usually take place on a one -to-one basis between the researcher and the respondent, but group interviews are an alternative. Those sociologists who prefer to collect quantitative data are more likely to use structured interviews. With this type of interview the researcher takes special care to draw up a carefully worded set of questions. They also try to standardise their performance as interviewers so that they behave in exactly the same way with each respondent. The purpose of all this care is to make sure that nothing ‘irrelevant’ in the wording of the questions or the performance of the interviewer will influence the answers. In this way it is hoped that the data collected will be free from any researcher bias.

(a) In sociological research, what is meant by the following terms

i. quantitative data? [2]

Evidence collected from researcher that is easily transformed into statistics.

ii. Respondent? [2]

The person who is the subject of the interview.

iii. researcher bias? [2]

The subjective influence of the researcher that affects the way data is gathered and the responses received from the respondents.

(b) Describe two ways in which unstructured interviews differ from structured interviews. [4]

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Differences include:

unstructured interviews contain no set order of questions – the researcher has a number of broad topics/general areas to cover with interviewee and is not restricted to pre-set questions.

they encourage respondents to raise issues and expand their answers – the respondent is allowed to elaborate or give further information on any of the areas covered.

they seek qualitative rather than quantitative data - Questions would be ‘open’ questions so good for ascertaining meaning, feelings, motives, etc.

the process followed may be different with each interview – there is no particular way the interview should be conducted so the researcher can clarify points and explore particular areas of interest that come up with the interviewee.

(c) Describe two reasons why it may be difficult for an interviewer to behave in exactly the same way with each respondent. [4]

Relevant reasons include:

the way different interviewees will respond is unpredictable – some may be nervous and may need a lot of reassurance and guidance from the interviewer

some interviewees may require more help and support - some respondents may have difficulty in understanding and answering the questions than others and so require more guidance from the interviewer

the interviewers may not be that experienced – it is very important for the interviewer to be experienced and to understanding the respondents needs. If this is not so the respondent may not be confident enough to answer the questions.

(d) Describe two advantages of using group interviews in sociological research.

[4]

Advantages include:

saves time - interviewing people individually can be very time consuming for the researcher and respondent so this is an

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alternative that will cut down the time the behaviour of the group can be observed at the same

time – the interviewer can watch the other members of the group and see their reactions to the questions and answers

members of the group may help each other - the group members can clarify points that members may find difficult to understand or need prompting with and help them to answer the questions. The group may act as a stimulus for individual responses.

it may be less intimidating for people – it can make people nervous to be interviewed but they may feel more at ease and more able to answer questions in a group situation.

(e) Describe two ways in which the personal characteristics of the interviewer may influence the answers given by the respondent. [4]

Ways in which the personal characteristics of the interviewer may influence the answers provided by the respondent include:

Dress – an interviewer who dresses in a professional way is probably more likely to gain the respect of the respondent.

tone of voice – a calm soothing tone of voice will make the respondent feel more relaxed and at ease ( a harsh brash tone may upset them)

sex – the interviewees may feel nervous or shy about answering personal questions with a person of the opposite sex (women might not like to speak to men/men might not like to speak to women

age – if the age of her respondent and the interviewee is similar they may feel comfortable answering questions but if there is a big age difference they may feel embarrassed answering personal questions (for example a teenager might not want to answer personal questions to a person who is over fifty)

ability to put the respondent at ease – an interviewer who acts in a calm and professional manner but is also understanding and friendly will be more likely to make the respondent feel more relaxed and comfortable at the interview

(f) Describe two strengths and two limitations of structured interviews.

[8]Strengths include:

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easy to replicate and so high in reliability - if the questions are pre-set then the results are easy to quantify and to do again with other groups of people.

answers easily converted into quantitative data – the data can be easily processed and show the researchers patterns and correlations in the research.

minimises researcher bias in the interview situation - questions will tend to be ‘closed’ so as to demand a limited response the respondent should be able to answer them easily without help from the researcher so accurate results should be obtained

simple to process - the questions will have limited responses as they will be ‘closed’ so the data it is easier for the researchers to process the data using computers.

