igcse chemistry 2011 notes
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IGCSE Chemistry 2011Notes
This is a blog to help those sitting the iGCSE exams with notes from 2011's
syllabus. Use at your emise! These are my own notes that "'#e mae an "
shall be sitting these exams #ery soon! Goo $u%&! "f you ha#e the time while
on your re#ision brea& feel free to %he%& out my personal blog ! ! ! ! ! .........
Stuents (ho)s Tea%hers *re Shit
Giant Covalent StructuresThere are 2 examples of Giant %o#alent stru%tures+ ,iamon - Graphite
They are both allotropes of %arbon meaning they are both ierent types of
the physi%al form of Carbon.
Diamond
Stru%ture+ Giant %o#alent latticeof %arbon atoms.
Ea%h Carbon atom is bone to / others whi%h tetraherally surroun the
atom.
They ha#e a high melting point as a large amount of heat energy is neee
to brea& their bons.
They are unable to %onu%t ele%tri%ity as they ha#e no free mobile ele%trons
to %arry the %urrent.,iamon is #ery hardas there are many bons within the substan%e. "t is the
harest natural substan%e an is often use in rilling.
Graphite
Stru%ture+ *rrange in layers of atoms.
Ea%h %arbon atom is oine to others lea#ing one outer shell ele%tron on
ea%h %arbon is free to mo#e an able to %ary the %urrent. Therefore they are
able to %onu%t ele%tri%ity.
Graphite also has a high melting point for the same reasons as iamon.
owe#er it is not har li&e iamon but in fa%t #ery soft.
There are wea& for%es between the layers of atoms. They are able to slie
o#er ea%h other an therefore able to a%t as a lubri%ant.
34oning
5 notes
anonymousas&e+
are you miss al%o%er555
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"f you want to &now more about me..%he%& my personal blog+
alo#efor#ogue.tumblr.%om
Oxides6xies are use to etermine whether an element is a metal or a non7metal.
8ost non-metalsare %lasse as acidic oxides. (hile most metals are
%lasse as basic oxies.
*%ii% 6xies
9ea%ts with water to form a%is
:eutralises al&aline solution to form salt ; water
4asi% 6xies
:eutralises a%ii% solutions to form salt ; water
*mphoeteri% 6xies
These are non7metals whi%h isplay both a%ii% an basi% properties
*l&aline 6xies
9ea%ts with water to form al&aline solutions
:eutral 6xies
,o not isplay either of the a%ii% or the basi% oxies) properties.
36xygen -amp< 6xies
4 notes
Covalent BondingDefnition:(hen an atom shares one or more pairs of ele%trons between
atoms to obtain the ele%troni% %on=guration of a noble gas.
Co#alent bons appear in non-metalsan %reate molecules.They %an e#en
appear in atoms of the same element H2.
Molecule:Two or more atoms chemically bone together.
The %o#alently bone atoms are hel together by strong attraction between
the bonding pair of electrons an the nuclei of the atoms.Co#alent bons %an be %lassi=e into two groups+ simple
molecularstru%tures - giant covalent stru%tures
Simple molecular Structures:
They ha#e low melting>boiling points ue to the fa%t
that there are weak intermole%ular for%es of attra%tion. *lthough they o
ha#e strong %o#alent bons. Therefore they nee less heat energy to
o#er%ome an brea& the wea& bons.
Some substan%es sumblimeuner heating. i.e. They turn ire%tly into a gas
from a soli.
Giant molecular Structures: ee post on giant Molecular structures34oning
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4 notes
Ionic BondingDenition:The transfer of one or more ele%trons between 1 atom to another
WhyTo obtain the ele%troni% %on=guration of a noble gas. This is be%ause
noble gases are inert>#ery unrea%ti#e.
"f an atom loses an ele%tron then the atom will form a positiveion. This is
be%ause there are now more protons than ele%trons in the atom.
"f an atom gains an ele%tron the atom forms a negative ion as there are
now more ele%trons than protons in the atom.
The charge of an ion is relate to where the element)s position is in the
perioi% table.
"f the element is in !roup "nethan the ion will ha#e a #$ %harge
"f the element is in !roup %wo than the ion will ha#e a &$ %harge
"f the element is in !roup %hree than the ion will ha#e a '$ %harge
"f the element is in !roup (ive than the ion will ha#e a '- %harge
"f the element is in !roup ix than the ion will ha#e a &- %harge
"f the element is in !roup even than the ion will ha#e a #- %harge
There is no %harge for group four as they ten to be bone by %o#alent
bons.
!oiling "oints# $elting "oints:
"oni% %ompouns ha#e high melting points as there are strong
intermolecular electrostatic )orces o) attractionbetweenthe oppositely chargedions. Therefore a large amount of heat energy is
neee toovercome an break the bons.
The higher the chargethe higherthe melting*boiling point. This is
be%ause a greater %harge has strongerele%trostati% for%es of attra%ttion an
so nee more heat energy to o#er%ome an brea& the bons.
Structure:
"oni% %rystals are arrange in a 'D lattice structure. They are hel together
by electrostatic )orces o) attraction.
%bility to &onduct:
"oni% %ompouns are unable to %onu%t ele%tri%ity as a soli ue to the fa%tthat there are no )ree moving ele%trons that are able to carry the
current.
owe#er if they are in their molten state or in an a+ueous solution then
the ions be%ome )ree to move.
34oning
5 notes
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How did Everybody's Chem. exam
go???4 notes
EXAM TOMORROW?ust realise my =rst %hem exam is T686996(!!!
G66, $UC@ 8A $6BE$A 6$$6(E9S!!!!!!!!
x
D.S. *nyone else got a %hem exam this wee&55
, notes
Reacting Metals With Cold Waterithium:
4ubbles seen
2 release
,isappearsodium:
8elts an forms a ball as the rea%tion is e'othermic.The heat %auses
the soium to melt.
Same as $ithium
otassium:
$ila% ame seen as the hyrogen burns.
