ieee transactions on robotics, vol. , no. , month year...

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ROBOTICS, VOL. , NO. , MONTH YEAR. REGULAR PAPER 1

Robust Place Recognition with Stereo SequencesCesar Cadena, Member, IEEE, Dorian Galvez-Lopez, Juan D. Tardos, Member, IEEE,

and Jose Neira, Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract—We propose a place recognition algorithm for SLAMsystems using stereo cameras that considers both appearance andgeometric information of points of interest in the images. Bothnear and far scene points provide information for the recognitionprocess. Hypotheses about loop closings are generated using afast appearance-only technique based on the bag-of-words (BoW)method. We propose several important improvements to BoWsthat profit from the fact that in this problem images are providedin sequence. Loop closing candidates are evaluated using a novelNormalised Similarity Score, that measures similarity in thecontext of recent images in the sequence. In cases where similarityis not sufficiently clear, loop closing verification is carried outusing a method based on Conditional Random Fields (CRFs).We build on CRF-matching with two main novelties: we useboth image and 3D geometric information, and we carry outinference on a Minimum Spanning Tree (MST), instead of adensely connected graph. Our results show that MSTs providean adequate representation of the problem, with the additionaladvantages that exact inference is possible and the computationalcost of the inference process is limited. We compare our systemwith the state of the art using visual indoor and outdoor datafrom three different locations, and show that our system canattain at least full precision (no false positives) for a higher recall(fewer false negatives).

Index Terms—Recognition, Bag of Words, Conditional Ran-dom Fields, Computer Vision, SLAM.

I. INTRODUCTION

IN this paper we consider the problem of recognising loca-tions based on scene geometry and appearance. This prob-

lem is particularly relevant in the context of large-scale globallocalisation and loop closure detection in mobile robotics.Algorithms based on visual appearance are becoming popularbecause cameras are easily available and provide rich scenedetail. In recent years, it has been shown that taking geometricinformation also into account further improves system robust-ness. Most systems rely on a geometrical checking to verifyspatial consistency [1]–[7].

We propose to solve the place recognition problem byusing two complementary techniques, see Fig 1 (preliminaryversions of this work were described in [8,9]). The first oneis based on the bag-of-words method (BoW) [10], which

Manuscript received Month day, year; revised Month day, year.This research has been funded in part by the European Union under

project RoboEarth FP7-ICT-248942, the Direccion General de Investigacionof Spain under projects DPI2009-13710, DPI2009-07130 and the Ministeriode Educacion (scholarship FPU-AP2008-02272). Preliminary versions of thiswork were presented in the IEEE/RSJ International Conference on IntelligentRObots and Systems 2010, Taipei, Taiwan, October 2010, and in the 18thWorld Congress of the International Federation of Automatic Control 2011,Milan, Italy, August-September 2011.

The authors are with the Instituto de Investigacion en Ingenierıa de Aragon(I3A), Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza 50018, Spain. {ccadena, dorian,tardos, jneira}@unizar.es.

reduces images to sparse numerical vectors by quantisingtheir local features. This enables quick comparisons amonga set of images to find those which are similar. We use ahierarchical BoW [11] with several novelties that considerthe sequential nature of data acquisition. First, we define anovel normalised similarity score (η) to evaluate similaritywith respect to recent images in the sequence. We also enforcea temporal consistency of the candidate matches to improverobustness. And finally, we classify the candidates into threecategories according to the normalised similarity score: highconfidence, unclear, and clear rejection.

Fig. 1. Scheme of our proposal applied to a scene at time t in the sequence

2 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ROBOTICS, VOL. , NO. , MONTH YEAR. REGULAR PAPER

Unclear loop closure candidates are verified by matchingthe scenes with CRFs, the second technique considered. CRF-Matching is an algorithm based on Conditional Random Fields(CRFs) [12], recently proposed for matching 2D laser scans[13] and matching image features [14]. CRF-Matching uses aprobabilistic model able to jointly reason about the associationof features. Here we extend CRF-Matching to reason aboutthe association of data provided by a stereo camera system inboth image space and in 3D space. This allows our systemto consider all information provided by a stereo pair, bothnear and far. As graph structure for the CRFs in our problem,we propose the use of the Minimum Spanning Tree (MST),where vertices are the features detected in the images, andedge weights are Euclidean distances between them. Becausewe code near information in the 3D metric space, and farinformation in image coordinate space, each type of visualinformation is represented in a separate graph. We also proposeaccepting the loop closure candidates based on a normalisedsimilarity score in terms of the likelihoods of the matchedscenes, also with respect to recent images.

Our basic idea is to exploit the efficiency of BoW fordetecting revisited places in real-time using only appearance(Section III-A) and the robustness of CRF-Matching to verify,only in unclear cases, that revisiting matches are correct(Section III-B).

In Section IV we analyse the performance of our sys-tem using image sequences from the RAWSEEDS project,obtained with a frontal stereo camera in both indoor andoutdoor environments. These sequences contain challengingscenes, including many cases of perceptual aliasing, changesin illumination due to time of day, and dynamic environments.We compare our system with the state of the art in visual placerecognition, FAB-MAP 2.0 [5,15]. Our system exhibits betterprecision-recall performance.

II. RELATED WORK

Place recognition using visual information has been a prob-lem of great interest in robotics for some time. Most successfulmethods consider appearance or geometric information, ora combination of both. Williams et al. [16] compared threeloop closure methods representative of each idea: a map-to-map method that considers mainly geometry, an image-to-image method that considers only appearance, and an image-to-map method that considers both. The best results wereobtained for the image-to-image and image-to-map methods,although the image-to-map method does not scale well in largeenvironments.

The image-to-image method considered in the work ofWilliams et. al. was FAB-MAP, the first successful appearance-only method, proposed by Cummins and Newman [15]. FAB-MAP uses the bag-of-words (BoW) representation [10], sup-ported by a probabilistic framework. This system proved verysuccessful in large scale environments. It can run with full pre-cision (no false positives), although at the expense of low recall(the rate of true positives declines). Avoiding false positives iscrucial because they result in failure to obtain correct maps, butavoiding false negatives is also important because they limit

the quality of the resulting maps, particularly if large loops arenot detected. Geometric information has shown to be importantin avoiding false positives while sacrificing less true positives.Angeli et al., [1] proposed an incremental version of BoW,using a discrete Bayes filter to estimate the probability of loop-closure. Since the Bayes filter can still exhibit false positives incases where the same features are detected, but in a differentgeometric configuration, the epipolar constraint was used toverify candidate matchings. Valgren and Lilienthal [2,3] alsoverify topological localisation candidates using the epipolarconstraint, but matching of an image is carried out againstthe complete image database, which can become inefficientfor large environments. Regarding false negatives, Mei et al.[17] apply a query-expansion method based on the feature co-visibility matrix to enrich the information of the locations andfacilitate loop detection. In the field of object retrieval, Chumet al. [18] also use a query-expansion method to perform imagequeries against large databases, using appearance informationonly. All initial candidates are re-ranked using an affine ho-mography and then query-expansion is carried out. Currently,the performance of such query-expansion methods is heavilydependent on parameter tuning [17]. Furthermore, they do notimprove the recall in cases where the image depicts a newplace, or there is perceptual aliasing [5].