Limitations include:

data may lack depth - If pre-set questions are used these cannot be explored (only clarified if something is not understood). If this happens useful data may be overlooked.

may be low in validity - People may not answer honestly. This may because they are too embarrassed, or they give an answer that they think the researcher wants to hear.

Expensive - can be costly as it involves face-to-face contact. time-consuming - needs the researcher to be there to carry

out the interview and so only a limited number of interviews can be done due to time constraints

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Section B: Culture and Socialisation 2. Sociologists are critical of attempts to explain social behaviour in terms of instinct or ‘nature’. They suggest that it is through interaction with other people that we learn how we are expected to behave in society.

(a) What is meant by the term interaction? [2]

Interaction refers to face-to-face exchanges where people have an effect on each other.

(b) Describe two ways in which an infant learns how to play with other children. [4]

Infants may learn about how to play with other children through:

imitation – young children identify with their parents and start to copy what they do. Children try out different behaviour to see what the reactions of others will be. Gradually they learn to internalize the correct patterns of behaviour so they know themselves if their behaviour is correct. Within the family children are generally socialised along gender lines, with girls being encouraged to copy their mothers and boys their fathers.

role-play – children play together at adult roles such as: cops and robbers, shopkeepers mothers and fathers.

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By playing together in this way they learn the appropriate roles of behaviour for later life.

parental guidance – parents can enhance a young child's learning process by giving them a variety of ways to learn through sight, touch, taste and smell. For infants, they can play the games that children love, such as peek a boo to interact with them It also teaches them how to interact socially with their families.

instruction from older siblings – children also watch their brother and sister and imitate what they do or carry out the instructions that they are given. A child’ s play patterns with other children influence the way he/she thinks and act later

(c) Explain why sociologists are critical of attempts to explain social behaviour in terms of instinct or ‘nature’.

[6]

‘Nature’ refers to what a person inherits through their genes ‘Nurture’ refers to all the behaviour learnt through the

socialisation process. 

Even though

Biologists have argued that genetic influence can explain social behaviour. 

For example, some have argued that male and female behaviour is inherited.

They also argue that traits like aggression, personality and intelligence are all inherited

They explain that a lot of behaviour many be programmed in the genes. 

However Sociologists see socialisation as the most important way that we learn social behaviour

When sociologists talk about ‘nurture’ they are referring to all the behaviour we learn through the socialisation process. 

The things we do are a result of what we have learned.  This means that our experiences and our environment play a

large part in shaping our behaviour.  Our social behaviour comes from the expectations and

guidelines found within each society and culture Cultures share norms and values

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Values describe a shared moral system where most people believe in certain ideas

Norms are the unspoken an unwritten rules of behaviour in everyday life. We learn them through socialisation.

These norms and values are passed on to everyone in society through socialisation

How Important is socialisation?

Sociologists think socialisation is important because it helps to keep social order. 

Some have argued that for society to exist and survive people have to find a way to live together without constant fighting. 

Also, large societies cannot rely on the forces of law and order to keep the peace and make sure people obey the rules.

The socialisation process allows people to learn the rules of society and to see what happens if these rules are broken. 

All sociologists see socialisation as very important. 

To support your arguments that socialisation is more important than instinct talk about ‘unsocialised’ or ‘feral’ children’ who have been found One way to test the influence of nature or nurture would be to

study the ways in which people develop without human/social contact.

There are some case studies of wild children, these are children who, for one reason or another, have been deprived of normal human contact

Famous cases suggest that children who do not grow up with other humans cannot make up for this later.

Talk briefly about one of them for example

The wild boy of Aveyron  

In 1800, a boy of about 12 years of age was found in a forest in the South of France.  He did not appear to have any parents and was taken to an orphanage.  He was then put into the care of a doctor who wanted to study his progress.

When he was first found he could not speak.  He did make strange noises and would howl in the dark.  He hated wearing clothes, was not toilet trained and he appeared not to feel cold or heat.  He was observed to go out and play in the snow with no clothes and apparently he did not suffer from this – in fact, he seemed to enjoy it.