Same as soium
/alcium:
4ubbles are seen
(hite pre%ipitate forms+ calcium hydro'ide or limewater
Magnesium:
9ea%ts #ery slowly with water
9ea%ts #igorously with steam
8agnesium burns with bright white ame if steam is passe o#er it
2 gi#en o
White8agnesium 6xie is forme
0inc 1 2ron:
,oes ()*rea%t with %ol water
9ea%ts with steam
/opper:
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,oes not rea%t with steam or water as it is belowhyrogen in the
rea%ti#ity series.
3 notes
Rates of Reactionur)ace rea o) a olid:
Darti%les are able to ma&e more fre+uent%ollisions when there is a higher
surfa%e area. This is be%ause the acti,ation energyis in%rease an so the
rate of rea%tion in%reases.
/oncentration o) a olution:
Darti%les in a gi#en #olume in%reases in a more %on%entrate solution.
Therefore the a%ti#ation energy - rates of rea%tion in%reases.
%emperature:Darti%les gain more energy an so the parti%les mo#e faster %ausing more
freFuent %ollisions. *gain the a%ti#ation energy in%reases.
/atalyst:
* %atalyst pro#ies an alternati,e routewith a lowera%ti#ation energy.
Therefore more parti%les will rea%t with less a%ti#ation energy than the
original %ausing there to be more freFuent su%%essful %ollisions.
' notes
Electrolysis Calculations(aradays /onstant: 1 araay HI000C
(aradays (irst aw:The mass of an element isproportionalto
the +uantityof ele%tri%ity that passes.
e.g. "f an element has a 2; %harge than 2 araays are neee.
"f an element has ; %harge than araays are neee.
/alculating the Mass o) 6ach 6lement )ormed in a /ertain mount o)
6lectricity:
ind the number of &oulombs that is used in the reaction
e.g. 0.12 x 000C I0C
ind the $r of an lement and that should e+ual how many aradays are
needed.
e.g. *luminium ; 2Jg
*hen di,ide the answer by the number of faradays to nd the mass per /&
e.g. 2J> Hg
$ultiply the answer by the number of coulombs that is used in the reaction.
e.g. I0C x Hg 2/0g3%al%ulations
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4 notes
Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid8anufa%ture by the contactpro%ess
ources o) ulphur:
:aturally o%%urs as an element
"n Crue 6il
6%%urs in Sulphie7 e.g. $ea Sulphie
Method:
1. Sulphur is rea%te with oxygen to form Sulphur ioxie
2. Sulphur ,ioxie is rea%te again with oxygen to form Sulphur Trioxie
Kan exothermi% rea%tionL
. Sulphur Trioxie is rea%te with water to ma&e Sulphuri% *%i.
H)W01 this rea%tion gi#es out a mist of 2S6/ whi%h %an be
extremely haardous.Therefore the sulphuri% a%i is rea%te again with the
sulphur trioxie to form fumingsulphuri% a%i 2S26J.
/. The 2S26J is rea%te again with water to form 2S6/ again.
/onditions:
/M0 egrees C
Banium KBL 6xie
2 *tmospheres
7ses:
,etergents
Daints ertiliNers
3Chemistry in So%iety
Manufacture of Ammonia8ae using the H%!1 "1)&SS3
8here are the 9itrogen 1 ydrogen obtained )rom;
:itrogen rom the *ir. "t is liFui=e an then separate by fa%tional
istillation.
yrogen Either by the %ra%&ing of hyro%arbons 69 from natural gas.
/onditions:
/M0 egrees C 7 9ea%tion is enothermi% so the higher the temp the
larger the yiel.
200 *tmospheres7 the high pressure fa#ours the forwar rea%tion as it
has W1mole%ules
Catalyst of "ron
Method:
1. 4oth gases pass through the rea%tion #essel2. 6nly 1MO of the : - 2 %ombine to ma&e :
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. 9ea%tion 8ixture is %oole so the ammonia condensesinto a liFui.
/. 6ther unrea%te : - 2 are re%ir%ulate into the rea%tor.
7ses o) mmonia:
8anufa%ture of :itri% *%i
8anufa%ture of *mmonium :itrate - *mmonium Sulphate whi%h are
fertiliNers.
4 notes
Dynamic EquilibriumDefnition: (hen the forwar an ba%&war rea%tions are o%%urring at the
same rate so that there is no fa#ourable sie.
The position of eFuilibrium %an %hange a%%oring to the conditions.
4(&1%S4(Gthe temp. will fa#our the yeil of the E:,6TE98"C
rea%tion
4(&1%S4(G the pressure will fa#our the yiel of the sie with $ESS
mole%ules.
e.g. :2 ; 2 PQ 2: The temperature in%rease fa#ours the 4*C@(*9,S
rea%tion. 4ut the pressure in%rease fa#ours the 69(*9, rea%tion as there
are / mole%ules on the left an only 2 on the right.
Catalysts D) ()* in%rease the yiel but the 1%* ) 1%&*4)(3
3Energeti%
< notes
Energetics6xothermic: * rea%tion that G40S )5*heat energy. Causes an 4(&1%Sin
temperature.
6ndothermic: * rea%tion that *%6S 4( heat energy. Causes a D&1%Sin
temperature.
Exothermi% - Enothermi% rea%tions %ause a changein temperature in the
solution.
/alculating 6nergy /hange: Cal%ulate the number of energy mae uring bon brea&ing
Cal%ulate the amount of energy mae uring bon ma&ing
Subtra%t the bon ma&ing from the bon brea&ing
Drawing an 6ndothermic Diagram:
9ea%tants are !7)Wthe prou%ts
Drawing an 6xothermic Diagram:
9ea%tants are%!)0 the prou%ts
/alculating the 6nergy /hange 2n 8ater:
1. in the eat gaine by the water. K8ass x /.1R x Temp. %hangeL
2. in the 8r of the solution. in :o. of mol from the 8ass - 8r
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/. Cal%ulate it to 1 mol. ,i#ie the eat gaine by the no. of mol to =n
the heat gaine for e#ery one mole.
