identity and conflict - ceris.be papers/identity reconstructi… · i would like to thank the ceris...

Research Papers N° 27

European Post Graduate School of International & Development Studies

Identity and Conflict: Cultural Heritage & the Re-construction

of Identities after Conflict

Anne-‐Françoise Morel

2012

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank the CERIS team for the coordination of interesting and

thought-provoking lectures, seminars and visits.

I hereby express my gratitude to Dr. Willy Stevens, Former Belgian Ambassador, for

his advice and guidance in the choice and definition of this dissertation subject. His

reflections were essential to bring this work to a good end.

I am especially indebted to H.E. Pascal H. Grégoire, Head of Mission for the Belgian

Diplomatic Services to Pristina, Kosovo and a longtime friend. His availability to

answer questions and provide me with the latest (field) information were more than

substantial to this work.

Table of Contents

1. Introduction

p.3

Résumé and definitions

p.3

Aims

p.4

Facts

p.5

Historical overview of the Kosovo-Serbia relations

p.6

2. Identity, Culture and Nationhood in the Balkans

p.9

Cultural Conflicts - Balkan Conflicts

p.9

Cultural Heritage and identity

p.11

3. The Role of Culture and Heritage in Post-conflict reconciliation

p.16

4. Assessment of international law and regulation on cultural artifacts during war-time

p.28

5. Conclusion

p.32

"This book is not an urging to live in the past surrounded entirely by the

architectural relics of earlier times, but with reminders that are freely chosen and

with a plurality of these reminders in order positively to reflect heterogeneity within

societies. Difference needs not to be otherness. Memories of past wrongs also need

to be kept alive without chauvinism poisoning the hope of a shared future.

1 R. Bevan, The Destruction of Memory:

1

This book is not an urging to live in the past surrounded entirely by the


plurality of these reminders in order positively to reflect heterogeneity within


to be kept alive without chauvinism poisoning the hope of a shared future.

The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War, Reaktion, 2006, p.211.

This book is not an urging to live in the past surrounded entirely by the


plurality of these reminders in order positively to reflect heterogeneity within


to be kept alive without chauvinism poisoning the hope of a shared future." 1

, Reaktion, 2006, p.211.

1. Introduction

Résumé and definitions

This paper aims to analyze the role and the importance of cultural heritage in

nation building, especially in periods of reconstruction after conflict. My research is

based on the underlying assumption that nations

ideology or form of politics but should be considered as cultural phenomena as

well.2 In consequence national identity must be regarded as a collective

multidimensional cultural phenomenon including language, sentiments and

symbolism. These phenomena are rooted in common familial, territorial, class,

religious, ethnic or gender backgrounds which may be modified or abolished.

Nations have thus to be understood as dynamic and complex processes. Anthony D.

Smith defines nation as "A named human population sharing an historic territory,

common myths, and historical memories, a mass public culture, a common

economy, and common legal rights and duties for all members".

Anthony D. Smith, the collective cultural identity

offers a sense of continuity to the past, unity of the population, and notions about

collective destiny. By providing repertories of shared values, symbols and tradition,

cultural identity helps to define, locate and orient

world. Hence Smith defines

on the part of successive generations of a given cultural unit of population to

shared memories of earlier events and periods in the histor

notions entertained by each generation about the collective destiny of that unit and

its culture. Changes in cultural identity therefore refer to the degree to which

traumatic developments disturb the basic patterning of cultural elem

up the sense of continuity".

Indeed, continuity and development are important to the creation and sustaining of

the national identity. Nations often refer to "golden ages", national symbols,

traditions (religious, popular, political) in ord

legitimacy. In consequence, at times of conflict, the national cultural identity suffers

a lot. Direct and co-lateral damage are caused to this cultural identity on symbolic,

material and psychological level.

imposed, ursurpated or destroyed and in both cases identity is disturbed. Cultural

heritage suffers from deliberate destruction and / or misuse in order to raise

hostilities and propagate different conflict

symbol of the identity of an ethnic group or nation, is endangered when one wants

to deny its existence or prove its weakness. In the words of Leturcq: "heritage is

affected in its essence as heritage

which one tries to damage or even deny".

Leturcq's definition poses two problems. A first complexity is hidden in the

definition of "the other". "The o

different factions with the popu

regime and its people. If heritage might be a powerful instrument in nation building,

2 A. D. Smith, National Identity, Penguin, 19913 A. D. Smith, p.14. 4 A. D. Smith, p.25. 5 Leturc quoted in: A. D. Smith,

3



based on the underlying assumption that nations cannot simply be understood as


In consequence national identity must be regarded as a collective


ymbolism. These phenomena are rooted in common familial, territorial, class,



"A named human population sharing an historic territory,


economy, and common legal rights and duties for all members".

Anthony D. Smith, the collective cultural identity is fundamental to the nation. It



cultural identity helps to define, locate and orientate the individual (nation) in the

world. Hence Smith defines collective cultural identity as "a sense of continuity


shared memories of earlier events and periods in the history of that unit and to



traumatic developments disturb the basic patterning of cultural elem

up the sense of continuity".4



traditions (religious, popular, political) in order to emphasize their strength and


lateral damage are caused to this cultural identity on symbolic,

erial and psychological level. Nations dominate or collapse, symbols are



hostilities and propagate different conflict ideologies. Cultural property, seen as a



affected in its essence as heritage - as a legacy belonging to the pa

which one tries to damage or even deny". 5


"the other". "The other" can be defined as another nation, but also as

different factions with the population of a country or as the huge gap between the


A. D. Smith, National Identity, Penguin, 1991.

A. D. Smith, p.30



cannot simply be understood as


In consequence national identity must be regarded as a collective


ymbolism. These phenomena are rooted in common familial, territorial, class,



"A named human population sharing an historic territory,


economy, and common legal rights and duties for all members".3 According to

is fundamental to the nation. It



ate the individual (nation) in the

as "a sense of continuity


y of that unit and to



traumatic developments disturb the basic patterning of cultural elements that make



er to emphasize their strength and


lateral damage are caused to this cultural identity on symbolic,

nate or collapse, symbols are



l property, seen as a



as a legacy belonging to the past of "the other",


ther" can be defined as another nation, but also as

lation of a country or as the huge gap between the


its "boundaries" not necessarily coincide with the nation's ones. Nations and

heritage can have divergent temporal, geo

boundaries (e.g. displacement, political symbolism).

Secondly, Leturcq's definition questions the notion of heritage. Leturqc defines

heritage as a legacy belonging to the past of the other. Hence he includes tangib

and intangible forms of heritage. And while he does explicitly refer to the past he

does not link the notion of heritage to inclusion on (world) heritage lists.

Consequently, when addressing the issue of cultural heritage and the re

construction of identities after conflict one should not only focus on monuments

listed by the international community. Attention should also be paid to local

customs and crafts.

Furthermore it is also important to re

its actual post-conflict area. Questions of environment and c

raised. Possibilities of sustainable protection (mobs and vandalism) after the conflict

are to be studied as well as the status of ruins kept

war. If cultural heritage is more and more seen as an instrument

reconciliation, its protection, conservation and

rebuilding societies and overcoming the sense of displacement caused by conflict.