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He lived until he was about forty years old.  During this time he did learn some words.  He also learned to use the toilet, wear clothes and dress himself.  However, he never developed fully.

To many Sociologists it is the possession of a culture shared with others that makes us human. We do not are not meant to live completely alone. All of human progress, all aspects of social life today, are built on the relationships of people with other people. We are social animals and this is what makes us human

(d) To what extent do social influences constrain people’s behaviour?

[8]

Importance of the socialisation process 

Sociologists think socialisation is important because it helps to keep social order. 

Some have argued that for society to exist and survive people have to find a way to live together without constant fighting. 

Large societies cannot just rely on the forces of law and order to keep the peace and make sure that people obey the rules.

The socialisation process allows people to learn the rules of society and to see what happens if these rules are broken. 

All sociologists see socialisation as very important.  They disagree on whether it benefits everyone in society or whether it gives some groups more advantages than others

Value consensus = shared norms and valuesIt is necessary to have value consensus for society to function well

Cultural Values

A culture's values are its ideas about what is good, right, fair, and just.

Conflict theory focuses on how values differ between groups within a culture, while functionalism focuses on the shared values within a culture, Consensus

For example, American sociologist Robert K. Merton suggested that the most important values in American society are wealth, success, power, and prestige, but that everyone does not have an equal opportunity to attain these values.

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Functional sociologist Talcott Parsons noted that Americans share the common value of the “American work ethic,” which encourages hard work.

Other sociologists have proposed a common core of American values, including accomplishment, material success, problem-solving, reliance on science and technology, democracy, patriotism, charity, freedom, equality and justice, individualism, responsibility, and accountability.

Conflicting Values

A culture, though, may have conflicting values. For instance, the value of material success may conflict with

the value of charity. Or the value of equality may conflict with the value of

individualism. Such contradictions may exist due to an inconsistency

between people's actions and their professed values, which explains why sociologists must carefully distinguish between what people do and what they say.

Real culture refers to the values and norms that a society actually follows, while ideal culture refers to the values and norms that a society professes to believe.

So social influences constrain people’s behaviour so that they follow the norms and values of the society we live in

3. Social control in traditional societies is achieved mainly through informal processes. In modern industrial societies there is a greater need for formal social controls, mainly in the form of the police and the legal system.

(a) What is meant by the term social control? [2]

Social control refers to the mechanisms used to persuade people to accept the generally agreed standards of behaviour, beliefs, conduct and morals of a society.

(b) Describe two sources of informal social control. [4]

Sources of informal social control are:

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Peer pressure – the rest of the group will uses pressure to get a person to follow the rules

Gossip – to publicly voice a complaint against someone Ridicule - to criticise someone in order to make them do the

right thing Scandal – expose someone’s behaviour in order to bring

shame upon them ostracism – exclude someone from the group if they don’t

conform to the accepted way of behaviour

(c) Explain why there is a greater need for formal social controls in modern industrial societies.

[6]

Informal control is based on rewards and encouragement for correct behaviour and sanctions like ridicule, for incorrect behaviour

Fomal control refers to the public, legal forms of controlling the population.

Certain activities are regarded as dangerous to society by those who hold power, and are therefore forbidden

Why do we need formal social controlMarxism – conflict theory of society

Marxists see society divided by class There is a conflict of interest between the classes which

sometimes takes the form of strikes and other protests The ruling class has almost all the power and wealth and

exploits the working class The Agencies of Social control are the ways in which the ruling

class keeps the workers in their place

For example

Schools children learn to do what they are told and accept their place in life. There are different schools for the children of the ruling class.

The Mass Media brainwash people into only being interested in gossip sport and trivia and not interested in what is really going on in society.

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Feminism – an alternative conflict theory

Like Marxist, feminists see society as being divided but between the sexes not by class

It is men who rule society and who have the power in most social situations – in relationships, in families, in schools etc

The situation is called patriarchy Feminists are in favour of equal opportunities for men and

women in all areas of life The laws made by society often favour the interest of men not

women The Agencies of Social control are the the ways in which the

ruling class keep women in their place

Why is why there is a greater need for formal social controls in modern industrial societies?