# note
Making Insoluble SaltsMethod:
Drepare by using aprecipitation reaction
Two soluble solutions of the insoluble salt are mixe together. 6ne with
the %ation one with the anion
Stir the mixture until a pre%ipitate forms
ilter the mixture to obtain the insoluble salt
9inse with a little bit of istille water an pat ry with =lter paper
Methods for Making Saltsoluble alts:
9ea%t an ex%ess of the soli with an a%i to ma&e sure that all the a%i has
been neutraliNe.
cid $ Metal
Method:
1. 8easure out some a%i into a bea&er
2. * the soli metal in ex%ess into the bea&er
. ilter the mixture to remo#e the ex%ess magnesium/. eat the =ltrate to e#aporate some water
M. $ea#e to %ool an %rystalliNe
I. (ash with a little istille water - pat ry with =lter paper
9.=. 4f the metal is %luminium8 9inc or 4ron8 the acid must be heated before
they are added.
cid $ Metal "xide 1 cid $ Metal /arbonate
Method:
1. *%i must be warme beforesoli is ae
2. 9est is the same as the metho for a%i - metal
3*%is *l&alis -amp< Salts
General Rules for the Solubility of
Saltsoluble in 8ater:
*ll "otassium8 Sodium %mmonium salts
*ll (itrates
*ll common chloridesex%ept sil,er chloride lead chloride
*ll common sulphatesex%ept lead ;44< sulphate &alcium sulphate
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Drou%es H=D1)G( ions when rea%te with water
,e=ne by the sour%e of ; ions
=ases+
Drou%es H=D1)>4D ionswhen rea%te with water
Combines with ; ions to neutraliNe an a%i
Sour%e of 67 ions
*re either o'idesor hydro'ides
*l&ali is a soluble base
alts:
(hen the hydrogenin an a%i is replacedwith a metalfrom the al&ali
e.g. Sulphuri% a%i PQ .. sulphate
3*%is *l&alis -amp< Salts
The Reactivity Series4n )rder of Decreasing 1eacti,ity:
Dotassium
Soium
$ithium
Cal%ium
*luminium
K%arbonL
in%
"ron
Tin
$ea
KhyrogenL
Copper
Sil#er
Gol
Dlatinum
# note
IndicatorsDefnition:* substan%e that %hanges %olour epening on whether it is an
a%i or an al&ali.There are types of ini%ator we use in iGCSE+
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Dhenolphthalein
8ethyl76range
Uni#ersal "ni%ator
henolphthalein:
*%i &olourless
*l&ali 1ed#"in?
En point>:eutral "ale "in?
Methyl-"range:
*%i 1ed
*l&ali =ellow
En point>:eutral Salmon "in?
7niversal 2ndicator:
Strong *%i 1ed
(ea& *%i =ellow
Strong *l&ali "urple
(ea& *l&ali !lue
En point>:eutral Green
3Titrations3*%is *l&alis -amp< Salts
' notes
Acid Alkali Titrations7se:To =n the amount of a%i neee to neutraliNe a %ertain amount of
al&ali or #i%e #ersa.
6+uipment:
Set limit of a%i>al&ali in a &)(4&%7 7%S6
4urette to =n the amount to neutraliNe the a%i>al&ali
"ni%ator
Dipette
Method:
1. illthe burette with a%i>al&ali an ta&e note of the reaing. 9ea it to
the nearest 0.0M %m
2. Dipette 2M%m of the al&ali>a%i into a %oni%al as&
. * a few rops of ini%ator
/. * the a%i to the al&ali swirling the mixture %onstantlyM. The en point is etermine by the %olour the ini%ator rea%hes.
"fphenalphthaleinthan the en point %olour will be a lightpin?. "f uni,eral
indicator than the solution %olour will be green."f methyl-orangeis use than
the %olour will be salmon pin?.
I. 9e%or the reaing of the en point on the burette.
J. 9epeat without aing the ini%ator
3Titrations3*%is *l&alis -amp< Salts
# note
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Relative Masses & Molar Vol. Of
Gases Calculations@elative (ormula Mass:The sum of the 8ass numbers in a %ompoun.
e.g. 2S6/ 2K1L ; 2 ; /K1IL HR
ercentage o) an element in a compound:
8ust be gi#en the mass of the element in the %ompoun
Cal%ulate the 1elati,e ormula $ass
Di,idethe mass of the element by the relati#e formula mass an
multiply by 100
imple /alculations with Moles:
:o. of moles 8ass > 9elati#e ormula 8ass
e.g. 0./ mole of Carbon 12g K98L x 0./ /.Rg
/alculating 6mpirical (ormula:
in the massof ea%h element. This shoul be gi#en in the Fuestion
in the relati,e formula mass
in the no. of moleswith the %al%ulation of mass>98
9atio the no. of moles by di,idingthe two by the smallestno. of moles
9oun to a whole number
/alculating Molecular (ormula:
Use the same metho to =n the Empiri%al ormula
in the 98 of the empiri%al formula ,i#ie the 98 of the original %ompoun by the 98 of the empiri%al
formula
8ultiply the answer with the Empiri%al ormula
/alculations based on e+uations involving reacting masses:
(rite a !%7%(&DeFuation of the rea%tion
Unerline the substan%es that ha#e their mass gi#en in the Fuestion
Cal%ulate the no. of moles in the substan%es with their mass gi#en
Use the mole ratio to %al%ulate no. of moles the other substan%es ha#e
Cal%ulate the 98 of the %ompoun
in the mass of the substan%e by multiplying the no. of moles by the98 of the %ompoun
/alculating the 9o. o) Mol o) a GAS::o. of 8oles Bolume> 2/m or
2/000%m 9earrange the formula to =n the Bolume.
/alculating the /oncentration: Con%. 8oles>Bolume
"f in %m then times the whole thing by 1000.
3Cal%ulations
A notes
Physical test for PURE Water
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To see whether the water sample is pure measure the boiling - freeing
points of the sample.
"f they boil at exa%tly 100 egrees C - freeNe at 0 egrees C at 1 atmosphere
then the sample is pure.