However, this is to be done with care and sufficient preparation. Firstly, cultural

heritage has a heavy symbolical load. If it certainly

national identity after conflict, it can also keep the memory of the conflict alive and

even cause tensions about religious and economic (returning pieces or rebuilding)

issues. Secondly, the safety of the heritage (esp. museum collections) has to be

guaranteed when returned to its original context. Environmental criteria,

conservation, but also vandalism and robbery have to be taken care off. Thirdly, the

international conventions on heritage protection in conflict need to be evaluated

within the context of cultural heritage and the re

conflict. If it becomes an acceptation that cultural heritage can play a key role in

peace and reconciliation as well as in rebuilding societies; it is fundamental to start

with the preservation of this heritage. Regardless of international conventions and

protocols UNESCO 1954a.,

is still a target in armed conflict, subject to looting and vandalism or exploited for

economic survival. 7 Both the definitions of "heritage" and the means and conditions

to preserve it have to be heavily r

century conflict situations which are more focused on civil wars and terrorism than

ever before.

Aims

1. To evaluate the importance of cultural heritage in the building of national

identity in post-conflict areas

case: Kosovo

2. Evaluation of the role of the national versus international community in

preservation, conservation, restoration of cultural heritage

6S. Lambert, Rockwell C. (eds)2011, p. ix 7 S. Lambert, C. Rockwell (eds), pp. 12

4


heritage can have divergent temporal, geographical, physical and even symbolical

displacement, political symbolism).


heritage as a legacy belonging to the past of the other. Hence he includes tangib



Consequently, when addressing the issue of cultural heritage and the re

tities after conflict one should not only focus on monuments


Furthermore it is also important to re-consider the value of the cultural heritage in

conflict area. Questions of environment and conservation have to be

Possibilities of sustainable protection (mobs and vandalism) after the conflict

are to be studied as well as the status of ruins kept in memory of the tragedy of

ural heritage is more and more seen as an instrument

ts protection, conservation and restoration can play a key

rebuilding societies and overcoming the sense of displacement caused by conflict.


mbolical load. If it certainly can help to reconstruct a


n cause tensions about religious and economic (returning pieces or rebuilding)



vandalism and robbery have to be taken care off. Thirdly, the


within the context of cultural heritage and the re-construction of identities after

acceptation that cultural heritage can play a key role in



, UNESCO 1954b. and UNESCO1999. , cultural heritage


Both the definitions of "heritage" and the means and conditions

to preserve it have to be heavily reconsidered and adapted to the twenty



areas. Analysis of changes of attitude, symbolism etc.


preservation, conservation, restoration of cultural heritage - case: Kosovo

Rockwell C. (eds), Protecting Cultural Heritge in Times of Conflict

(eds), pp. 12-13.


and even symbolical


heritage as a legacy belonging to the past of the other. Hence he includes tangible



Consequently, when addressing the issue of cultural heritage and the re-

tities after conflict one should not only focus on monuments


consider the value of the cultural heritage in

onservation have to be

Possibilities of sustainable protection (mobs and vandalism) after the conflict

in memory of the tragedy of

ural heritage is more and more seen as an instrument for peace and

can play a key-role in

rebuilding societies and overcoming the sense of displacement caused by conflict. 6


can help to reconstruct a


n cause tensions about religious and economic (returning pieces or rebuilding)



vandalism and robbery have to be taken care off. Thirdly, the


construction of identities after

acceptation that cultural heritage can play a key role in



NESCO 1954b. and UNESCO1999. , cultural heritage


Both the definitions of "heritage" and the means and conditions

econsidered and adapted to the twenty-first



. Analysis of changes of attitude, symbolism etc. -


case: Kosovo

Protecting Cultural Heritge in Times of Conflict, ICCROM,

3. Evaluation of "sustainability" of t

regions with regular tensions and instability (politic

Kosovo

4. Evaluation of the International Conventions regarding Heritage and Cultural

preservations in times and areas of confl

and twenty-first century artillery.

Ex-cursus: "Prohibition of Funding for UNESCO passes U.S. Senate Committee with

unanimous vote" or the role of the international community in cultural heritage as

an instrument for peace and reconciliation.

Facts

“The rich plains of Kosovo, with their surrounding mountain ranges

which reach an altitude of 2.500m, belong to the most beautiful areas of Europe

and figure among the most fertile parts of the Balka

rivers that flow into the Black, Aegean and Adriatic Seas. Its central position in the

Balkan Peninsula has determined the importance of Kosovo, which covers an area

about 10 000 km² and is situated at the intersection of major

seaward.”8 This central position of Kosovo has lead both to its richness and poverty.

Over the centuries Kosovo has shared and contributed to variegated cultures at the

intersection of the Eastern

and Ottoman empires, of the NATO and the Eastern Bloc

diverse histories and backgrounds. This rich cultural diversity has however also

been at the origin of ethnic clashes which devastated the region. Ottomans an

Christians, Albanians and Serbians have laid claims on the territory for ages,

culminating in the 1999 war. If Kosovo already was the region most affected by

poverty in the Former Republic of Yugoslavia, the events of the 1990’s conflict with

Serbia worsened the situation. The growing power of Slobodan Milosevic in Serbia,

ultimately lead to Kosovo’s loss of political independence and several embargos. The

region became marginalized and isolated in less than a decennial. Today the

headcount ratio at national poverty line (% of population) is of 34.5%, while the

country’s economy is hardly viable. 45.3 % of the population is without work.

According to the World Bank database, the average GDP is $6.446 billion (USD) for

a population of 1.794 million. The GN

the IMF “A key medium-

develop a tradable sector, to reduce the economy’s dependence on transfers and

create the conditions for durable, robust growth. Cri

to strengthen the institutional framework and business climate, as well as

investments in infrastructure and education. More generally, Kosovo is a young

country whose capital and social spending needs are large. Policy

considerable and often understandable pressure to address these pressures rapidly.

To prevent putting macroeconomic stability at risk, it is indispensable to carefully

prioritize, cost, and sequence spending initiatives. Success requires b

8 Koïchiro Matsuura, Cultural Heritage in SouthConservation of a Multi-ethnic Heritage in Danger. Mission report9 World Bank: Kosovo [Online Resource: view dd. 17/09/2012].

5

3. Evaluation of "sustainability" of the heritage in post-conflict area

regions with regular tensions and instability (political, social, economic)


in times and areas of conflict, esp. with regard to civil wars, terrorism,

first century artillery.

of Funding for UNESCO passes U.S. Senate Committee with


rument for peace and reconciliation.

“The rich plains of Kosovo, with their surrounding mountain ranges


and figure among the most fertile parts of the Balkans. A watershed divides the



about 10 000 km² and is situated at the intersection of major

This central position of Kosovo has lead both to its richness and poverty.


ern and Western Roman Empire, of the Austro

empires, of the NATO and the Eastern Bloc and of various people with


been at the origin of ethnic clashes which devastated the region. Ottomans an




ened the situation. The growing power of Slobodan Milosevic in Serbia,



onal poverty line (% of population) is of 34.5%, while the



a population of 1.794 million. The GNI per capita is of $3,520 (USD).