Other methods have shown the importance of incorporatinggeometric constraints to avoid false positives. Konolige et al.[7] uses a stereo pair to check for a valid spatial transformationbetween two pairs of matching scenes by trying to computea valid relative pose transformation. The acceptance criteriais based on the number of inliers. A very similar strategy forgeometrical checking is used by Newman et al. [6] with stereo,over the candidates provided from FAB-MAP using an omni-directional camera. Olson et al. [4] test the spatial consistencyof a set of candidate matchings by additionally consideringtheir associated pose estimates. This requires odometry orsome other source for the priors on the poses. Cummins andNewman [5] incorporated a simplified constraint check for anomni-directional camera installed on a car in FAB-MAP 2.0.This system was tested using two extremely large (70km and1000km) datasets. They obtain recalls of 48.4% and 3.1%,respectively, at 100% precision. Recently proposed by Pauland Newman [19], FAB-MAP 3D additionally includes 3Ddistances between features provided by a laser scanner. Thisresults in higher recall for the same precision in the first urbanexperiment of FAB-MAP. However, the system can only makeinferences about visual features in the laser range.

The place recognition problem has also been addressedusing only 3D range data. Steder et al. [20] extract featuresfrom range images obtained by a 3D laser scanner and query adatabase in order to detect loop closures. This system has highcomputational requirements compared with systems based onBoWs, but higher recall is attained for the same precision.An important limitation is that this system cannot distinguishbetween locations with similar shape but different appearance,for example corridors, or with different background beyond thesensor’s range.

Our system follows a slightly different approach: in orderto attain full precision and high recall, an improved BoW

CADENA et al.: ROBUST PLACE RECOGNITION WITH STEREO SEQUENCES 3

technique is used in a first step for the generation of loopclosing matches. In unclear cases, loop closing verificationis carried out using CRF-Matching based on both image and3D geometry provided by the stereo camera. CRF-Matchingwas introduced in [13] for matching 2D laser scans. If visualinformation is available, texture around laser points can beused for matching, although the remaining visual informationis ignored. The authors proposed the possibility of detectingloop closures with CRF by taking the maximum log-likelihoodof the match between the current and all previous scans.Comparing the current location against all the previous onesis impractical in real applications. Furthermore, that metricdoes not provide a way to distinguish between true and falseloop closures. The same framework is proposed in [14] toassociate features in images considering texture and relativeimage coordinates. A 2D Delaunay triangulation is used asgraph structure.

In our system, the use of a stereo camera allows us to com-bine appearance information with 3D metric information whenavailable. We use the MST as the graph structure instead of thedense Delaunay triangulation. This idea was previously usedby Quattoni et al. [21] in the context of object classification. Inthat work, equivalent classification performance was shown forMSTs in comparison with more densely connected graphs. Inaddition, trees allow exact inference algorithms, as compared,for instance, with loopy belief propagation for cyclic graphs,which is approximate and more expensive. As in [21], ourresults show that MSTs properly encode connections betweenthe hidden variables and ensures global consistency.

Anguelov et al. [22] proposed to use Associative MarkovNetworks (another discriminative graphical model) for 3Ddense laser data in the context of segmentation of multipleobjects. The graph used by them is a mesh over all the 3Dpoints. In the same kind of application Lim and Suter [23] useCRFs and sub-sample the 3D laser data with an adaptive datareduction based on spatial properties in order to reduce bothlearning and inference times. We take advantage of texturein visual information to sub-sample the 3D dense informationand consider only salient visual features and their coverageareas.

III. OUR PROPOSAL

In this section we describe the two components of oursystem that constitute the core of our approach: loop closingdetection and loop closing verification. Our place recognitionsystem can be summarized in algorithm 1.

A. Loop Closing Detection

In the spirit of visual bags-of-words [10] we first representan image of the scene as a numerical vector by quantising itssalient local SURF-features [24] (see Fig. 2(a)). This techniqueentails an off-line stage that consists in clustering the imagedescriptor space (the 64-dimensional SURF space, in our case)into a fixed number N of clusters. This is done with a richenough set of training images, which can be independent ofthe target images. The centres of the resulting clusters arenamed visual words; after the clustering, a visual vocabulary

Algorithm 1 Place recognition systemInput: Scene at time t, Database 〈1, . . . , t− 1〉Output: Time t′ of the revisited place, or nullOutput = NullSearch the bag-of-words database for the best matching scene att′ with score ηc(t, t′)if [t− 1, t′1], ..., [t− τl, t′τl ] matched and |t′i − t′j | ≤ τd then{Loop candidate detected}if ηc(t, t′) ≥ α+ thenOutput = t′ {Accepted}

elseif ηc(t, t′) ≥ α− then{Loop candidate verification}Build G3D and GImInfer with CRFs and compute the scores ηGif η3D(t, t′) ≤ β3D ∧ ηIm(t, t′) ≤ βIm thenOutput = t′ {Accepted}

end ifend if

end ifend ifAdd current scene to the Database

is obtained. Now, a set of image features can be representedin the visual vocabulary by means of a vector v of lengthN . For that, each feature is associated to its approximatelyclosest visual word. Each component vi is then set to avalue in accordance with the relevance of the i-th word inthe vocabulary and the given set, or 0 if that word is notassociated to any of the image descriptors. There are severalapproaches to measure the relevance of a word in a corpus[25]; in general, the more a word appears in the data used tocreate the visual vocabulary, the lower its relevance is. We usethe term frequency – inverse document frequency (tf-idf) asproposed by [10].

This method is suitable for managing a large amount ofimages; moreover, [11] presents a hierarchical version whichimproves efficiency. In this version, the descriptor space clus-tering is done hierarchically, obtaining a visual vocabularyarranged in a tree structure, with a branch factor k and Ldepth levels. In this way, the comparisons for converting animage descriptor into a visual word only need to be donein a branch and not in the whole discretised space, reducingthe search complexity to logarithmic. Our implementation1 ofthis data structure is used in this paper with k = 9, L = 6and the kmeans++ algorithm [26] as clustering function. Thisconfiguration yielded the best performance in our tests andexperiments.

1) Normalised similarity score: Representing images asnumerical vectors is very convenient since it allows performingreally quick comparisons between images. There are severalmetrics to calculate the similarity between two image vectors.We use a modified version of the one proposed by [11]. Giventwo vectors v and w, their similarity is measured as the scores(v, w):

s(v, w) = 1− 1

2

∥∥∥∥ v

||v||− w

||w||

∥∥∥∥ (1)

1Available at http://webdiis.unizar.es/˜dorian


(a) SURF features extracted (b) MST over images coordinates for far features (GIm)

(c) MST over 3D metric coordinates for near features (G3D) (d) 3D visualitation of G3D

Fig. 2. Scene from an outdoor environment. In each scene we get the SURF features over one image of the stereo pair 2(a), and compute the two minimumspanning trees: one for features with 3D information (near features), and the other for the remaining ones (far features). On 2(b), we show the graph for farfeatures (GIm) in blue, in dark red the graph for near features (G3D) on 2(c). We apply the CRF-Matching over both graphs. The minimum spanning treeof G3D is computed according to the metric coordinates, here projected over the images only for visualisation. On 2(d), we show G3D in metric coordinateswith the 3D point cloud (textured) of each vertex in the tree. The MST gives us an idea of the dependencies between features in a scene, and enforce theconsistency of the features association between scenes.

where ||.|| stands for the L1-norm. Note that this score is 0when there is no similarity at all, and 1 when both vectors arethe same.