Socialisation is necessary for social life to exist at all The same agencies of socialisation through which we learn

culture are also agencies of social control because they impose sanctions on those who do not conform

Functionalists see social control as good and necessary if society is to function well

Marxists and feminists are interested in how people can be made or persuaded to behave in ways and to believe in things which are against their interests

Seen in this light social control is not positive It suits those who control not those who are controlled

Society is less cohesive – subcultures – a small proportion of young people develop anti –social attitudes which are different from the mainstream values of society which leads them to crime

These subcultures of people are regarded as a danger to the stability of society because of: Poor socialisation - among some groups in society leads them to commit crime Status frustration – working class youths are more likely to fail at school. They feel that everyone looks down on them and so express their frustration in delinquent activity that helps them to get even with society Anomie – for many young people in inner cities there few chances for jobs. They feel bitter and frustrated and sometimes turn to crime

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This is criticised by Marxists

Marxists suggest though that there is one law for the rich and one for the poor.

Marxists believe that the wealthy and powerful make laws which benefit themselves at the expense of others

Because of this the working class will of course commit the most crime

For example if someone steals from a bank they are quickly pursued by the police

However tax avoidance cases are rarely punished or even of interest to the police

(d) To what extent do some groups benefit more than others from the existence of social control?

[8]

The rich and the powerful seem to benefit most from social control

According to Marxism and the conflict theory of society The ruling class has almost all the power and wealth and

exploits the working class The Agencies of Social control are then ways in which the

ruling class keeps the workers in their place

According to Feminism and alternative conflict theory Society is still patriarchal It is men who rule society and who have the power in most social

situations – in relationships, in families, in schools etc

The Power in society is still in the hands of the Ruling Elite

Very powerful groups in society will use their influence to have the laws altered to their benefit

Sociologists argue that the laws in Britain seem to be designed to protect the property of the rich from the poorer sections of society

They argue that the laws are enforced differently In Britain it is the least powerful groups in society such as

young people, those living on large housing estates and the homeless who are more likely to be the target of police activity

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Many people argue that these groups are being made scapegoats for society’s problems

It is easier to blame them than to look for the real causes

People who commit Corporate or White-collar crime are treated very leniently and often escape serious punishment

Enforcement of the law against illegal activities by companies such as breaking health and safety regulations for their workers only happens rarely

White collar crime is not treated as seriously as other crimes even though huge amounts of money may be lost

Businesses may commit crime and are often not caught even if they are they are more likely to be charged with ‘breaking regulations’

Section C: Social Stratification 4. The system of stratification based on social class is a product of industrial capitalism. Other systems of stratification existed in earlier societies.

(a) What is meant by the term of stratification? [2]

Stratification refers to the structured differences in wealth, power and status between groups in society.

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(b) Describe two other forms of stratification apart from that based on social class. [4]

Examples include:

Caste – This is a closed society with little or no chance of upward mobility. A person’s social position is decided at birth, it is ascribed. There is a status hierarchy, each caste has its own specific occupations which are almost hereditary. Some occupations are considered superior and sacred while certain others degrading and inferior.

Estate (also known as feudalism in the middle ages) – positions in society were ascribed with no chance of moving up or down. Society was divided into groups

King at the top Noble lords Knights The peasants – who were the majority of the population

Slavery – divides people into slave owners and slaves. Slaves were often treated very badly and could be bought and sold. They had no control over what happened in their lives.

Stratification in society by gender, age and race/ethnicity would also be accepted as an answer.

(c) Explain the Marxist view that the working-class are exploited under capitalism? [6]

The Marxist theory

Karl Marx argues that societies are divided into two main classes What makes them different is whether or not the member of the

classes own property or not Those who own property such as factories, mines or buildings are

able to make money simply through having these They do not need to work for themselves but could pay someone

to be a manger or supervisor Marx calls them the bourgeoisie or ruling class Those who don’t own property have to work for a living

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All they own is the ability to work so they have to sell this to the bourgeoisie by working in the factories and mines etc