-term challenge is to build a competitive economy and


create the conditions for durable, robust growth. Critical to this effort are initiatives



country whose capital and social spending needs are large. Policymakers are under



prioritize, cost, and sequence spending initiatives. Success requires b

Cultural Heritage in South-East Europe: Kosovo. Protection and ethnic Heritage in Danger. Mission report, Paris, 2004, p. 4.

World Bank: Kosovo [Online Resource: http://data.worldbank.org/country/kosovo

nflict areas - esp. in

al, social, economic) – case:


, esp. with regard to civil wars, terrorism,

of Funding for UNESCO passes U.S. Senate Committee with


“The rich plains of Kosovo, with their surrounding mountain ranges, the peaks of


ns. A watershed divides the



about 10 000 km² and is situated at the intersection of major roads heading

This central position of Kosovo has lead both to its richness and poverty.


Austro-Hungarian

and of various people with


been at the origin of ethnic clashes which devastated the region. Ottomans and




ened the situation. The growing power of Slobodan Milosevic in Serbia,



onal poverty line (% of population) is of 34.5%, while the



I per capita is of $3,520 (USD). 9 According to

term challenge is to build a competitive economy and


tical to this effort are initiatives



makers are under



prioritize, cost, and sequence spending initiatives. Success requires broad political

East Europe: Kosovo. Protection and , Paris, 2004, p. 4.

http://data.worldbank.org/country/kosovo, latest

support.”10 This broad political support heavily depends on dialogue and stability

between the different actors in Kosovo as well as on stable international relations

with Serbia and the EU. The country's stability and the establishment of du

international relations with its foreign partners heavily depend on the definitive

conception and recognition of the Republic of Kosovo as a lawful partner and on the

foundation of a sovereign democratic

national identity of Kosovo including its variegated cultural background has to be

accepted as a constituent element of the country's formation.

cultural Kosovo identity should first of all be accepted by the Kosov

themselves. Even if diversity and the protection of the rights of minorities are

fundamental principles of the Kosova

of the fact that these values, were at first imposed by the

The acceptance of multi-ethnici

forward as conditions for the achievement of sustainable peace and stability in the

region and advanced as a

Kosovo to the European Union. However, one s

national identity should primarily be based upon Kosovo's

tradition and mores while stimulating the European core values. Culture and

heritage can play an important role in retrieving an

Kosovan identity shared by all citizens. The rich diversity of

on a mix of Christian, Ottoman and Hellenistic cultures, could enable the

population of Kosovo to reconsider multi

approach would certainly

which were used as an incentive for the 1999 conflict and offer possibilities for

social and economic development. However, the reality is that 90% of

Kosovo populations consists out of Albanians. If it is a duty of Kosovo to protect the

rights of the minorities, the question is what actually remains of the historic multi

ethnicity and multi-culturalism of Kosovo. Are these notions still of pr

or rather European projections based on a nostalgic idea of the Balkans' "golden

age" on the one hand and on ideals of the European Union on the other hand?!

Historical overview of the Kosovo

Kosovo and Serbia live on long ter

in the "Myth of Kosovo". This myth, recalls the "defeat" of Lazard I, the Christian

prince of Serbia against the Ottoman empire in the "Va

1389.11 In the myth the defeat of Lazard h

martyr in eternal life and as the symbol of glorious Christianity. Lazard deliberately

chose for defeat in the battlefield in order to gain glory and perpetual life in heaven

10 International Monetary Fund, IMF Surveys: Kosovo, IMF, 2012 , [online resource: http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2012/car071712b.htm

17/09/2012].

11 Kosovo in Serbian means the Blackbird's nest: kos (blackbird) ovo (origin, nest).If the myth represents this battle as decisive, history is less radical. Neither Ottoman and Serbs could claim victory, as both parties knew many important losses during this confrontation. Serbia lost the majority of her cavalry and remained without arisOttoman lost their Sultan Murat I and his legal heir during the batlle. This bloody status quo was only to be decided in the favour of the Ottoman, during the next century.

6

This broad political support heavily depends on dialogue and stability


with Serbia and the EU. The country's stability and the establishment of du



tion of a sovereign democratic multi-ethnic country. Consequently the

l identity of Kosovo including its variegated cultural background has to be

accepted as a constituent element of the country's formation. This "new" multi

Kosovo identity should first of all be accepted by the Kosov

iversity and the protection of the rights of minorities are

fundamental principles of the Kosovan Constitution of 2008, one should be aware

of the fact that these values, were at first imposed by the international community.

ethnicity and multi-culturalism have

for the achievement of sustainable peace and stability in the

and advanced as a conditio sine qua non for a possible future accession

Kosovo to the European Union. However, one should be aware that a Kosova

national identity should primarily be based upon Kosovo's present values,


heritage can play an important role in retrieving an original and h

identity shared by all citizens. The rich diversity of Kosovo's


population of Kosovo to reconsider multi-culturalism in a positive way. Such an

reduce the nationalistic claims made upon heritage,

incentive for the 1999 conflict and offer possibilities for

social and economic development. However, the reality is that 90% of


rights of the minorities, the question is what actually remains of the historic multi

culturalism of Kosovo. Are these notions still of pr



of the Kosovo-Serbia relations

Kosovo and Serbia live on long term historical tensions which have been crystalized


prince of Serbia against the Ottoman empire in the "Valley of the blackbirds" in

In the myth the defeat of Lazard has been depicted as the victory of the



International Monetary Fund, IMF Surveys: Kosovo, IMF, 2012 , [online resource:

http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2012/car071712b.htm

Kosovo in Serbian means the Blackbird's nest: kos (blackbird) ovo (origin, nest).If the myth represents this battle as decisive, history is less radical. Neither Ottoman and Serbs could claim victory, as both parties knew many important losses during this confrontation. Serbia lost the majority of her cavalry and remained without arisOttoman lost their Sultan Murat I and his legal heir during the batlle. This bloody status quo was only to be decided in the favour of the Ottoman, during the next century.

This broad political support heavily depends on dialogue and stability


with Serbia and the EU. The country's stability and the establishment of durable



ethnic country. Consequently the

l identity of Kosovo including its variegated cultural background has to be

This "new" multi-

Kosovo identity should first of all be accepted by the Kosovo citizens

iversity and the protection of the rights of minorities are

Constitution of 2008, one should be aware

national community.

indeed been put

for the achievement of sustainable peace and stability in the

future accession of

hould be aware that a Kosovan

present values, history,


original and humanistic

Kosovo's heritage, built


in a positive way. Such an

reduce the nationalistic claims made upon heritage,

incentive for the 1999 conflict and offer possibilities for

social and economic development. However, the reality is that 90% of the actual


rights of the minorities, the question is what actually remains of the historic multi-

culturalism of Kosovo. Are these notions still of present value,



m historical tensions which have been crystalized


lley of the blackbirds" in

as been depicted as the victory of the




latest view dd.