3Tests for (ater
Colbalt Chloride Paper"riginal /olour without water: 4lue
/olour when water is added: Dale Din&
3Tests for (ater
Anhydrous Copper (II) Sulphatendydrous * substan%e that oes not %ontain water
7se:To test if a %hemi%al is water
nhydrous copper >22? sulphate white powder
ydrated /opper >22? ulphate blue powder
(hen water is ae the power turns from white to blue.
(hen the blue power is heate the power returns to its original white
%olour.
CuS6/ ; 26 PQ CuS6/ . M26
CuS6/.M26 PQ CuS6/ ; 26
3Tests for (ater
Reacting Metals with Dilute AcidsotassiumB odiumB ithiumB /alcium: Cannot be rea%te safely as they
are too rea%ti#e.
Magnesium:
9ea%ts 04G)1)5S7=
yrogen is gi#en o 4ubbling 8agnesium isappears
Colourless salt forme
8g ; 2Cl PQ 8gCl2 ; 2
8g ; 2S6/ PQ 8gS6/ ;2
luminium:
9ea%ts #igorously upon heating
Bery thin layer of%luminium )'ideforme on the surfa%e of the
aluminium pre#enting it from rea%ting at rtp. Upon heating the layer
isremo,ed. Slow to rea%t without heating
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2*l ; ICl PQ 2*lCl ; 2
0inc 1 2ron:
9ea%ts slowlywithout heating
9ea%ts rapidlywith heating
4ubbling seen 8etal slowlyisappears
n ; Cl PQ nCl2 ; 2
e ; 2S6/ PQ eS6/ ; 2
Metals below hydrogen in @:
D)S ()*rea%t with ilute a%is
Preparation of Carbon DioxideMethod # - "verwater: Same as the preparation for oxygen but using
ilute Cl a%i an marble %hips K%al%ium %arbonateL
Method & C %hermal decomposition o) a Metal carbonate:
1. Dut a large spatula of the metal %arbonate into a test tube
2. eat the metal %arbonate with a 4unsen burner
. Colle%t the C62 with a gas syringe or into a test tube =lle with
limewater
e.g. "f Copper Carbonate is forme it will turn from green to bla%& %opper
oxie.
%est )or /"&: * a few rops of $imewater. "f %arbon ioxie is present then
the solution will turn %louy.
7ses o) /"&:
7 ire extinguishers as it is $)1 ense than air - oes not support
%ombustion
7 To ma&e =NNy rin&s. The %arbon ioxie is =rst issol#e in air uner
pressure.
hysical roperties:
7 8ore ense than air
7 airly soluble in water
7 Colourless - oourless
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3Dreparation of Gases in a $ab
Reacting Sulfur,Magnesium,
Carbon with Oxygen6xygen %ombines with most metals>non7metals to form oxies. (e use a
burning spoon =lle with a sample an heat it in a 4unsen burner for a
rea%tion to ta&e pla%e.
ulphur:
7 4urns with a !14GH* !75 ame
7 Sulphur ioxie is forme.
S ; 62V S62
7 "t is an acidicoxie an when issol#es in water rea%ts to form
a stronga%ii% solution.
S62 ; 26 V 2S6Ksulphurous a%iL
7 Sulphurous a%i rea%ts with an al&aline to form a salt - W%*1
Magnesium:
7 4urns with a !14GH* WH4*ame.
7 8agnesium 6xie is forme. 28g ; 62V 28g6
7 orms a basic oxie - al?aline oxie. (hen rea%te with water
a wea?al&aline solution is forme.
8g6 ; 26 V 8gK6L2 8agnesium yroxie
7 8agnesium yroxie rea%ts with an a%i to form a salt - W%*1
/arbon:
7 4urns with a 1D G7)W
7 orms C62whi%h is an a%ii% oxie. 9ea%ts with limewater an turns
the solution into a %louy %olour
7 (hen issol#e in water rea%ts to form a wea? a%i &nown as Carboni%
a%i.
C62; 26 V 2C6
7 Carboni% a%i forms salt - W%*1when rea%te with an al&aline
36xygen -amp< 6xies
Preparation of Oxygen
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7 Drepare by the decomposition of H=D1)G( "1)>4D
7 Catalyst of $anganese ;40< o'ide is use
Method:
1. yrogen Deroxie is slowly rippe onto the 8anganese K"BL 6xie
2. 4ubbles are seen as 62 is gi#en o
. 6xygen tra#els to the gas ar an %olle%te o,erwater
yrogen Deroxie V 6xygen ; (ater
2262 V 226 ; 62
3Dreparation of Gases in a $ab
Reacting Phosphorus with Air
7 9e phosphorus is use
Method:
1. eat a glass ro for se#eral minutes
2. (hen the ro glows re ue to the heat remo#e the bung an pla%e the
hot en of the ro onto the phosphorus
. 9epla%e bung when phosphorus starts to burn
/. The phosphorus burns with a white yellow @amean white fumes are
prou%e
M. The water le#el rises to %ompensate for the oxygen lost. "t shoul rise
by approximately 1>M of the original #olume
Dhosphorus ; 6xygen V Dhosphorus K"BL 6xie
3?ustifying the amount of 6xygen in the air
Reacting Iron with Air7 The same #olume of air is use for the #olume of water
Method:
1. Ta&e a note of the water le#el
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2. $ea#e the apparatus to 2 or ays
. 9epeat step 1
/. 9ust starts to form on the iron. (ater le#els rise to %ompensate for the
oxygen ta&en up .
M. Cal%ulate the per%entage of the in%rease in water. This shoul %ome to
21O
"ron ; (ater ; 6xygen V yrate "ron K"""L 6xie
Reacting Copper with Air7 Total #olume of air use 100%m
7 Use to etermine the amount of oxygen in the air
Method:
1. *ir is pushe ba%&wars an forwars o#er a pie%e of heate %opper
2. Copper rea%ts with the oxygen uner heat to form copper o'ide.
2Cu ; 62 V 2Cu6
. 4unsen burner always mo#es along the length of the heate %opper
/. The oxygen will then be all use up for %ombining with the %opper when
the %opper no longer turns bla%&
M. $ea#e the apparatus to %ool before measuring as gases expan when
they unergo heating
I. There shoul be only JH%m of air in the gas syringe at the en of the
experiment.