In a general problem with bags-of-words, when comparinga vector v against several others, choosing the vector w whosescore s(v, w) is maximum is usually enough for establishinga match. However, this is not enough in our context. Ours isa special case where the acquired data are sequential. Thismeans that vectors v and w are associated to instants oftime t and t′ and that we can take advantage of this fact.Furthermore, it is expected to have lots of very similar imagesin our problem, since they are collected close in time. In manycases the matched vector with the highest score s may benot the one we are looking for. We want to distinguish thosecases, but the range the score s varies is very dependent on thequery image and the words this contains, so that it is difficultto set a threshold that works fine in every situation. For thesereasons, we define a novel metric of similarity, the normalisedsimilarity score (ηc), as:

ηc(t, t′) =

s(vt, wt′)

s(vt, vt−γ)(2)

We normalise the score obtained from a match between vtand wt′ with the expected score for the query vector vt. Theexpected value for vt is the score obtained when comparingit against a very similar vector. In our case, this is the vectorobtained γ = 1s ago. If the score s(vt, vt−γ) is very small (e.g.if the robot rotated very fast and those two images were notsimilar at all), the normalised similarity score is not reliable.For this reason, we discard those query vectors vt such thats(vt, vt−γ) < 0.1. For the rest of the cases, the higher ηc is, themore similar two images are. The effect of this normalisationis to increase the matching scores of those query images thatobtain small scores s because of their number of features,bringing them closer to those attaining higher s. Note that thenormalised similarity score can be defined for any similarityscore.

2) Temporal consistency: Our system takes an image attime t from the stereo pair at one frame per second. The image


is converted into a bag-of-words vector vt, which is stored in aset W . At the same time, an inverted file is maintained to savein which images each visual word is present [10]. The set Wand the inverted file compose our database of places alreadyvisited. The current image vector vt is compared against allthe ones previously stored W that have at least one word incommon with vt. The complexity of this operation in the worstcase is linear in the number of stored vectors, but checking thecommon words by looking up the inverted file makes it veryquick. The result is a list of matches <vt, wt′>, associated totheir scores ηc(t, t′), where wt′ are the vectors matched fromW . Of these matches, those whose instants t and t′ are tooclose are discarded to avoid matching images taken very closein time. We disallow matches against images taken less than20 seconds ago. This value may depend on the length of theloops and the velocity of the robot, but we noticed this valuesuffices with the usual environment and platforms we use inour experiments.

To detect loops, we impose a temporal constraint. A loopcandidate between images at time t and t0 is detected if thereexist matches <vt, wt0 >, <vt−1, wt1 >, <vt−2, wt2 >, ...,for a short time interval of τl = 4 seconds, that are pairwiseconsistent. There is consistency if the difference betweenconsecutive timestamps t0, t1, ..., is small (i.e. within τd =2 seconds). These temporal values were selected according tothe movement speed of the robot in our image sequences, andthe expected reliability of the method.

Finally, the match < vt, wt0 >, with normalised scoreηc(t, t0), is checked by a double threshold (α−, α+) in orderto be accepted as a loop closure. If this score is high enough(ηc(t, t0) ≥ α+), the match is very likely to be correct, so thecandidate is accepted as a loop closing. On the contrary, if thisscore is small (ηc(t, t0) < α−), the candidate is rejected. Inthe cases where this normalised score alone is not sufficientto ensure loop closure (α− ≤ ηc(t, t0) < α+), verification isnecessary.

B. Loop Closing Verification

In this section we describe the process to decide when an un-clear loop closure candidate from BoW is accepted or rejected.This process is done by inferring on the data association,or matching, between SURF-points of the candidates scenes.Here we refer to SURF-point as the pixel in the image wherethe SURF-feature was detected. The matching is carried outusing conditional random fields (CRFs), a probabilistic undi-rected graphical model first developed for labelling sequencedata [12]. We model the scene as two graphs: the first graph(G3D) models the near objects, i.e. those pixels with denseinformation from the stereo, and hence with 3D information(see Fig. 2(c) and 2(d)). And the second graph (GIm) modelsthe far objects from pixels without disparity information (seeFig. 2(b)). The nodes of the graphs are the SURF-pointsextracted before, and the edges of the graphs result fromcomputing the minimum spanning tree (MST), according tothe Euclidean distances between the pixel coordinates in thecase of GIm, and between the 3D metric coordinates in thecase of G3D.

CRFs are a case of Markov Random Fields (and thussatisfy the Markov properties) where there is no need tomodel the distribution over the observations [27,28]. If theneighbourhood of a node A (i.e. all nodes with edges to A)in the graph is known, the assignment to A is independent ofthe assignment to another node B outside the neighbourhoodof A. By definition, the minimum spanning tree connectspoints that are close in the measurement space, highlightingintrinsic localities in the scene. This implies: first, that theassociations are jointly compatible within neighbourhoods, andsecond, that the compatibility is enforced and propagated fromneighbourhood to neighbourhood by the edge between them.

1) Model definition: Instead of relying on Bayes’ rule to es-timate the distribution over hidden states x from observationsz, CRFs directly model p(x|z), the conditional distributionover the hidden variables given observations. Due to thisstructure, CRFs can handle arbitrary dependencies betweenthe observations. This makes them substantially flexible whenusing complex and overlapped attributes or observations.

The nodes in a CRF represent hidden states, denotedx = 〈x1,x2, · · · ,xn〉, observations are denoted z. In ourframework the hidden states correspond to all the possibleassociations between the n features in scene A and the mfeatures in scene B, i.e. xi ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . ,m}, where theadditional state 0 is the outlier state. Observations are providedby the sensors (e.g., 3D point clouds, appearance descriptors,or any combination of them). The nodes xi along with theconnectivity structure represented by the undirected graphdefine the conditional distribution p(x|z) over the hidden statesx. Let C be the set of cliques (fully connected subsets) inthe graph of a CRF. Then, a CRF factorizes the conditionaldistribution into a product of clique potentials φc(z,xc), whereevery c ∈ C is a clique in the graph, and z and xc are theobserved data and the hidden nodes in such clique. Cliquepotentials are functions that map variable configurations tonon-negative numbers. Intuitively, a potential captures the“compatibility” among the variables in the clique: the largera potential value, the more likely the configuration. Using theclique potential, the conditional distribution over hidden statesis written as:

p(x|z) =1

Z(z)

∏c∈C

φc(z,xc) (3)

where Z(z) =∑

x

∏c∈C φc(z,xc) is the normalising partition

function. The computation of this function can be exponentialin the size of x. Hence, exact inference is possible for a limitedclass of CRF models only, e.g. in tree-structured graphs.

Potentials φc(z,xc) are described by log-linear combina-tions of feature functions fc, i.e., the conditional distribution(3) can be rewritten as:

p(x|z) =1

Z(z)exp

{∑c∈C

wTc · fc(z,xc)

}(4)

where wc a weight vector, which represents the importance ofdifferent features for correctly identifying the hidden states.Weights can be learned from labelled training data.