Kosovo in Serbian means the Blackbird's nest: kos (blackbird) ovo (origin, nest). If the myth represents this battle as decisive, history is less radical. Neither Ottoman and Serbs could claim victory, as both parties knew many important losses during this confrontation. Serbia lost the majority of her cavalry and remained without aristocracy; the Ottoman lost their Sultan Murat I and his legal heir during the batlle. This bloody status quo was only to be decided in the favour of the Ottoman, during the next century.

with God. In a single event the myth conce

gradually forced the Serbs under Ottoman dominance for several centuries. By the

myth the domination becomes a deliberate choice for the glory of God and at the

same time it elevates the Serbs to the status of "electe

sacrifice of the elected people in 1389 will be conjured by their resurrection.

should not surprise us than that this myth, which had lost its importance in the

19th century (liberation from the Ottomans, 1804), was highlighted ag

nationalistic discourses of Slobodan Milosevic in the 1980's.

Until the Yugoslavia Constitution (and in particular the 1966 and 1974

Constitutions) the Albanian majority in Kosovo had lived under the dominance of

the Serb minority. In 1966 Tito

privileges with republics at the federal level. This resulted in a greater participation

of Kosovar Albanians in provincial administration. The new

provincial representatives tended to

and started to claim the elevation of Kosovo to a republic's status. After Tito's death

in 1981 these nationalistic feelings led to Albanian demonstrations and riots which

were responded to by the Serbian mi

Milosevic's curtailing of Kosovo's autonomy in 1989.

Milosevic made the myth the symbol of Serb identity and emphasized the status of

Kosovo in the Serbian origin. Kosovo was not only a mythic part of the Serbian

principality under Lazar, historically it also housed the Patriarch of the Serbian

Orthodox Church in Pec. Both myth and history placed Kosovo at the centre of the

Serbian nation. By recalling this, Milosevic restored the collective memory of the

Serbs which had been severely damaged by the instauration of the provinces of

Kosovo and Vojvodina under

same gesture he also reassured the Serbian presence in Kosovo which had become

insecure since the 1960's. But Milosevic also stigmatized Kosovo as the cradle of all

Serbian economic, social and political

12 J.-F. Gossiaux, Les Deux Passés du Kosovo15/01/2003, http:// socio05/09/2012] p.3. 13 D. P. Hupchick, H. E Cox, 2001, p. 50. Prior to 1989, there was a legal Republics, deriving from the 1974 constitution. It was granted almost all the rights of a Republic. According to the constitution, 1) Kosovo was entitled to participate in the joint realization of the interests of the federation; 2) like the other republics, it was responsible for implementing, enforcing, and amending the Yugoslav Constitution, as well as the ratification of international agreements and the formulation of Yugoslav foreign policy. Kosovo, wdirectly represented in the federal bodies such as the federal Parliament, Presidency Cabinet, Federal Court and Federal Constitutional Court.federation, like the other republics, Kosovo was granted the right to havconstitution, parliament and judiciary and to establish its own banking policy, within the common currency issue policy. See: DD. Kumbaro, The Kosovo Crisis in an International Law Territorial Integrity and the NATO Intervention, Final Report

7

with God. In a single event the myth conceptualizes the historical sequence that



same time it elevates the Serbs to the status of "elected nation" by God. The

sacrifice of the elected people in 1389 will be conjured by their resurrection.


19th century (liberation from the Ottomans, 1804), was highlighted ag

nationalistic discourses of Slobodan Milosevic in the 1980's.



the Serb minority. In 1966 Tito granted Serbia's autonomous provinces equal voting


of Kosovar Albanians in provincial administration. The new communist Albanian

provincial representatives tended to act in retaliatory way towards the Serb minority



were responded to by the Serbian minority and ultimately led to Slobodan

Milosevic's curtailing of Kosovo's autonomy in 1989. 13




ch in Pec. Both myth and history placed Kosovo at the centre of the



Kosovo and Vojvodina under the Yugoslavia Constitutions of 1946



Serbian economic, social and political problems, bearing the messianic promise of

Les Deux Passés du Kosovo, in: Socio-Antropologie, 1998, 4, [online edn. , http:// socio-antropologie.revues.org/index130.html, last view dd.

E Cox, The Palgrave Concise Historical Atlas of The Balkans

Prior to 1989, there was a legal and factual similarity between Kosovo and the other Republics, deriving from the 1974 constitution. It was granted almost all the rights of a Republic. According to the constitution, 1) Kosovo was entitled to participate in the joint

erests of the federation; 2) like the other republics, it was responsible for implementing, enforcing, and amending the Yugoslav Constitution, as well as the ratification of international agreements and the formulation of Yugoslav foreign policy. Kosovo, wdirectly represented in the federal bodies such as the federal Parliament, Presidency Cabinet, Federal Court and Federal Constitutional Court. Being a constituent part of the federation, like the other republics, Kosovo was granted the right to havconstitution, parliament and judiciary – including a constitutional court and supreme court, and to establish its own banking policy, within the common currency issue policy. See: D

The Kosovo Crisis in an International Law Perspective: SelfTerritorial Integrity and the NATO Intervention, Final Report, Brussels, 2001.

ptualizes the historical sequence that



d nation" by God. The

sacrifice of the elected people in 1389 will be conjured by their resurrection.12 It


19th century (liberation from the Ottomans, 1804), was highlighted again in the



granted Serbia's autonomous provinces equal voting


ommunist Albanian

act in retaliatory way towards the Serb minority



nority and ultimately led to Slobodan




ch in Pec. Both myth and history placed Kosovo at the centre of the



the Yugoslavia Constitutions of 1946 - 1974. By the



problems, bearing the messianic promise of

998, 4, [online edn. .html, last view dd.

The Palgrave Concise Historical Atlas of The Balkans, Palgrave,

and factual similarity between Kosovo and the other Republics, deriving from the 1974 constitution. It was granted almost all the rights of a Republic. According to the constitution, 1) Kosovo was entitled to participate in the joint

erests of the federation; 2) like the other republics, it was responsible for implementing, enforcing, and amending the Yugoslav Constitution, as well as the ratification of international agreements and the formulation of Yugoslav foreign policy. Kosovo, was also directly represented in the federal bodies such as the federal Parliament, Presidency

Being a constituent part of the federation, like the other republics, Kosovo was granted the right to have its own

including a constitutional court and supreme court, and to establish its own banking policy, within the common currency issue policy. See: D.

Perspective: Self-Determination, , Brussels, 2001.p. 37.

resurrection against the

"resurrection" took off on the 28th of June 1989, the day of the 600’ anniversary of

the mythic battle. Thousands of Serbs gathered on the spot b

symbols. The Serbian Church started to claim authority over the territory by

making references to the Serb martyrs who were buried in Orthodox monasteries

and by consequence literally made Kosovo part of the foundation of the Serbian

nation. During the next decennium nationalistic and ethnic claims of both parties

would feed the growing tensions ultimately leading to a cruel war (1999) which

included severe crimes against humanity such as mass delocalization

destruction of cultural and historical artifacts

deterioration of the situation on the ground prompted the intervention of

Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), culminating in the adoption of

(1999) on 10 June 1999.