Marx calls them the proletariat or working class According to Marx the bourgeoisie will always pay the

proletariat as little as possible for their work This increases the profits that the bourgeoisie make This is exploitation of the workers because they are not getting

paid the full value of their work There is always a conflict of interest between the bourgeoisie

and the proletariat – class conflict So the bourgeoisie get richer and the proletariat get poorer Society would eventually be made up of a small number of rich

people and a large number of poor people Marx thought that the situation would then be so unstable that

there would be a revolution When the workers realized that they were being exploited they

would develop class consciousness The revolution would bring a new kind of society where everyone

would be equal This classless society would be communism which would replace

the current capitalist society

Criticism of Marx

Marx argued that there were two social classes but in practice the class structure is much more complicated with a wide variety of groups existing in society

He didn’t take into account the middle class – you can’t group doctors with factory workers

He claimed that when the tension between workers and owners was too intense revolution must come about

Instead, organisations like trade unions, have developed to look after the interests of the working class

(d) To what extent have social class divisions changed since the nineteenth century? [8]

Embourgeoisement

Living standards for everyone have risen in the last century. For example, life expectancy – how long people live – has grown

enormously. The working class today is better off than in the past.

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Most have secure incomes, own televisions, washing machines, cars, even houses.

Does this mean that there are no real differences between the working classes and the middle classes.

Is everyone middle class now? The idea that differences have disappeared is called

embourgeoisement.

There are still some differences in which working class jobs remain different from middle class ones:

The working environment is less likely to be clean and safe The work is more physically demanding and even dangerous The work is less likely to require qualifications such as exam

passes There are fewer benefits such as pension schemes and perks

such as company cars

The working class has had to change and is smaller than it used to be but it has not disappeared

Class fragmentation

The working class is less solid than it once was. It has fragmented into:

1. The growing numbers of unemployed and the poor who are being left behind – the underclass.

2. Those who work in the declining manufacturing industries and who still hold traditional working class values - the ‘traditional’ working class.

3. Those who are more likely to live in the south of England, to be buying their own homes and to be working in the more secure jobs of light industry - the new working class.

It has been claimed that the working class has divided and there are now clearly distinguishable groups within the working class. The first of these is the traditional working class and the second is the new working class. The third is known as the underclass.

the traditional working class

They maintain a completely different life style to that of the middle class, these people:

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Live in council houses and rent their homes. Live in the traditional working class communities, in inner cities

or in industrial towns Work in manual occupations Solidly support the Labour Party Are more likely to become unemployed

The new working class, these people are:

likely to own their own homes likely to live on new housing estates in the suburbs likely to be affluent owning many consumables such as cars and

TV’s less likely to give their total support to the Labour Party more likely to be in secure jobs

the emergence of a welfare-dependent underclass.

The majority of the working class now has quite healthy prosperous lives compared to the past.

A minority do not. Those who cannot work, such as the long-term unemployed and

the disabled and chronically ill are in effect shut out of much of what most people take for granted,

These groups are sometimes referred to as the underclass, a term which means people at the very bottom of society but not fully part of society

The growth of the middle class

The middle class has grown much bigger in the twentieth century After the Second World War there was a big growth in middle

class occupations like teachers and social workers The newly created jobs, were taken by people from working class

families In the 1980’s a lot of tradiitional working class jobs such as coal

miming declined New jobs that replaced them were often middle class ones like

tourism and computers

So

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the middle class like the working class is fragmented there are about three levels those higher up the middle class have many advantages in life

chances – good salaries, good health, good education and long lives.

Those towards the bottom the life chances are similar to those of the working class

5. Much of the discrimination that people from ethnic minority groups experience is based on the prejudice that they are seen as ‘not properly members’ of the country in which they live.

(a) What is meant by the term ethnic minority? [2]

People who share a similar culture that is distinct from that of the dominant or largest grouping in society may be known as an ethnic minority.

(b) Describe two forms of discrimination that people from ethnic minority groups may experience.