/olour change o) the copper: orange>re to bla%&
3?ustifying the amount of 6xygen in the air
Composition of Air
JRO of :itrogen
21O of 6xygen
0.HO of *rgon
0.0O 7 0.0/O of C62
38is%illaneous
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Filtration & Crystallisation7 Use to separate two solis + 6ne whi%h is soluble an one whi%h
isinsoluble
Method:
1. Stir the mixture with water to issol#e the soluble soli
2. ilter the solution to obtain the insoluble soli
. The resiue is rinse with istille water - left to ry
/. eat the =ltrate of the soluble soli to e,aporatesome of the water in
the solution
M. $ea#e the =ltrate to %ool an %rystalliNe
I. 9inse the %rystals of the soluble soli with a little istille water an pat
ry with =lter paper
3Separation Te%hniFues
Paper Chromatography7 Use two separate %olours in a soluble mixture
7 Sol#ent tra#els up the paper
7 ,ierent %olours tra#el up to ierent lengths epening on
thesolubility of a solute
7 $ength S)70(* 1)(*
7 Use to tell whether the sol#ent is pure
7 Starting line must be rawn in an insoluble meium e.g. graphite
7 (ater must be below the starting line
3Separation Te%hniFues
Differences between a Compound& a Mixture/ompound:
Contains elements in =xe proportions
"n orer to split the %ompoun a %hemi%al rea%tion must ta&e pla%e
,oes not ha#e all the properties of its elements
Mixture:
Contains elements in any proportions
Can be separate physi%ally e.g. fra%tional istillation
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Contains the properties of its %omponents
General Definitionstom:The smallest parti%le of an element. *ll atoms of the same elementha#e the same atomi% number.
Molecule:Consists of *W)or more atoms %hemi%ally %ombine. *ll
mole%ules are &)0%7(*7= bonded.
6lement: * substan%e that %annot be split into smaller substan%es
/ompound:Two or more elements %hemi%ally %ombine
Mixture: Consists of two or more elements ()*%hemi%ally %ombine
Diffusion in Gases@eactants:*mmonia : - Cl
Method:
1. Dla%e one en of a gas tube with %otton wool soa&e in concentrated
ammonia solution
2. "n the opposite en pla%e a %otton wool soa&e in concentrated
hydrochloric acid
. * white ring of ammonium chlorideforms in the tube towars the en
with Cl a%i as the ammonia is less ense than the Cl a%i. Therefore the
ammonia tra#els fasterthan the Cl a%i.
3Simple experiments leaint to the iea of the small siNe of parti%les an theirmo#ement
Demonstrating Diffusion in a
LiquidMethod:
1. Dla%e a %rystal of "otassium $anganese ;044< into water
2. The %oloure parti%les split o from the %rystal an mo#e aboutthrough the solution until they are e#enly sprea out.
. The solution turns from %olourless to purple
3Simple experiments leaint to the iea of the small siNe of parti%les an their
mo#ement
Dilution of Coloured SolutionsMethod:
1. ,issol#e somepotassium manganate ;044< in 10%m of water in a testtube. *purple solution shoul form
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2. * 1%mW of solution to a se%on test tube an =ll it with 10%mW of
water.
. 9epeat until no %olour %an be seen
@eason:*s the solution be%omes more ilute the parti%les be%ome further
apart. This experiment shows that the %olour parti%les must be #ery small as it
ta&es numerous tries until no %olour %an be seen.
3Simple experiments leaint to the iea of the small siNe of parti%les an their
mo#ement
# note
States of Matterolids:
*rrange regularlyto form a lattice
Darti%les are pa%&e closely together
Darti%les ,ibrate when heate
(hen heate the parti%les G%4( energy an #ibrate faster until they obtain
enough energy to brea& apart from the regularly arrange latti%e to a %ertain
extent.
i+uids:
Darti%les still pa%&e %losely together
ree to mo,e past ea%h other
:o longer in a latti%e shape
(hen heate the parti%les gain energy an mo#e faster until they are able to
brea& away from one another to form a gas.
!ases:
Darti%les ha#e no consistent shape
&onstantlymo#ing in a randommotion
7argespa%es between the parti%les
Defnitions
ublimationThe pro%ess when a soli turns into a gas without passing
through a liFui state
3States 6f 8atter
Test for Carbonate ions CO32-Method:
1. * ilute Cl a%i
2. Carbonate ions rea%t with yrogen ions to form water - %arbon
ioxie
. 4ubble C62 through 74$W%*1
@esults: $imewater turns &7)5D=
(ormula: CuC6 ; 2Cl PQ 26 ; C62 ; CuCl2
3Test for "ons
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Test for Sulphate ions, SO42-Method:
1. * ilute Cl a%i to the testing solution
2. Then a !%145$ &H7)14D solution
. * pre%ipitation forms
@esult: * WH4* pre%ipitation forms
3Test for "ons
Testing for Cl- , Br- & I- ionsMethod:
1. * (4*14& %&4Dto the solution in a testube
2. Then a S4701 (4*1%*solution to the testube
. * pre%ipitate shoul form
@esults:
Chlorie ion WH4* precipitate
4romie ion &1%$ precipitate
"oie ion =77)W precipitate
3Test for "ons
pradanonymousas&e+
"t's 8ia from s%hool no o&e this is helping me so mu%h! +L
hahah than&s +L this is the only way " %an ma&e myself re#ise $6$
Testing for Cu 2+, Fe2+, Fe3+Method:
1. Dla%e a small amount of the testing solution into a testube
2. * soium hyroxie solution until it is present in e'cess
8hy;The only hyroxies able to be soluble are soium potassium -
ammonium hyroxie. Therefore all other hyroxies form a "1&4"4*%*
@esults:
Copper K""L ion !75precipitate
"ron K""L ion G1( pre%ipitate
"ron K"""L ion )1%(G-!1)W( pre%ipitate
3Simple Tests for %ations3Test for "ons
Testing for Ammonium Ions NH4+Method:
1. Dla%e a small amount of soli ammonium salt into a testube
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2. * some a+ueoussolution of S)D45$ H=D1)>4D
. (arm the mixture
/. %mmonia gas shall be gi#en o
M. Dla%e a damp pie%e of litmus paper into the ammonia
@esult:The litmus paper turns blue
(ormula: :/Cl ; :a6 PQ : ; :aCl ; 26
3Simple Tests for %ations3Test for "ons
Flame tests for Li+ , Na+ , K+ &
Ca2+Method:
Cleaning the wire
1. Ta&e a platinum wire in a holer
2. Clean the wire by ipping it into %on%entrate Cl a%i
. ol wire in bunsen burner until no %olour is seen
Testing the %ation
1. ,ip the wire into some fresh %on%entrate Cl a%i
2. Then ip into the soli being teste
. Dla%e into the bunsen burner
/. * %olour shall be seen
@esults:$ithium ion 9e ame
Soium ion Aellow 6range ame
Dotassium ion $ila% lame
Cal%ium ion 4ri%& 9e ame
3Test for "ons3Simple Tests for %ations
Polymerisationolymer: * large mole%ule mae by the oining together of monomers Ksmall
mole%ulesL
There are T(6 types of polymerisation.