Yugoslav governments signing the

governance of the province to the United Nations. A NATO

entered the province tasked with providing security

(UNMIK).

14 D. Dimitrijevic, Mémoire et Histoire dans la culture politique serbehttp://www.ifri.org/files/CFA/Dimitrijevic_Meerbe.pdf, last view dd. 05/09/2012

8

resurrection against the "Ottomans" embedded in the old myth.


the mythic battle. Thousands of Serbs gathered on the spot bearing nationalistic




ation. During the next decennium nationalistic and ethnic claims of both parties


included severe crimes against humanity such as mass delocalization

ltural and historical artifacts and genocide.

deterioration of the situation on the ground prompted the intervention of

Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), culminating in the adoption of

(1999) on 10 June 1999. The war ended on 10 June 1999 with the Serbian and

Yugoslav governments signing the Kumanovo agreement which agreed to transfer

governance of the province to the United Nations. A NATO-led Kosovo Force

entered the province tasked with providing security to the UN Mission in Kosovo

Mémoire et Histoire dans la culture politique serbe, IFRI,[onlineversion:http://www.ifri.org/files/CFA/Dimitrijevic_Memoire_et_histoire_dans_la_culture_politique_serbe.pdf, last view dd. 05/09/2012].

embedded in the old myth.14 This


earing nationalistic




ation. During the next decennium nationalistic and ethnic claims of both parties


included severe crimes against humanity such as mass delocalization, voluntary

and genocide. The dramatic

deterioration of the situation on the ground prompted the intervention of the North

Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), culminating in the adoption of resolution 1244

war ended on 10 June 1999 with the Serbian and

which agreed to transfer

led Kosovo Force (KFOR)

to the UN Mission in Kosovo

IFRI,[onlineversion: moire_et_histoire_dans_la_culture_politique_s


Cultural Conflicts - Balkan Conflicts

The international effort to find a comprehensive solution to the question of Kosovo's

status was started in 2005 under the auspices

Special Envoy of the Secretary

ended with Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence in 2008.

taking into account both demands of Serbia and Kosovo within the actual historical

context, could not totally satisfy Kosovo

broke down, late 2007 with the two sides remaining far apart, with the minimum

demands of each side being more than the other was willing to accept.

Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement

not grant immediate full in

Kosovo, while the Serbians could accept nothing but Kosovo's autonomy within

Serbia. Under the plan, the Kosovo entity would gain self

supervision of the European Union

rights by means of a constitution a

be accorded its own national symbols and

demarcation on the disputed Kosovo

Albanian negotiators were willing to support the essence of

even if the plan gained the backing of the

Serbia and Russia rejected it outright,

Nations. Faced with stuck negotiations in sight, the Kosovars decided to unilaterally

proclaim the Republic of Kosovo, however

follow the Ahtisaari plan's provisions. The declaration of independence was made by

members of the Kosovo Assembly

Since Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence, Serbia continued resistance

to the integration of Kosovo in key regional and international institutions such as

The Council of Europe, The Euro

or the United Nations. The government in Belgrade also keeps supporting "parallel

structures" in Northern Kosovo in order to keep the Serbian majority there out of

control of the Kosovo authorities in

tensions in Northern Kosovo (threatening tensions especially arose in spring

summer 2011 and in spring 2012) but also undermines the creation of a Kosova

nation and state that becomes a

discussion. The institutionalizing

represented is also hindered by this process. Since its declaration of independence,

Kosovo has been recognized as a Democratic Republic by 87 other states

remains unlawful to world actors as China, Russia and India. This lack of

recognition can be interpreted as a questioning of Kosovo's identity by the

international community. This identity question is however

Kosovo - and by extension Balkan

9


Balkan Conflicts


status was started in 2005 under the auspices of the Former Finnish President and

Special Envoy of the Secretary-General to Kosovo Martti Ahtisaari, but abruptly

th Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence in 2008.


satisfy Kosovo and certainly not Serbia.

late 2007 with the two sides remaining far apart, with the minimum

demands of each side being more than the other was willing to accept.

Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement (S/2007/168/Add.1)

not grant immediate full independence, neither sovereignty nor territoriality to


Under the plan, the Kosovo entity would gain self-governance under the

e European Union and become obligated to protect its minorities'

constitution and a representative government. Kosovo

be accorded its own national symbols and summoned to carry out border

demarcation on the disputed Kosovo-Republic of Macedonia border.

were willing to support the essence of the Ahtisaari plan and

the plan gained the backing of the European Union and of the United States,

rejected it outright, making no progress possible in the United

negotiations in sight, the Kosovars decided to unilaterally

Republic of Kosovo, however obligating themselves in the process to


Kosovo Assembly on the 17th of February 2008.



The Council of Europe, The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development



authorities in Pristina. This political impasse not only raises

tensions in Northern Kosovo (threatening tensions especially arose in spring

summer 2011 and in spring 2012) but also undermines the creation of a Kosova

nation and state that becomes a fully-fledged partner in bi-

ussion. The institutionalizing of a Kosovar state where minorities are equally


Kosovo has been recognized as a Democratic Republic by 87 other states



international community. This identity question is however precisely

extension Balkan- conflict.


of the Former Finnish President and

Martti Ahtisaari, but abruptly

th Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence in 2008. Athaari's plan,


Serbia. The talks finally

late 2007 with the two sides remaining far apart, with the minimum

demands of each side being more than the other was willing to accept. Ahtisaari's

(S/2007/168/Add.1) did

dependence, neither sovereignty nor territoriality to


governance under the

bligated to protect its minorities'

nd a representative government. Kosovo would

to carry out border

border. Even if the

the Ahtisaari plan and

the United States,

making no progress possible in the United

negotiations in sight, the Kosovars decided to unilaterally

obligating themselves in the process to




pean Bank for Reconstruction and Development



This political impasse not only raises

tensions in Northern Kosovo (threatening tensions especially arose in spring -

summer 2011 and in spring 2012) but also undermines the creation of a Kosovan

and multilateral

of a Kosovar state where minorities are equally


Kosovo has been recognized as a Democratic Republic by 87 other states but



precisely the core of the

Balkan conflicts are since long date most often triggered by questions of identity

and definitions of "the other".

perception of "otherness", while the homogeneity of one's own s

reinforced. This process of division or opposition often goes hand in hand with the

taxation of "the other" in more pejorative terms than "the self". These false

judgments lead to the non

conflict give rise to forced submission or even worse to extermination.

Serbs and Albanians unhappily

as the lawful inhabitants of the territory, consequently reducing "the other"

subjugated minority.