2) Inference: Inference in a CRF estimates the marginaldistribution of each hidden variable xi, and can thus determinethe most likely configuration of the hidden variables x (i.e., themaximum a posteriori, or MAP, estimation). Both tasks canbe solved using belief propagation (BP) [29], which worksby transmitting messages containing beliefs through the graphstructure of the model. Each node sends messages to itsneighbours based on the messages it receives and the cliquepotentials. BP generates exact results in graphs with no loops,such as trees or polytrees.

3) Parameter learning: The goal of parameter learningis to determine the weights of the feature functions usedin the conditional likelihood (4). CRFs learn these weightsdiscriminatively by maximising the conditional likelihood oflabelled training data. We resort to maximising the pseudo-likelihood of the training data, which is given by the productof all local likelihoods p(xi|MB(xi)); where MB(xi) is theMarkov Blanket of variable xi, which contains the immediateneighbours of xi in the CRF graph. Optimisation of thispseudo-likelihood is performed by minimising the negative ofits log, resulting in the following objective function:

L(w) = −n∑i=1

log p(xi|MB(xi),w) +wTw2σ2w

(5)

The rightmost term in (5) serves as a zero-mean Gaussianprior, with variance σ2w, on each component of the weightvector.

The training data are labelled using RANSAC [30] over thebest rigid-body transformation in 6DoF [31] for G3D and overthe fundamental matrix for GIm, after SURF matching of twoconsecutive scenes.

4) Feature description: The CRF matcher can employarbitrary local features to describe shape, image properties,or any particular aspect of the data. Our features describedifferences between shape (only for G3D) and appearance (forboth graphs) of the features. The local features we use are thefollowing:

Shape difference: These features capture how much thelocal shape of dense stereo data differs for each possibleassociation. We use the geodesic, PCA and curvature distance.

The geodesic distance, defined as the sum of Euclidean dis-tances between points in the minimum spanning tree, providesinformation about the density of the neighbourhood of eachnode of the graph. It can be calculated for different neigh-bourhoods representing local or long-term shape information.Given points zA,i, zB,j and a neighbourhood k, the geodesicdistance feature is computed as:

fgeo(i, j, k, zA, zB) =∥∥∥∥∥∥i+k−1∑l=i

‖zA,l+1 − zA,l‖ −j+k−1∑l=j

‖zB,l+1 − zB,l‖

∥∥∥∥∥∥ (6)

where i and j correspond to the hidden state xi that associatethe feature i of the scene A with the feature j of the sceneB. The neighbourhood k of xi in the graph corresponds to allthe nodes separated k nodes from xi. In our implementation,this feature is computed for k ∈ {1, 2, 3}. A similar feature isused to match 3D laser scans in [32].

We also use Principal Component Analysis over the dense3D point cloud that is contained within some spheres centredin the graph nodes (textured points in Fig. 2(d)). The radius ofthese spheres is given by the keypoint scale provided by theSURF extractor. The PCA distance is computed as the absolutedifference between the variances of the principal componentsof a dense point cloud zpcaA,i in scene A and zpcaB,j in scene B:

fPCA(i, j, zpcaA , zpcaB ) =∣∣∣zpcaA,i − z

pcaB,j

∣∣∣ (7)

Another way to consider local shape is by computing thedifference between the curvatures of the dense point clouds.This feature is computed as:

fcurv(i, j, zcA, zcB) =

∥∥zcA,i − zcB,j∥∥ (8)

where zc = 3s3s1+s2+s3

, and s1 ≥ s2 ≥ s3 are the singularvalues of the point cloud of each node.

Visual appearance: These features capture how much thelocal appearance from the points in the image differs for eachpossible association. We use the SURF distance. This featurecalculates the Euclidean distance between the descriptor vec-tors for each possible association:

fSURF (i, j, zdescrA , zdescrB ) =∥∥zdescrA,i − zdescrB,j

∥∥ (9)

Ramos et al. [14] also include as features the distancesbetween the individual dimensions of the descriptor space. Inour training and validations data we do not find a significantimprovement in the accuracy of the labelling, and this greatlyincreases the size of the weight vector.

All previous features described are unary, in that they onlydepend on a single hidden state i in scene A (indices j andk in the features denote nodes in scene B and neighbourhoodsize). In order to generate mutually consistent associations itis necessary to define features, over the cliques, that relate thehidden states in the CRF to each other.

Pairwise distance: This feature measures the consistencybetween the associations of two hidden states xi and xj andobservations zA,i, zA,j from scene A and observations zB,kand zB,l in scene B:

fpair(i, j, k, l, zA, zB) =

‖‖zA,i − zA,j‖ − ‖zB,k − zB,l‖‖ (10)

The zA and zB are in metric coordinates for G3D, and inpixels for GIm.

5) Loop closure acceptance: We use the CRF matcher stageover the loop closing candidates provided by the BoW stage.Then, we compute the negative log-likelihood (Λ) from theMAP associations between the scene in time t, against theloop closing candidate in time t′, Λt,t′ , and the scene in t−γ,Λt,t−γ , γ = 1s.

The negative log-likelihood Λ3D of the MAP associationfor G3D provides a measure of how similar two scenes are interms of close range, and ΛIm for GIm in terms of far range.Thus, in order to compare how similar the current scene iswith the scene in t′, Λt,t′ , with respect to how similar the


TABLE IDATASETS

Dataset Length Revisited # Images Average Overlap with(m) length (m) speed (m/s) training data

Indoor 774 113 1756 0.44 noOutdoor 1718 208 2279 0.75 yes*Mixed 1892 268 2150 0.88 yes*Malaga 1195 162 461 2.6 no

* Different path and one month apart.

current scene is with the scene in t− γ, Λt,t−γ , we use againa normalised similarity score as:

ηG =ΛGt,t′

ΛGt,t−γ(11)

where G indicates the graph.Score ηG is compared to βG , a control parameter of the

level of similarity we demand for (t, t− γ), where a smallerβ means a higher demand. By choosing different parametersfor near and far information we can make a balance betweenthe weight of each in our acceptance.

IV. EXPERIMENTS

We evaluated our system with the public datasets from theRAWSEEDS Project [33]. The data were collected by a roboticplatform in different static and dynamic environments. Weused the data corresponding to the stereo vision system with18cm of baseline. These are b/w images (640x480px) takenat 15 fps with the Videre Design STH-DCSGVAR system.

We used a static dataset depicting a mix of indoor andoutdoor areas to perform the offline stages of our system.These entail the training of the bag-of-words vocabulary andthe learning of the CRF feature weights. We then tested thewhole system in three datasets: static indoors, static outdoorsand dynamic mixed. These three datasets along with thetraining one were collected on different dates and in twodifferent campuses. The trajectory of the robot in the outdoorand mixed datasets has some overlap in location with thedataset used for training; this is not the case with the indoordataset, which was collected in a different campus. Please referto the RAWSEEDS Project [33] for further details.

In addition, in order to evaluate the final configuration ofour system, we used the Malaga parking lot 6L dataset [34].This is a public dataset with different vehicle, stereo camera(AVT Marlin F-131C model) and configuration (1024x768pxat 7.5fps and 86cm of baseline), than those in the RAWSEEDSProject. Table I shows the information related to these datasets.