*ition Dolymerisation
Conensation Dolymerisation
ddition olymerisation
The monomer is *$(*AS an al?ene.The ouble bon is bro&en own to
enable the oining together of the other mole%ules.
e.g. DolyKetheneL - polyKpropeneL
roperties o) plastic:
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Easily molable
9esistant to %orrosion
,oes not %onu%t thermal energy or ele%tri%al energy
$ow ensity
lexible
"nsoluble
oly>ethene?:There are two types of polyKetheneL low ensity $,DE an
high ensity ,DE.
$,DE is use for ma&ing plasti% bags as it is exible.
,DE is use for ma&ing mil& bottles by ine%tion as it has a low melting point.
/ondensation olymerisation
"t is the lin& between simple mole%ules to form a large mole%ule. owe#er a
small mole%ule is is%harge from ea%h lin& mae. "t is usually Cl or water
eliminate.
9ylon #:
8ae from a ,"*8":E - ,"C*946A$"C a%i
,iamine group :2
,i%arboxyli% group C66 KC6 - C767L
26 is eliminate
9ylon &:
8ae from ,iamine - ,"*CA$ C$69",E
,i%yl %hlorie C6C$ KC6 - C7ClL
Cl is eliminate
36rgani% Chemistry3Chemistry "n So%iety# note
Acid Rain8hat causes it; :itrogen 6xie - Sulfur ioxie.
ow can it be prevented;Cars %an be =tte with %atalyti% %on#erters. They
reu%e the nitrogen oxie into nitrogen.
8hat happens;The nitrogen oxie or sulfur ioxie ,"SS6$BES in the water
#apour in the air./onse+uences;
*lters the p of la&es so that =sh are unable to li#e in the new
%onitions
%orroes builings an statues mae of limestone K%al%ium %arbonateL
&ills trees
3Chemistry "n So%iety
Catalytic Cracking
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Defnition: The pro%ess of %on#erting $6:G C*":E, al&enes into S69T
%haine al&anes.
8hy:
To satisfy the eman for shorter %haine al&anes whi%h %an be mae into
polymers.
To satisfy the eman for extra gasoline.
/onditions:
I007 J00 egrees C
Catalyst of *luminium 6xie or Sili%on ,ioxie
9.=. 4t is an e'ample of *hermal Decomposition3 *he molecules are bro?en
up randomly
36rgani% Chemistry3Chemistry "n So%iety
Crude OilCrue oil is a C68D$E mixturre of hyro%arbons. Crue oil is more useful in
its separate %ompouns.
eparation techni+ue:ra%tional ,istillation. This is be%ause the
%ompouns in %rue oil ha#e ierent boiling points.
Method:
Crue oil is heate - passe into the fra%tionating %olumn
The %olumn is 6TTE9 at the bottom an %ooler at the top
Compouns with less %arbon atoms ha#e a $6(E9 boiling point as less
energy is nee to brea& the %arbon atoms an so they ten to rise.
$arger mole%ules ha#e high boiling points an ten to fall.
Drou%ts are %olle%te at ierent le#els a%%oring to their boiling
points.
/ompounds sorted in ascending order o) boiling points:
1. 9e=nery Gases 7 fuel for omesti% applian%es
2. Gasoline KpetrolL 7 fuel for %ars.
. :aphtha 7 not use as a fuel
/. @erosine 7 fuel for air%raft
M. ,iesel oil 7 fuel for lorries buses - some %ars
I. uel oil 7 fuel for ships - inustrial heaters
J. 4itumen 7 use as tar for surfa%ing roas
hysical properties:The higher the boiling points of the %ompouns the
less #olatile they are. $iFui fra%tions be%ome 869E #is%ous on going ,6(:
the %olumn.
Eolatile substance:* %ompoun that turns easily into a gas.
36rgani% Chemistry3Chemistry "n So%iety
Uses of Ethanol1. *s a Sol#ent for Cosmeti%s - Derfume
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2. *s a uel
#: Goo sol#ent for insoluble %omplex %ompouns
&: "t is mixe with DET96$ to prou%e G*S66$. "t is then burnt to %reate
energy. "t is in%reasingly use in %ountries that grow sugar%ane an that has
little %rue oil reser#es.
(ormula: &2HA)H B C)2 E 2&)2 B CH2)
36rgani% Chemistry3Chemistry "n So%iety
Dehydration of EthanolDehydration:The remo#al of water from a %ompoun
roduct:Ethene KgasL - (ater
/onditions:
Catalyst of *$U8":"U8 6",E
eat(ormula: C2M6 PQ C2/ ; 20
36rgani% Chemistry3Chemistry "n So%iety
# note
Ethanolomologous eries:Ethanol is the 2n member of the *$C66$S!
!eneral (ormula )or lcohols:CKnLK2n;1L6
tructural (ormula: C C2 6Manu)acture o) 6thanol:There are two ways of ma&ing ethanol. "t %an be
mae by the E98E:T*T"6: 6 SUG*9S or the A,9*T"6: 6 ETE:E.