Division combined with the proximity of "the other" also promotes heightened

cultural self-definition.16 Hence

autochthony and religion

superiority.17 In 1990 the Serbian Constitution was amended to eradicate the

remaining vestiges of Kosovo's autonomy. New laws were passed

Kosovar Albanians' civil rights, language and cu

intervened in all important spheres of life, in an attempt to

to reverse the process of

Kosovo, became the paradigm of a segregated society, where

lived entirely separated in

Serbian regime systematically sharpened the division between Serbs and Albanians

in Kosovo. It is exactly the emphasis on the difference betw

those outside the group that leads to a devaluation

the outsiders - "the others

mass media were banned, Albanian language schools and universit

and more than 120 000 Albanians were dismissed from their jobs. Even the Kosovo

Academy of Arts was closed. In the public domain and in state institutions the use

of Albanian language was proscribed and civil and human rights were violated on

large scale and on a daily basis. The so

and Prosperity in Kosovo” laid down the creation of new municipalities for Serbs,

the contracting of new investment in Serb

houses for Serbs who returned to Kosovo, the introduction of family planning for

Albanians, and the annulment, retrospectively of sales of property to Albanians by

departing Serbs. The legal acts, mainly laws and “general decisions”(36 laws and

470 decisions) entered into force by the Serbian Parliament during the period 1990

1992 and were indicative of intense attempts undertaken by the Serbian authorities

to affect every aspect of the life of Kosovo Albanians with devastating consequences

for their integrity, dignity, prosperity and life. By the end of the war, Albanian

returned into force, accompanied by a feeling of international support. This

ultimately lead to the violation of civil and human rights of the Serbian minority in

Kosovo. Important aspects of th

15 J.-F. Gossiaux, [online edn. 15/01/2003, last view dd. 05/09/2012].D. P. Hupchick, H. E Cox.. 16

M. A. a Coppi Agostelli, Cultural Diplomacy and the Concept of the Other

International Conference on Cultural Diplomacy and the UN, New York and Washington, February 2117 J.-F. Gossiaux, p. 2. 18 R. Bevan, p. 13.

10


and definitions of "the other". Differences are emphasized in order to foster the

perception of "otherness", while the homogeneity of one's own side and identity is



the non -acceptance and denial of "the other" which

to forced submission or even worse to extermination.

unhappily defined "the other" by legitimizing only themselves

as the lawful inhabitants of the territory, consequently reducing "the other"


Hence, both Serbs and Albanian referred

to enforce their claim of territoriality and of racial

In 1990 the Serbian Constitution was amended to eradicate the

remaining vestiges of Kosovo's autonomy. New laws were passed

civil rights, language and culture. The Serbian authorities

important spheres of life, in an attempt to “Serbianize

to reverse the process of “Albanization” of Kosovo’s society after 1974. Hence,

Kosovo, became the paradigm of a segregated society, where different ethnic groups

lived entirely separated in “parallel” societies, with as little contact as possible. The


It is exactly the emphasis on the difference between those within and

those outside the group that leads to a devaluation - and even dehumanization

the others"- and their material patrimony and culture.

mass media were banned, Albanian language schools and universit



of Albanian language was proscribed and civil and human rights were violated on

large scale and on a daily basis. The so-called “Program for the realization of Peace


the contracting of new investment in Serb-majority areas, the building of new

for Serbs who returned to Kosovo, the introduction of family planning for



tered into force by the Serbian Parliament during the period 1990



ignity, prosperity and life. By the end of the war, Albanian



Kosovo. Important aspects of the UNMIK mission were the return of Albanian

F. Gossiaux, [online edn. 15/01/2003, last view dd. 05/09/2012].

Cultural Diplomacy and the Concept of the Other, paper delivered at The

International Conference on Cultural Diplomacy and the UN, New York and Washington, February 21


Differences are emphasized in order to foster the

ide and identity is



acceptance and denial of "the other" which in periods of

to forced submission or even worse to extermination. 15 In Kosovo,

"the other" by legitimizing only themselves

as the lawful inhabitants of the territory, consequently reducing "the other" to a


red to their history,

to enforce their claim of territoriality and of racial

In 1990 the Serbian Constitution was amended to eradicate the

remaining vestiges of Kosovo's autonomy. New laws were passed attacking the

lture. The Serbian authorities

Serbianize” Kosovo, and

of Kosovo’s society after 1974. Hence,

different ethnic groups

societies, with as little contact as possible. The


een those within and

dehumanization - of

and their material patrimony and culture.18 Albanian

mass media were banned, Albanian language schools and universities were closed,



of Albanian language was proscribed and civil and human rights were violated on a

called “Program for the realization of Peace


majority areas, the building of new

for Serbs who returned to Kosovo, the introduction of family planning for



tered into force by the Serbian Parliament during the period 1990-



ignity, prosperity and life. By the end of the war, Albanian



e UNMIK mission were the return of Albanian

paper delivered at The

International Conference on Cultural Diplomacy and the UN, New York and Washington, February 21-24 2012.

refugees to Kosovo and the implementation of rights for minorities (especially Serbs)

in Kosovo. If the return of refugees is by now mostly accomplished, the protection of

minorities is still followed

claims for special protection due to an on

Northern territories.

Through these territorial claims and the mutual threatening of integrity, origin and

religion both communities subscribe to Smith's definition of a nation based on

shared history, territory, and culture. According to this definition the collective

cultural identity creates a sense of continuity on the part of successive generations

of a given cultural unit of pop

at the service of this legitimization process and become a symbol of nationalistic

discourse. "History is the new material for nationalist, ethnic or fundamentalist

ideologies, as poppies are the raw mat

suitable past, it can always be invented. The past legitimizes. The past gives a more

glorious background to a present that does

The 1998-1999 conflict was sanctioned by little else than rec

heritage. Albanians and Serbs handled competing versions of Kosovo's cultural

identity in order to justify their claim on the territory. Culture and politics were

entangled in the nationalistic claims and became one the conflict's constituent

elements. After the war, culture remained an important argument for Kosovo’s

claims for independence.


Culture is one of the essential components of the Rig

People. The UN Covenant on de the Right of Self

Kosovo’s unilateral declaration of independence in 2008. In accordance with the

purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations, artic

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights recognizes that all peoples have

the right of self-determination. “The right of self

importance because its realization is an essential condition for the effect

guarantee and observance of individual human rights and for the promotion and

strengthening of those rights.”

their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural

development".21 As such, the right to self

economic, social and cultural aspects, each of which are being closely and

indissolubly linked. The right to self

collectively determine its political, economic and social destiny and system through

democratic means. It involves the exercise of rights and duties without

discrimination. The cultural aspects relate to the establishment of a cultural regime

or system, which constitutes a very impor

determination of all peoples. “It implies recognition of its right to regain, enjoy and 19 R. Bevan, p. 12. 20 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Self Determination of People (Art.1) 13/04/1984, CCPR General Comment No12

1984. 21 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 13/04/1984, 1984.

11


. If the return of refugees is by now mostly accomplished, the protection of

till followed-up, while the Serbian Orthodox Church continually

claims for special protection due to an on-going feeling of threat especially in the


s subscribe to Smith's definition of a nation based on



of a given cultural unit of population. By consequence culture and heritage are put


"History is the new material for nationalist, ethnic or fundamentalist

ideologies, as poppies are the raw material for heroin addiction. ... If there is no


glorious background to a present that does not have much to show for itself."