In this experimental evaluation section, we first show theeffect of each of system components in the loop detection stagein IV-A. Then in IV-B, we compare the use of the Delaunaytriangulation and MST during the CRF learning process, andalso the influence of each feature proposed above. Finally, weshow the performance of our full system in the aforementioneddatasets in IV-C – IV-E.

A. Loop detection stageWe used 200 images uniformly distributed in time from the

training dataset to create a bag-of-words vocabulary tree withk = 9 branching factor and L = 6 depth levels.

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We started evaluating how each step of our loop detectionstage affects the correctness of the resulting matching can-didates. We compared the effectiveness of the score s andηc when used with both our proposed BoW algorithm (withtemporal consistency) and a simple bag-of-words approach.This simple technique consists in selecting the matching imagethat maximises the score for a given query. In Fig. 3 we showthe precision-recall curves yielded by each configuration asvarying the minimum required score. We can see that our BoWwith temporal consistency and ηc score obtained the highestrecall for 100% precision in the datasets.

Our BoW with temporal consistency outperforms the simplebag-of-words approach. This is specially noticeable in theoutdoor dataset, where the simple is not able to achieve 100%precision, so that final results would be hardly reliable. Thesimple bag-of-words approach failed in this dataset becausedistant objects, such as buildings, are visible in many images,causing incorrect matches. Requiring temporal consistency


TABLE IIMEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF THE ACCURACY IN A 10-FOLD

CROSS VALIDATION TEST WITH BOTH GRAPH STRUCTURES: DELAUNAYTRIANGULATION AND MST

G3D GIMDelaunay MST Delaunay MST

Training setMean 76.65% 88.01% 81.38% 79.53%Std. dev. 1.70% 0.67% 0.16% 0.17%

Validation setMean 75.05% 87.34% 81.36% 79.53%Std. dev. 8.30% 5.10% 1.32% 0.99%

reduces these cases because it is unlikely to obtain severalconsecutive matches with the same wrong place. This makesclear the usefulness of the temporal consistency, as alsoreported before in [8].

Regarding the score, ηc attained higher recall for full preci-sion than the score s both indoors and outdoors. In the indoordataset, the behaviour of both scores with our BoW approachwith temporal consistency was similar, but the advantage ofηc is clear with the simple approach, when just the match withthe maximum score is chosen. This shows that ηc is able toprovide more discriminative scores than s.

B. Loop verification stage

With the same 200 images used for training the bag-of-words vocabulary, we learned the weights for the CRFmatcher. For this, we obtained the SURF-features from theright image in the stereo rig and selected those with 3Dinformation from the dense point cloud given by the stereo sys-tem. Then, we ran a RANSAC algorithm over the rigid-bodytransformation between the images at time t and t− δt. Sincethe stereo system has high noise in the dense 3D information,we selected δt = 1/15s. The same procedure was doneover the remaining SURF features with no 3D information,where we obtained the labels by calculating the fundamentalmatrix between the images. These two steps resulted in anautomatic learning of the CRF labels. Although this automaticlabelling can return some outliers, the learning algorithmhas demonstrated being robust in their presence. We usedthe optimisation based on the BFGS quasi-Newton methodprovided by MATLAB to find the weights that minimisedthe negative log pseudo-likelihood. In both G3D and GIm, theweights obtained suggested that the most relevant features inthe CRF matcher were fSURF and fpair.

Delaunay vs. MST: In order to verify that the accuracy ofthe data association using the CRFs as proposed in this paper isnot negatively affected by using MST instead of the Delaunaytriangulation, a 10-fold cross-validation procedure was carriedout. For this, the pairs of images used for learning the weights,both in 3D and image, were randomly permuted and equallydivided into ten groups. Nine groups were used for training,and the 10th, for validation (training and validation data aremutually exclusive). This process was repeated 10 times andthe evaluation metrics were computed across folds for all thevalidation trials.

The 10-fold cross validation was performed for G3D andGIM , both with the Delaunay triangulation and the minimum

TABLE IIIACCURACY IN TRAINING AND VALIDATION SETS FOR THE DATA

ASSOCIATION FOR BOTH GRAPHS, REMOVING ONE FEATURE AT A TIME INTHE LEARNING STAGE

G3D GIMTraining Validation Training Validation

no fgeo 86.65% 84.48%no fSURF 65.87% 60.92% 19.55% 19.28%no fPCA 87.63% 84.99%no fcurv 87.86% 84.68%no fpair 85.10% 83.27% 77.84% 77.83%All features 87.70% 86.45% 78.92% 78.99%

spanning tree graph structures. The results of the statistic testin the accuracy of the matching with respect to the labellinggiven are shown in Table II. The results in the validationdata suggest that there is not statistical evidence to favourthe Delaunay triangulation as graph structure for our CRFmatching processes over the MST. These results agree withthe conclusion drawn by Quattoni et al. [21].

Relative importance of features: The influence of each fea-ture proposed in the CRF-Matching is studied in the learningstage. The set used for learning was randomly divided intotwo 60-40% groups; 60% for training and 40% for validation.The learning was then carried out with all the features butone each time. The accuracy in data association is shown inTable III for both graphs.

The accuracy obtained in each case shows that fSURF andfpair are the most relevant features in the inference process.However, in the validation set for G3D we lose about 2% inthe mean accuracy of data association when we remove anyother feature. This is a short analysis about the influence ofeach feature in the inference process that could be extended.For instance, we could analyse many more combinations byadding or removing more than one feature.

Although we have considered a certain set of features in oursystem, CRFs are amenable to the use of different or additionalfeatures that might become available through other sensors orsensing modalities.

C. Full system

In this section we analyse the performance of our detectionand verification stages put together. In addition, we compareour system with the state-of-the-art technique FAB-MAP2.0 [5]. The FAB-MAP software2 provides some predefinedvocabularies. We used the FAB-MAP indoor vocabulary forour indoor dataset and the FAB-MAP outdoor vocabulary forthe mixed and outdoor datasets. This technique has a set ofparameters to tune in order to obtain the best performance ineach experiment. We give a short description of the parametersin the appendix A (for further details please see [15]). Wechose two parameter sets in order to obtain different results(see Table IV):• The default parameter set that is provided by the authors.

The probability threshold p is taken as 0.99, consideringobtaining as few false positives as possible. When we

2The software and vocabularies were downloaded from http://www.robots.ox.ac.uk/∼mobile/


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Fig. 4. Precision and Recall without CRF verification or epipolar constraint with BoW and FAB-MAP 2.0 with two parameter sets.

TABLE IVFAB-MAP 2.0 - PARAMETERS FOR THE EXPERIMENTS

Outdoor Indoor Mixeddefault modified

p 0.99 0.96 0.5 0.3P (obs|exist) 039 0.39 0.31 0.37P (obs|¬exist) 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05P (newplace) 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9σ 0.99 0.99 1.0 1.0Motion Model 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.6Blob Resp. Filter 25 25 25 25Dis. Local 20s 20s 20s 20s

use this configuration, we check the results yielded byFAB-MAP for geometrical consistency.

• A modified parameter set is tuned to obtain the maximumpossible recall at full precision. The idea behind of thistuning is to use as place recognition system only theFAB-MAP 2.0, without geometrical verification. For theoutdoor dataset this parameter set is the same than thedefault set, only changing the probability threshold.