(ermentation o) ugars
/onditions:
*Fueous solution of sugar
Dresen%e of yeast
:o presen%e of air Kotherwise the al%ohol will rea%t with the oxygen to
form ethanoi% a%i *@* #inegarL
e.g. Glu%ose PQ Ethanol ; Carbon ,ioxie
CI126I P7Q 2C2M6 ; 2C62
roducts+ *Fueous solution of Ethanol. "t is then 9*CT"6:*$$A ,"ST"$$E, as
the prou%t is HIO Ethanol - /O water.
ydration ") 6thene
/onditions+
00 egrees C
I07J0 atmospheres
* %atalyst of Dhosphori% *%i
roduct+ There is no nee to fra%tionally istill the ethanol as it is mu%h purer
than the prou%t from fermentation.36rgani% Chemistry3Chemistry "n So%iety
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# note
Addition of Bromine%ype o) @eaction:*ition 9ea%tion
7ses )or this reaction: Use to etermine whether a substan%e %ontains a
Carbon to %arbon ouble bon an al&ene an unsaturation!
Method:The organi% %ompoun is S*@E: with the 4romine water. "f the
%ompoun %ontains a Carbon to Carbon ouble bon then the solution will go
from 69*:GE to C6$6U9$ESS!
/onditions:*Fueous solution of 4romine i.e. 4romine (ater
36rgani% Chemistry3Chemistry "n So%iety
Alkenes!eneral (ormula: Cn2n
*l&enes are 5(S%*51%*D H=D1)&%1!)(S333 K"f you on)t &now what an
unsaturate hyro%arbon is S*8E 6: A6U! $6$ &! "t)s in the e=nitions in
6rgani% Chemistry postL
ower Members o) lkenes: *H1 4S () S5&H *H4(G %S $*H(3 *he
al?enes rst member is *H(3
Ethene7 C2/
Dropene7 CI4utene 7 C/R K2 Straight "somers - 1 4ran%h Chaine "somerL
Dentene 7 CM10
hysical roperties: irst / members are G*SES at rtp Kroom temperature
- pressureL. The rest of the members are $"XU",S at rtp.
/hemical roperties: Combust in air li&e *l&enes
*l&enes unergo *,,"T"6: 9E*CT"6:S!
8hat is an addition reaction;(hen a ouble bon between %arbon atoms
brea& an oins onto another atom.
2 mole%ules oin for e#ery %arbon to %arbon ouble bon bro&en! Therefore
the al&ene be%omes S*TU9*TE,.
36rgani% Chemistry3Chemistry "n So%iety
Reaction of Methane with Bromine%ype o) @eaction :Substitution rea%tion
(hen an *$@*:E rea%ts with a *$6GE: the halogen must repla%e a
A,96GE: atom in the al&ane. Therefore the repla%e yrogen will
%ombine with the halogen forming 2 new prou%ts. Ea%h time
A,96GE: 4968",E will be prou%e.
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/onditions )or the @eaction: 8ust ta&e pla%e uner UB light
There are / stages in the rea%tion of 8ethane an 4romine as there are 6U9
hyrogen atoms.
tage #: C/ ; 4r2 PQ C4r ; 4r K4romomethane an yrogen
4romieLtage &: C4r ; 4r2 PQ C24r2 ; 4r K,ibromomethane - yrogen
4romieL
tage ':C24r2 ; 4r2 PQ C4r ; 4r KTribromomethane - yrogen
4romieL
%age 4:C4r ; 4r2 PQ C4r/ ; 4r KTetrabromomethane - yrogen
4romieL
36rgani% Chemistry
# note
Complete & Incomplete
Combustion of Alkanes/omplete /ombustion:(hen al&anes 9E*CT with oxygen an &%1!)(
D4)>4D is forme
2ncomplete /ombustion:(hen al&anes rea%t with little oxygen
an &%1!)( $)()>4D is forme.
9ea%tions are BE9A exothermi%
=alancing the 6+uations:Aou are allowe to use hal#es for
balan%ing. *ip:4alan%e the %arbon atoms =rst
Dangers o) /":
C6 is T6"C or D6"S6:6US %olourless - oorless
"t bins with the haemoglobin in the bloo instea of the oxygen.
Therefore reu%es the %apa%ity of oxygen in the bloo.
6xample o) an e+uation )or /omplete /ombustion:
C/ KgL ; 262KgL PQ 220KlL ; C62 KgL
6xample o) an 6+uation )or 2ncomplete /ombustion:
C/ ; 1.M62 PQ C6 ; 22636rgani% Chemistry3Chemistry "n So%iety
Alkanes!eneral (ormula:Cn2n;2 &
ist o) the ower Members:
C/ 7 8ethane
C2I 7 Ethane
CR 7 Dropane
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C/107 4utane K%ontains a 4ran%h %haine "somerL
CM12 7 Dentane K%ontains 2 bran%h %haine isomersL
9.=. - !oiling points 4(&1%S along the series.
- Held together with co,alent bonds
- Saturated hydrocarbons
3organi% %hemistry3Chemistry in So%iety
Definitions in Organic Chemistryydrocarbon:Compouns whi%h 6:$A %ontain %arbon an hyrogen atoms
aturated /ompounds:Compouns with a Carbon to Carbon S":G$E bon
7nsaturate /ompounds:Compouns with a Carbon to Carbon ,6U4$E
bon
Molecular (ormulae: The number of atoms of ea%h element present in onemole%ule of a substan%e
Display (ormulae:Shows all the %o#alent bons in a mole%ule with
ini#iual lines
tructural (ormulae: Shows how the atom is oine
tructural 2somers: * %ompoun whi%h has the same mole%ular formulae
but ierent stru%tual formulae
36rgani% Chemistry3,e=nitions
# note
Homologous Series6rgani% %ompouns are i#ie into 686$6G6US SE9"ES.