1999 conflict was sanctioned by little else than recourse to culture and

Albanians and Serbs handled competing versions of Kosovo's cultural


in the nationalistic claims and became one the conflict's constituent



Culture is one of the essential components of the Right of Self Determination of

People. The UN Covenant on de the Right of Self-Determination was fundamental to


purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations, artic


determination. “The right of self-determination is of particular

importance because its realization is an essential condition for the effect


strengthening of those rights.”20 By virtue of that right people freely "determine


As such, the right to self-determination encompasses political,


indissolubly linked. The right to self-determination includes the ability of a group to

olitical, economic and social destiny and system through



or system, which constitutes a very important element of the right to self

determination of all peoples. “It implies recognition of its right to regain, enjoy and

Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, General Comment No12 : The right to Self Determination of People (Art.1) 13/04/1984, CCPR General Comment No12

Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, General Comment No12


. If the return of refugees is by now mostly accomplished, the protection of

he Serbian Orthodox Church continually

going feeling of threat especially in the


s subscribe to Smith's definition of a nation based on



ulation. By consequence culture and heritage are put


"History is the new material for nationalist, ethnic or fundamentalist

erial for heroin addiction. ... If there is no


have much to show for itself." 19

ourse to culture and

Albanians and Serbs handled competing versions of Kosovo's cultural


in the nationalistic claims and became one the conflict's constituent


f Determination of

was fundamental to


purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations, article 1 of the


determination is of particular

importance because its realization is an essential condition for the effective


By virtue of that right people freely "determine


determination encompasses political,


determination includes the ability of a group to

olitical, economic and social destiny and system through



tant element of the right to self-

determination of all peoples. “It implies recognition of its right to regain, enjoy and

Comment No12 : The right to Self Determination of People (Art.1) 13/04/1984, CCPR General Comment No12, Geneva,

General Comment No12 : (Art.1)

enrich the cultural heritage, as well as the affirmation of the right of all its members

to education and culture.”22

Hence the right of self-

development of a nation and state, even if it is a general acceptance that the right of

self-determination will be exercised within the framework of existing sovereign

states. This being said, though

right of secession may arise : “In addition to the traditionally accepted situations

where a right to secession has been recognized

domination or under racist regimes

advocating that a people finding itself completely blocked from the meaningful

internal exercise of its right to self

exercise the right via external self

third construction arguably rest in the formal and/or factual inability of a people to

determine its economic, political, social and cultural status within the framework of

an existing State. The recent requirement of the V

which governments represent “the whole people belonging to the territory without

distinction of any kind” lends credence to the assertion that such a complete

blockage of the exercise of the right to self

give rise to an external exercise of that right, i.e. secession.”

2010 to a Request for Advisory Opinion, the International Court of Justice

determined that “general international law contains no applicable pr

declarations of independence” and accordingly that

independence of 17 February 2008 did not violate general international law.

Hence the role and importance

formation. Culture is a constituent element of the collective self and the collective

memory. Culture and heritage provide human beings with a sense of identity, a

cultural belonging and a bond between the individual self and

which it belongs. As Hannah Arendt has argued "

human world rests primarily on the fact that we are surrounded by things more

permanent than the activity by which they were produced"

heritage is created, transformed and shaped into collective views of the state, its

regions, constituents groups, values and ideas.

includes not only the arts and letters, but also modes of life, the fundamental rights

of human being, value systems, traditions and beliefs; that it is culture that gives

man the ability to reflect upon himself; ...It is through culture that man expresses

himself, becomes aware of himself, recognizes its incompleteness, questions his

own achievements, seeks untiringly for new meanings and creates works through

which he transcends his limitations"

22 D. Kumbaro, pp. 24,25. 23 D. Kumbaro, p. 28. 24 International Court of Justice, Declaration of Independence in Respect of Kosovo, No 2010/25,

[online version: http://www.icj19/09/2012]. 25 Hanah Arendt, The Human Condition: A Study of the Central Dilemma Facing Modern ManChicago, 1958, pp. 198,199. 26

Definition of culture according to UNESCO, as quoted in:

12

enrich the cultural heritage, as well as the affirmation of the right of all its members 22

of self-determination is fundamental to the creation and


determination will be exercised within the framework of existing sovereign

states. This being said, though, there are indeed certain circumstances in which a


where a right to secession has been recognized – for peoples under colonial or alien

domination or under racist regimes – many international lawyers are now


internal exercise of its right to self-determination are entitled, as a last resort, to

exercise the right via external self-determination, or secession. The roots for the



an existing State. The recent requirement of the Vienna Declaration according to



blockage of the exercise of the right to self-determination (internally) may potentially

give rise to an external exercise of that right, i.e. secession.”23 In response of 22 July


determined that “general international law contains no applicable pr

declarations of independence” and accordingly that Kosovo's

independence of 17 February 2008 did not violate general international law.

and importance of culture and heritage at the basis for nation

Culture is a constituent element of the collective self and the collective


cultural belonging and a bond between the individual self and the community to

As Hannah Arendt has argued "the reality and reliability of the


permanent than the activity by which they were produced"25 National cultural

ritage is created, transformed and shaped into collective views of the state, its

regions, constituents groups, values and ideas. According to UNESCO "culture


eing, value systems, traditions and beliefs; that it is culture that gives



, seeks untiringly for new meanings and creates works through

which he transcends his limitations" 26 Hence the importance of cultural heritage.

International Court of Justice, Accordance with International Law of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in Respect of Kosovo, No 2010/25, Den Haag, 22 July 2010 [online version: http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/141/16012.pdf, lates

The Human Condition: A Study of the Central Dilemma Facing Modern Man

Definition of culture according to UNESCO, as quoted in: M. A. a Coppi Agostelli.

enrich the cultural heritage, as well as the affirmation of the right of all its members

determination is fundamental to the creation and


determination will be exercised within the framework of existing sovereign

, there are indeed certain circumstances in which a


for peoples under colonial or alien

many international lawyers are now


determination are entitled, as a last resort, to

or secession. The roots for the



ienna Declaration according to



nally) may potentially

In response of 22 July


determined that “general international law contains no applicable prohibition of

Kosovo's declaration of

independence of 17 February 2008 did not violate general international law.24

at the basis for nation-state

Culture is a constituent element of the collective self and the collective


the community to

the reality and reliability of the


National cultural

ritage is created, transformed and shaped into collective views of the state, its

According to UNESCO "culture


eing, value systems, traditions and beliefs; that it is culture that gives



, seeks untiringly for new meanings and creates works through

Hence the importance of cultural heritage.

Accordance with International Law of the Unilateral Den Haag, 22 July 2010

cij.org/docket/files/141/16012.pdf, latest view dd.

The Human Condition: A Study of the Central Dilemma Facing Modern Man,

According to the French social historian Pierre Nora, collective culture and heritage

have increasingly grown in

globalization. What needs to be remembered is beyond the scope of the individual.