We filter the results of FAB-MAP 2.0 when using the defaultconfiguration with a geometrical checking. Since the last avail-able version of the FAB-MAP software does not implementthe geometrical checking described by Cummins and Newman[5], we implemented a geometrical checking (denoted GC)based on epipolar geometry. This epipolar constraint consistsin computing the fundamental matrix (by using RANSAC andthe 8-point algorithm [35]) between two matched images. Thistest is passed if a well conditioned fundamental matrix can beobtained.

Firstly, we compared the correctness of our BoW detectorwith that of FAB-MAP 2.0, both with no geometrical veri-fication. Fig. 4 shows the precision-recall curves resulting inthe three RAWSEEDS datasets. We obtained them by varyingthe minimum confidence value expected for a loop closurecandidate of BoW, α− (with fixed minimum confidence levelfor a trusted loop closure α+ = 0.6), and the probability ofacceptance p of FAB-MAP 2.0. We can observe that the curveof BoW dominated those of FAB-MAP 2.0, even withoutgeometrical checking. As it was expected, when we choosecarefully the parameters of FAB-MAP 2.0, the results weobtain are much better than when using the configurationby default. This is specially noticeable in the indoor dataset,

TABLE VOUR SYSTEM - PARAMETERS FOR THE EXPERIMENTS

Indoor Outdoor Mixedα+ 0.6 0.6 0.6α− 0.15 0.15 0.15β3D 1 1.5 1.5βIm 1.3 1.7 1.7τl 4s 4s 4sτd 2s 2s 2sMin st,t−γ 0.1 0.1 0.1Dis. Local 20s 20s 20s

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Our SystemBoW + GCFabMap 2.0, modifiedFabMap 2.0, default +GC

Fig. 5. Precision-recall curves for the indoor dataset. In each curve theworking point is marked, as in the Table IV and Table V. We also show ourBoW stage with geometrical checking (GC) as verification. The GC checks theepipolar constraint with RANSAC. Note that FAB-MAP 2.0 with the modifiedconfiguration needs no GC.

where there were false positives in all the cases with the defaultparameters. This is due to the several similar-looking corridorsand libraries this dataset presents.

Later, we added the geometrical verification stage to BoWand FAB-MAP 2.0 and compared the results of our system(BoW with CRF-Matching) and other approaches: FAB-MAP2.0 with GC, and BoW with GC. We show an example of theresults obtained in the indoor dataset in Fig. 5. These wereobtained by varying α− and p, with α+ = 0.6. For our system,we set the β parameters of the CRF matcher in order to obtain


FabMap 2.0, default +GC, th=0.99 Pr= 100.0% Re= 14.1%

start−end

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FabMap 2.0, set 1, th=0.50 Pr= 100.0% Re= 30.6%

(b) FAB-MAP 2.0 (modified)

BoW + GC, th=0.15 Pr= 79.8% Re= 76.3%

F2F1

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Our System, th=0.15 Pr= 100.0% Re= 59.1%

(d) Our SystemFig. 6. Loops detected by each of the methods in the Indoor dataset. Black lines and triangles denote the trajectory of the robot; light green lines, actualloops, deep blue lines denote true loops detected, and light red lines denote false loops detected. In Fig. 9 we show the false positive cases F1 and F2.


O1




BoW + GC, th=0.15 Pr= 100.0% Re= 7.0%

(c) BoW + GC


(d) Our System

Fig. 7. Loops detected by each of the methods in the Outdoor dataset. Black lines and triangles denote the trajectory of the robot; light green lines, actualloops, deep blue lines denote true loops detected. In Fig. 10 we show the false negative case O1.


M1

M2




BoW + GC, th=0.15 Pr= 100.0% Re= 29.9%

(c) BoW + GC


(d) Our System

Fig. 8. Loops detected by each of the methods in the Mixed dataset. Black lines and triangles denote the trajectory of the robot; light green lines, actualloops, deep blue lines denote true loops detected. In Fig. 10 we show the false negative cases M1 and M2.

100% precision. We performed this test to compare recall withthe state of the art. In view of results shown in Fig. 4, weselected the working value α− = 0.15. Since these datasetsare fairly heterogeneous, we think these α values can workwell in many situations. It might depend on the vocabularysize, though. All the parameters used are shown in Table V.

The results of FAB-MAP 2.0 over the datasets are shownin Figs. 6(a), 7(a) and 8(a) for the default set of parametersplus the geometrical checking with the epipolar constraint,and in Figs. 6(b), 7(b) and 8(b) for the modified set ofparameters. Please, note that FAB-MAP 2.0 with the modifiedconfiguration does not need geometrical verification, since weselected the parameters aiming to obtain no false positives.

Again, as expected with the modified parameters, FAB-MAP2.0 obtained greater recall at full precision than with theparameters by default, although, some loop closures were notdetected. We detail some cases: in the Indoor dataset, Fig. 6(a),the big area on the beginning of the map (start-end), especiallyimportant in the experiment because if no loop is detected inthat area, a SLAM algorithm could hardly build a correct mapafter having traversed such a long path (around 300 metres).Outdoors, as shown in Figs. 7(a) and 7(b), the biggest loopwas missed in the starting and final point of the experiment,in the marked area (O1) in the map. An example of a falsenegative in this area is shown in Fig. 10(a). This dataset ischallenging due to the illumination and blurring present in the


(a) F1

(b) F2

(c) False positive of FAB-MAP 2.0 (default) rejected by the GC.

Fig. 9. False positive cases obtained by BoW plus GC in the indoor datasetin (a) and (b). In (c), two different corridors make FAB-MAP 2.0 producea false positive (p = 0.9989) with the default parameters. However, it iscorrectly rejected by the geometrical checking.

images. And this entails an added difficulty for FAB-MAPsince the significant overlap of distant objects between con-secutive images decreases its discriminative ability [36]. Forthe experiment in the dynamic mixed environment, importantloop closures were missed again, e.g. M1 and M2 areas inFig. 8(a). Examples of those false negative cases are shownin Figs. 10(b) and 10(c). In the false negative cases that weshow in Fig. 10, both configurations of FAB-MAP 2.0 reporteda probability of new place greater than 0.999.

In order to show the improvements of our loop closureverification stage, we checked the candidates given by BoWwith the same GC technique we described above. The resultsare shown in Figs. 6(c), 7(c) and 8(c). In Fig. 6(c) all the loopclosure areas were detected but with too many false positivesdue to the perceptual aliasing (see Fig. 9); this is disastrous forany SLAM algorithm. In the outdoor and mixed datasets theprecision was 100%, sacrificing recall and, more important, thedetection of loop closure areas. As we can see in Fig. 5 we cantune the parameters of BoW+GC to attain full precision, but atthe cost of sacrificing recall. This also makes the performanceof this system not good and stable across environments andconditions.

The results of our system over the datasets are shown inFigs. 6(d), 7(d) and 8(d), and the comparative statistics of allexperiments is made in Table VI. In the indoor experiment

(a) O1

(b) M1

(c) M2

Fig. 10. False negatives in the outdoor and mixed datasets that our methodcan successfully detect but FAB-MAP 2.0 misses. FAB-MAP 2.0 sets queryimage of case (a) as new place with a probability of 0.99947; of (b)with 0.99997 and 0.99902 with the default and modified set of parametersrespectively, and of (c) with 1.0 and 0.9993. These scenes correspond to thebiggest loops in the trajectories.