Ea%h omologous Series has +
the same GE:E9*$ 698U$*
similar CE8"C*$ properties
show a G9*,U*$ %hange of DAS"C*$ properties on going along the
series
"n iGCSE %hemistry you are only permitte to learn 2 omologous series+*l&anes - *l&enes
9.=. &arbon atoms forms F co,alent bonds. Hydrogen atoms forms /
co,alent bond.
3Chemistry "n So%iety36rgani% Chemistry
Rusting (linked to the extraction of
Iron)
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9ame: yrate "ron K"""L oxie
ppearance: 9e7brown a&y eposit
ow is it made: 4y the rea%tion of "96: - (*TE9 - *"9
revention:
Gal#anising 7 Coating a layer of Nin% o#er the iron by ipping the iron
into molten Nin%.
Sa%ri=%ial prote%tants7 4lo%&s of Nin% atta%he to the surfa%e of the iron
8hy 0inc:in% is 869E rea%ti#e than iron an so rea%ts with the air before
the iron %an. Therefore the Nin% will %orroe rather than the iron.
3Chemistry "n So%iety3Ele%trolysis
## notes
Extraction of Iron using a Blast
Furnace!Metal "re:aematite 7 "ron K"""L 6xie
Materials )ed into the top o) the )urnace: Co&e K%arbonL $imestone
KCal%ium CarbonateL *ir an aematite
tep "ne:
The %o&e burns in the air to form C*946: ,"6",E ue to high temperatures.
"t is also an exothermi% rea%tion whi%h helps &eep the temp. up in the furna%e.
The high temps then decomposethe C62 into C*946: 86:6",E whi%h
reu%es the "ron K"""L 6xie into "ron.
The iron be%omes molten ue to the high temps an falls to the bottom of the
furna%e.
tep %wo:
"mpurities are forme uring the pro%ess an must be remo#e. This is where
the $"8EST6:E is use to remo#e the S"$"C6: ,"6",E.
The limestone is thermally e%ompose into &%7&45$ )>4D an &arbon
Dio'ide.
The %al%ium oxie then rea%ts with the sili%on ioxie to form &%7&45$
S474&%* CaSi6 whi%h then runs to the bottom of the furna%e abo#e the
molten iron.
The %al%ium sili%ate is *@* the 86$TE: S$*G! 9E8E84E9 TE S$*G *$(*AS
G6ES 6: T6D in a blast furna%e!
3Chemistry "n So%iety34last urna%e
# note
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Uses of Aluminium (linked in with
the Electrolysis of Aluminium)hysical roperties:
1. 8alleable
2. Goo %onu%tor of thermal an ele%tri%al energy
. ,u%tile
/. $ow ensity
M. 8oerate tensil strength
7ses o) luminium:
4uiling aeroplane engines 7 $ow ensity
4uiling briges 7 strong
8a&ing tin %ans 7 malleable - high resistan%e to %orrosion Coo&ing utensils 7 goo %onu%tor of heat
6#erhea %ables 7 goo %onu%tor of ele%tri%ity
9.=.%luminium often has a layer of %luminium )'ide on top of the
%luminium so that it ma?es the aluminium a lot less reacti,e and resistant to
corrosion.
3Ele%trolysis3Chemistry "n So%iety
A notes
Extraction of Aluminium throughElectrolysisluminium "re: 4auxite 7 impure *luminium 6xie *l26. "t is treate
before han to remo#e impurities.
8hy 6lectrolysis;The *luminium is *)) rea%ti#e to be reu%e by %arbon
K4last urna%eL.
The bauxite is mixe with C9A6$"TE to reduce its melting>boiling point to sa#e
money as less heat energy is neee. The %ryolite also a%ts as a sol,entfor
the *l26.
6lectrolyte: Solution of bauxite in molten %ryolite at 1000 egrees C.
t %he /athode:
*luminium ions gain ele%trons an are 1D5&D! K"2 @2!L 8olten
aluminium is prou%e - sin&s to the bottom of the %ell. rom time to time it
runs o. K"t being the molten aluminiumL
t the node:
6xygen ions lose ele%trons an are )>4D4SD36xygen is release 4UT ue to
high temps in the %ell it rea%ts with the C*946: ele%troes - forms carbon
dio'ide. This %auses the %arbon anoes to be burne away an must be
repla%e regularly.
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"perating %he /ell: $ow #oltage - high %urrents use. eat generate from
the huge %urrent &eeps the aluminium molten. "eally %arrie out in pla%es
with %heap energy supplies.
3Ele%trolysis3Chemistry in So%iety
3 notes
Electrolysis Of Brine To Produce
Chlorine and Sodium Hydroxide!2ons present in =rineB odium /hloride::a; Cl7 ; 67
6lectrode Materials:%node-Titanium &athode-:i%&el
t the node: Chlorine ions is%harge7 %hlorine gas forme
t the /athode: yrogen isso%iates an forms hyrogen.
9emaining 67 ions rea%ts with the Soium ions in the Diaphragm %ell
an forms soium hyroxie ions
,iaphragm %ell+ @eeps the prou%ts apart by only allowing ions to pass
through the iaphragm an not the gases.
"f the %hlorine %omes into %onta%t with the hyrogen then it will rea%t with it to
form Cl. Something similar also happens when %hlorine %omes into %onta%t
with the soium hyroxie.
7ses o) odium ydroxide:1. 4lea%h 7 forme when rea%te with %hlorine
2. Daper 7 igests> brea&s own the woo into a pulp
. Soap 7 rea%te with animal fats or #egetable oils
7ses o) /hlorine:
1. SteriliNe water e.g. in swimming pools
2. 4lea%h 7 see abo#e
. 8anufa%ture of Cl a%i 7 rea%te with hyrogen an issol#e in water
3Chemistry "n So%iety3Ele%trolysis
Electrolysis Summary/athode: "f the metal ion is abo#e hyrogen then hyrogen will be prou%e
instea. This is be%ause yrogen is 7SSrea%ti#e.
node: "f a %on%entrate alie Ke.g. Chlorine 4romine or "oineL ion is
present than the halogen is prou%e. "f not then )>=G(is prou%e
8hen to use it: "f the metal is *46BE %arbon in the rea%ti#ity series!
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