[4]

There are many possible examples, including discrimination in the areas of:

Housing - They often live in the worst areas with the highest rates of overcrowding

Education - there is often discrimination in the process of streaming and options choices for ethnic minorities so they don’t have a fair chance to do well in school

Welfare - ethnic minorities are less likely to use health services especially older people possibly because they don’t speak English

Employment - Overall ethnic minorities are found in lower level jobs with few benefits

Politics - There are few politicians to represent their interest in parliament

(c) Explain why people from ethnic minority groups may be viewed as ‘not properly members’ of the country in which they live. [6]

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Ethnic minorities are groups of people who share a common culture which is different from that of the majority of society

Reasons why ethnic minorities may be viewed as not part of the country that they live in include: Racial stereotypes

many people regard ethnic minorities as having certain negative characteristics.

These characteristics confirm to the person that he or she is superior.

Stereotyping is very useful because it allows people to treat the stereotyped group in a worse way without feeling guilty

Fear of economic competition (e.g. for jobs, housing, etc) known as ‘scapegoating’

In periods of economic decline or social tension certain groups are picked on to be blamed for the problems of society

In Britain ethnic minorities are often used as scapegoats for unemployment, inner city deprivation and high levels of crime

The idea of scapegoating has been taken further by Marxist sociologists

They have suggested that when there is competition among poorer groups for scarce resources, such as housing and jobs.

The real reason for deprivation is exploitation by the rich However the media encourage poor white people to blame

non-whites. As a result there is hostility between the races that prevents

them from joining together to seek a common solution to their problems

The perception that they do not participate fully in what is taken to be the national culture of the country

Nationalism is a strong national identity with a nation and sense of belonging.

Britain today is multi-ethnic. It contains many different groups religions and languages.

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Most members of ethnic minorities are British citizens and passport holders

There are racist political parties who would like English nationalism to be exclusively white.

They find it hard to accept that black and Asian people can be British or English.

There are deep racist attitudes in white English culture because of Britain’s colonial history.

Some black and Asian people are even reluctant to describe themselves as British because they associate the word with the British Empire

Suspicions about national loyalties

if people don’t understand a culture or religion they treat it with suspicion and be prejudiced against the person who is a member or that group.

They may question how much loyalty they have to the country

(d) How far is the experience of discrimination the same for all ethnic minority groups?

[8]

Members of minority ethnic groups are more likely than the rest of the population to:

Leave school without qualifications To be unemployed To be living in poverty

Many social factors such as economic deprivation, poor educational attainment and discrimination in the work place explain the inequality experienced by minority ethnic groups

Ethnic minorities are often disadvantaged in all these areas, this greatly affects their life chances:

But are some groups more disadvantage than others Surveys have show that African Muslims are not only the most ethnic religious group in Britain but also suffer among the highest rates of disadvantage in terms of employment and housing.

Why is this

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As a result of terrorist attacks around the world committed by Muslims they are probably treated with the most suspicion and hatred

They also look very different in terms of dress and culture so that they are easily targeted for discrimination

This is probably because they have not assimilated themselves and adopted mainstream values and behaviour

Their religion to a certain extent excludes them from the majority culture

Some young ethnic minorities may also feel alienated and not part of the culture because may be more disadvantaged or not accept the norms and values of the culture

There are other ethnic minorities groups who are less discriminated against

Some groups like Indians and Asians do better at school and are more likely to be in middle class professions or have their own businesses

They are not so discriminated against because they keep a low profile and have integrated well and adapted and conformed to the majority values and behaviour

These groups have assimilated themselves into the community and have adopted mainstream values and behaviour. Like the British Indians

But there has also been a marked change in the possibilities for younger members of the ethnic minorities

In most areas such as employment, harassment, leisure pursuits etc laws have been passed which protect their rights and convey the message that they are full and equal citizens of Britain

The police have finally accepted that there is institutionalised racism and are under great pressure to eradicate this

Opinion polls suggest that racist attitudes have declined although they still exist

Where open racism was once acceptable in Britain it is now largely seen as wrong

Most people welcome the cultural diversity of modern Britain Members of ethnic minority groups are now visible in the arts, on

television and in film, in sport and in business But they are still not to be found in any senior management

positions

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So even though there are groups who have a bad time with discrimination in every area of their lives. Life is improving for some minority ethnic groups.

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