TABLE VIRESULTS FOR RAWSEEDS DATASETS

Precision Recall loop zonesfound/actual

RAWSEEDS IndoorFAB-MAP 2.0 def. + GC 100% 14.1% 2 / 6FAB-MAP 2.0 mod. 100% 30.6% 2 / 6BoW + GC 79.8% 76.3% 6 / 6Our System 100% 59.1% 6 / 6

RAWSEEDS OutdoorFAB-MAP 2.0 def. + GC 100% 0.7% 2 / 9FAB-MAP 2.0 mod. 100% 3.3% 2 / 9BoW + GC 100% 7.0% 3 / 9Our System 100% 11.15% 6 / 9

RAWSEEDS MixedFAB-MAP 2.0 def. + GC 100% 3.7% 1 / 8FAB-MAP 2.0 mod. 100% 19.9% 3 / 8BoW + GC 100% 29.9% 4 / 8Our System 100% 32.8% 5 / 8

we can detect all the loop closure areas at 100% precision. Inthe outdoor and mixed datasets we keep full precision, higherrecall level and most of the loop closure areas detected.

Our system detected successfully the loops of Fig. 10 astrue positives. The three cases shown were verified by the CRFstage. Our CRF matcher reports the follow η scores: in O1,Fig. 10(a), η3D = 1.24 and ηIm = 1.37, in M1, Fig. 10(b),


TABLE VIICOMPUTATIONAL TIMES FOR OUR SYSTEM (IN S)

SURF BoW CRF Matcher Wholeextraction G3D GIm System

Average 0.15 0.01 0.15 0.15 0.47Maximum 0.30 0.04 0.36 0.65 1.04

η3D = 0.4 and ηIm = 1.67, and in M2, Fig. 10(c), η3D = 1.29and ηIm = 1.24. Note that with the β parameters for indoors,such cases would be rejected.

Furthermore, our CRF matcher is robust against perceptualaliasing. For instance, the false positives obtained with thegeometrical checking in the indoor sequence, see Fig. 9,was correctly discarded. In the case of F1, Fig 9(a), ourCRF matcher rejected it by both graphs, G3D and GIm, withη3D = 1.45 and ηIm = 1.79. And in F2, Fig 9(b), our CRFmatcher rejected it by the far information coded in GIm, withη3D = 0.95 and ηIm = 1.47.

With the parameters by default of FAB-MAP 2.0 we cannotobtain full precision in the indoor dataset, even with p = 0.99.As explained in Fig. 9(c), we have to verify the loop closuresdetected with the GC to attain full precision, obtaining lowestrecall in the three datasets. With the modified configuration,we tuned the parameters of FAB-MAP 2.0 aiming to maximisethe precision. With this approach we obtained 100% precisionin the indoor, outdoor and mixed datasets with 30.6% recalland 2/6 loop areas detected, 3.3% recall and 3/9 areas, and19.9% recall and 3/8 areas, respectively.

We also tried to tune the parameters of FAB-MAP tomaximise recall without paying attention to the precision,which can be improved later by using the geometrical con-straint. With that approach, we could attain 100% precision inthe outdoor and mixed datasets, but false positives remainedindoors, obtaining 75% precision only. As in the case ofBoW + GC shown in Table VI, the geometrical checkingwas not able to filter out all the incorrect loop candidatessuffering from perceptual aliasing. In the mixed dataset therecall obtained, 15%, was lower than that observed withthe other FAB-MAP 2.0 configurations. The same situationoccurred outdoors, except for unrealistically low thresholds,like p = 0.3, that yielded a recall up to 5%.

In light of these results, we can see that our verificationstage is better suited to discriminate near-far information fordecision-making.

D. Timing

The on-line system runs at 1 fps. We have a researchimplementation in C++ using the OpenCV library. In Table VIIwe show the average and maximum times for each stageof the system on a 2.3 GHz IntelCore i3 CPU M350 and4GB of RAM. For the whole system, the average and themaximum times were computed only when all the stages wereexecuted. Note that the maximums for each stage happenedin different cases. That is more evident in the inferenceprocess for G3D and GIm: when an image provides more 3Dpoints, less background information remains. In an image, thenumber of nodes and hidden states between G3D and GIm arecomplementary. The execution time reported for the CRFs in

TABLE VIIIRESULTS FOR MALAGA DATASET

Precision Recall loop zonesfound/actual

FAB-MAP 2.0 def. + GC 100% 67.9% 4 / 5FAB-MAP 2.0 mod. 41.5% 81.2% 4 / 5Our System 100% 41.8% 4 / 5

the graphs includes computing the MSTs, the correspondingfeatures and the inference for each one. The time for thewhole system includes computing the 3D point cloud from thedisparity map and writing and reading the SURF descriptorsand point clouds on disk.

E. No hands test

After obtaining the best results in the different datasets ofthe RAWSEEDS Project comparatively, we tested our systemover a different dataset, the Malaga parking lot 6 [34]. Asbefore, we carry out the place recognition task at 1fps. Thisdataset, as the indoor one above, was collected in a completelydifferent location from the one were our training images wereacquired. The main challenge is to test our system with theconfiguration already used in the previous experiments on adifferent vehicle and stereo camera system.

For that, we kept the same vocabulary and CRFs’ weights,as well as the parameters used in the Outdoor dataset, as shownin Table V. In order to compare the results, we ran FAB-MAP2.0 with the configuration that obtained better result for theoutdoors experiment, and also with the default parameter set,p = 0.99, and filtering the results with the epipolar constraintGC as above.

The results over the Malaga parking lot are shown inFig. 11 and in Table VIII. With no changes in our systemwe attain full precision despite the increased speed of thisvehicle. Using FAB-MAP with the configuration for bestperformance in the outdoors experiment, we can obtain higherrecall here, but precision falls down to 42%, unacceptable forany SLAM system. If we use the configuration that exhibitedbad performance in recall in the outdoors experiment, FAB-MAP 2.0 def. plus GC, attains higher recall compared toour system (68% vs. 42%); both methods find 4 out of 5loop closure zones. This makes our system more stable acrossdifferent environments and conditions. We show in Fig. 12 twoexamples of those loops found by one and not by the other,Ma1 and Ma2.

Note in Fig. 11(c) that FAB-MAP alone has bad perfor-mance. It returns a large number of detections, more than halffalse loops. The increase in the number of alarms as comparedwith the RAWSEEDS experiments is due to the higher speedof the vehicle, 2.6m/s vs. 0.8m/s (see Table I). This results inless overlap between consecutive processed frames, increasingthe maximum values of the probability distribution over thesequence. Still, it is susceptible to perceptual aliasing due tooverlapping in the far information. This is corrected with GCbecause this dataset does not suffer from strong perceptualaliasing in near information, in contrast with the indoordataset, Fig. 9.


BoW, th=0.15 Pr= 100.0% Re= 39.6%

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FabMap 2.0, default, th=0.96 Pr= 41.5% Re= 81.2%

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Fig. 11. Loops detected by our system and FAB-MAP 2.0 in the Malaga parking lot dataset. Black lines and triangles denote the trajectory of the robot;light green lines, actual loops. In (a) high confidence detections (light blue) are accepted and unclear detections (magenta) are subject to verification. In (c)detections with p = 0.99 (default) are in dashed light blue, detections with p = 0.96 (mod.) are magenta. Detections with p = 0.99 which are verified withGC are shown in (d). In (b) and (d), deep blue lines denote true loops detected.

(a) Ma1.

(b) Ma2.

Fig. 12. Cases marked in 11(b) and 11(d) from Malaga dataset. Thesecorrespond to loops found by one and not by the other method.

Our loop closing detection stage discriminates better, stilldetecting the most of loop closure zones, see Fig. 11(a). Asexpected, our verification stage correctly decides over theunclear cases (magenta lines in Fig. 11(a)). The final resultof our full system is shown in Fig. 11(b).

V. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

We have presented a system that combines two powerfulmatching algorithms, bag-of-words and conditional randomfields, to robustly solve the place recognition problem withstereo cameras. We have evaluated our place recognitionsystem in different environments (indoor, outdoor and mixed)from public datasets. In all cases the system can attain 100%precision (no false positives) with higher recall than the state ofthe art (less false negatives), and detecting the most (especiallyimportant) loop closure zones.

No false positives means that the environment model willnot be corrupted, and less false negatives means that it will bemore precise. The important lesson that we can learn from thisis that we must always apply a verification stage over detectedloops based on appearance. As we have seen in situationsof perceptual aliasing our verification stage with the CRFmatcher is more robust than the geometrical checking usingthe epipolar constraint.

As mentioned in [36], the effectiveness of FAB-MAPdecreases when the camera looks forward, because FAB-MAP models the environment as “a collection of discreteand disjoint locations” [15]. However, in our experiments thestereo camera system faces forward, and distant objects (e.g.,buildings in outdoor scenes) persist for many frames, makingscenes overlap and be less discriminative. This causes thematching probability mass of FAB-MAP to be flattened overthe scenes. It is easier for our system to overcome those casesbecause our normalised similarity scores (ηc, η3D, ηIm) formatching acceptance are computed at each frame and takeinto account the similarity between consecutive frames.

By using jointly the CRF-Matching algorithm over visualnear 3D information (here provided by stereo vision, but alsopossible with range scanners, etc.) and far information, wehave demonstrated that challenging false loop closures can derejected. Furthermore, CRF-Matching is also able to fuse anyother kind of information, such as image colour, with ease.

Our place recognition system is able to run in real time,processing scenes at one frame per second. In most cases, afterextracting the SURF features (max. 300ms), our system onlytakes 11ms to detect if there are possible loop closures, and300ms to check them when necessary. We are considering theuse of cheaper feature extractors that can speed up this processwithout a negative impact in precision and recall.

In our experiments, the best β thresholds for acceptance ofthe CRF matching turned out to be clearly different for indoorand for outdoors scenarios. These parameters will also dependon the velocity of motion, mainly because we use imagesfrom the previous second as reference in the comparisons.Incorporating the computation of these thresholds as part of the


learning stage would also make the system more flexible. Nev-ertheless, our system has demonstrated a stable performance,always at full precision, for different environments, camerasand conditions. Systems such as simple BoW or FAB-MAP,both aided by GC, can obtain good results if adequately tunedin each case. However, the same configuration can result invery poor performance in others.

An important line of future work is addressing the placerecognition problem over time. Our system performs wellin multi-day sessions using parameters learned in differentmonths, and this is also true of alternative systems suchas FAB-MAP. The environment can also change during theoperation in the same session (see Fig. 10). Our algorithm isalso able to detect places revisited at different times of day,while alternative systems sometimes reject them in order tomaintain high precision.

Several extensions are possible for operation in longerperiods of time. The vocabulary for the BoW has shown to beuseful in different environments, which suggests that a richvocabulary does not require frequent updates. The learnedparameters in the CRF stage can be re-learned in slidingwindow mode depending on the duration of the mission. Thesystem will then be able to adjust to changing conditions.In cases of periodical changes, such as times of day orseasons, we will need to maintain several environment modelsand selecting the most appropriate for a given moment ofoperation.

APPENDIXFAB-MAP PARAMETERS DESCRIPTION

The parameters that we have modified are the followingones (for further details please see [15] and [5]):• p: Probability threshold. The minimum matching proba-

bility required to accept that two images were generatedat the same place.

• P (obs|exist): True positive rate of the sensor. Priorprobability for detecting a feature given that it exists inthe location.

• P (obs|¬exist): False positive rate of the sensor. Priorprobability for detecting a feature given that it does notexist in the location.

• P (newplace): Probability for new place. Prior probabilityto determine whether the last image is a new place.

• σ: Likelihood smoothing factor. Factor for smoothing thelikelihood values through consecutive places.

• Motion Model: Model Motion Prior. This biases thematching probabilities according to the expected motionof the robot. A value of 1.0 means that all the probabilitymass goes forward, and 0.5, means that probability goesequally forward and backward.

• Blob Resp. Filter: Blob Response Filter. All the SURFpoints with a blob response below this threshold arediscarded.

• Dis. Local: Disallow N local matches. Set the prior tobe zero on the last N places. We use the same parameterin our system during the BoW stage for not producingmatches against the last N scenes.

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Cesar Cadena did his Electronic Engineering andMechanical Engineering from the Universidad delos Andes, Bogota, Colombia, in 2005. He alsoreceived an M.Sc. in Engineering in Control Systemsin 2006 from the same university, and his Ph.D.degree in Computer Science from the Universityof Zaragoza, Spain, in 2011. His current researchinterests include persistent mapping in dynamic en-vironments, semantic data association with machinelearning techniques and control systems.

Dorian Galvez-Lopez received the Graduate degreein Computer Science from the Centro PolitecnicoSuperior, Zaragoza, Spain, in 2007. He was withthe Centre for Autonomous Systems at the KTHRoyal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden,until 2008, engaged in object detection research.He obtained the Master’s degree in Computer andsystem engineering in 2009 in the Centro PolitecnicoSuperior, where he is currently working toward thePh.D. degree in visual semantic simultaneous local-ization and mapping. His current research interests

include fast object detection and visual loop closure for robotic applications.

Juan D. Tardos was born in Huesca, Spain, in1961. He received the M.S. and Ph.D. degreesin electrical engineering from the University ofZaragoza, Spain, in 1985 and 1991, respectively. Heis currently a Full Professor with the Departamentode Informatica e Ingenierıa de Sistemas, Universityof Zaragoza, where he is in charge of courses inrobotics, computer vision, and artificial intelligence.His current research interests include simultaneouslocalization and mapping (SLAM), perception andmobile robotics.

Jose Neira was born in Bogota, Colombia, in 1963.He received his M.S. degree from the Universidadde los Andes, Bogota, and Ph.D. degree from theUniversity of Zaragoza, Spain, in 1986 and 1993,respectively, both in Computer Science. He is FullProfessor with the Department of Computer Scienceand Systems Engineering, University of Zaragoza,where he teaches compiler theory, computer vision,machine learning and mobile robotics. His currentresearch interests include autonomous robots, com-puter vision and artificial intelligence.

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