Cultural heritage, be it places, rituals, texts etc. forms the resonance of the

collective memory. It encompasses witness

expansion and socio-cultural ambiti

mémoires", pointing at the collective memory of a society or nation. Hence culture

and heritage are tangible expressions of a society's a

help to disseminate and improve (national) identity.

interaction and identity. Consequently, culture is major determinant of how people

perceive each other and negotiate differences.

agents of conflict, based upon supposed national interests and historic claims.

From the start of the Serb dominance over Kosovo in 1912 cultural heritage was

used as an incentive to promote the Serbian claims over the territory. Thr

justifications were set out for the rule of Serbs over Kosovo and its people: 1. "the

moral right of a more civilized people" 2. " the ethnographic right of a people who

'originally' constituted Kosovo's majority population", 3. "the Serb's historic rig

the place which contained the Patriarchate buildings of the Serbian Orthodox

Church".

This heavy charge of meaning upon heritage, also made heritage extremely

vulnerable to deliberate destruction. Consequently, cultural heritage and especially

historic architecture was massively targeted and destroyed. Culture and more

specifically religious architecture was

Serb Orthodox presence in the region. Kosovar Albanian heritage had been widely

and purposely devastated during the 1998

"de-Albanize" Kosovo. In march 1998 Serb forces initiated a campaign against the

Albanian population in Kosovo. Large numbers of Albanians were forcibly deported

from their homes and the histori

systematically targeted for destruction. There were two reasons for this destruction.

Firstly, the massive destruction of the built environment would diminish the

Albanians’ incentive to return

visible evidence of Kosovo’s deported Albanian community. The primary targets of

the Serbian attacks on Albanian buildings were mosques. Approximately 207 out of

609 mosques in Kosovo sustained damaged or were enti

religious schools, libraries, historic bazaars and kulla

associated with prominent Albanian families) were also favored targets. Seventy

percent of the well pre-served Ottoman urban centers in Koso

severely damaged with a great loss of historic architecture. In most cases the

damage was not collateral but deliberate in order to erase Albanian presence and

identity in Kosovo.27 A representative case is t

of Jashar Pasha in Pec. This Kulla dated back to 1809 and was an important

Albanian landmark, as the Albanian League of Pec first met here in 1899. One

century later it was burned down by local Serbs led by civilians. The destruction 27 A. Herscher, A. Riedlmayer, Kosovo, in: Grey Room, 2000, 1, [online edition: http://jstor.org/stable/ 1262553, last view 07/08/2012] p. 112.

13


have increasingly grown in importance, since history has "accelerated" through



collective memory. It encompasses witnesses of discussions and conflicts but also of

cultural ambition. Cultural heritage becomes


and heritage are tangible expressions of a society's aims and achievements, and

help to disseminate and improve (national) identity. Culture is thus about personal


perceive each other and negotiate differences. But culture and heritage can also be



used as an incentive to promote the Serbian claims over the territory. Thr



'originally' constituted Kosovo's majority population", 3. "the Serb's historic rig




oric architecture was massively targeted and destroyed. Culture and more

specifically religious architecture was - and remains - the symbolic centerpiece of


tated during the 1998-1999 conflict in the Serbian attempt to

Albanize" Kosovo. In march 1998 Serb forces initiated a campaign against the


from their homes and the historic architecture associated with that population was



Albanians’ incentive to return “home” and secondly it was a means to remove all



609 mosques in Kosovo sustained damaged or were entirely destroyed. Islamic

religious schools, libraries, historic bazaars and kulla’s (traditional stone mansions

associated with prominent Albanian families) were also favored targets. Seventy

served Ottoman urban centers in Kosovar cities

a great loss of historic architecture. In most cases the


A representative case is the deliberate destruction o



century later it was burned down by local Serbs led by civilians. The destruction

Riedlmayer, Monument and Crime: The Destruction of Architecture in , in: Grey Room, 2000, 1, [online edition: http://jstor.org/stable/ 1262553, last view


importance, since history has "accelerated" through



es of discussions and conflicts but also of

on. Cultural heritage becomes "lieux de


ims and achievements, and

Culture is thus about personal


heritage can also be



used as an incentive to promote the Serbian claims over the territory. Three



'originally' constituted Kosovo's majority population", 3. "the Serb's historic right to




oric architecture was massively targeted and destroyed. Culture and more

the symbolic centerpiece of


1999 conflict in the Serbian attempt to

Albanize" Kosovo. In march 1998 Serb forces initiated a campaign against the


c architecture associated with that population was



and secondly it was a means to remove all



rely destroyed. Islamic

s (traditional stone mansions

associated with prominent Albanian families) were also favored targets. Seventy-five

var cities were also

a great loss of historic architecture. In most cases the


he deliberate destruction of the Kulla



century later it was burned down by local Serbs led by civilians. The destruction

Monument and Crime: The Destruction of Architecture in , in: Grey Room, 2000, 1, [online edition: http://jstor.org/stable/ 1262553, last view

took several days as the first attempts to set fire inside

succeed. Men had to climb upon a ladder to set fire unto the roof, in order to have

to building burned out.28

culturally defined entity was targeted. Reciprocally immediately after the war and

during the march 2004 upheavals

primary target of the Albanian mob.

buildings were vandalized or destroyed

2004, serious unrests led to 19 deaths, and the destruction of a 35 Serbian

Orthodox churches and monasteries, as Albanians started pogroms against the

Serbs. Several thousand more Kosovo Serbs have left their home

Serbia proper or in the Serb

on Serbian Orthodox heritage can be explained by two main factors. Firstly the

religious Orthodox sites were generally

restored under Milosevic as part of the pro

full control by Serbia over Kosovo. Sec

false assumptions that the Serb Orthodox monasteries were originally Albanian

Catholic before being colonized by force by the Serbians.

The Kosovo conflict - in parallel with the other Yugoslavian wars

the notion of collective memory and common history into a radical nationalistic

discourse. Art and architecture became a proxy by which other ideological, ethnic

and nationalist conflicts wer

totemic quality. A mosque or a church for instance no longer remain places of

worship, but become to the

marked for erasure. Libraries or art galleries become a container of historic

memory, evidence that a community's presence extends to the past and legitimize

its presence and future existence.

why and how they are built, regarded and destroyed".

diplomacy in the region's reconstruction: "the priority of international community's

cultural diplomacy in the Western Balkans became

collective memory of common cultural past. The cultural policy of numerous

international actors in the Balkans was marked by an

new interpretation of the common Yugoslavian (and Balkan) history through

concept of the region's multicultural past".

28 A. Herscher , A. Riedlmayer, p. 118.29 T. Kostadinova, Cultural Diplomacy in warpolicies in the post-conflict (re

Three Piece Puzzle: the Relationship between Culture, International Relations and Globalization, Berlin, 2011, p.12.30 R. Bevan, p. 12. 31 Quoted from: Tonka Kostadinova, p. 3.

14

ral days as the first attempts to set fire inside the building

succeed. Men had to climb upon a ladder to set fire unto the roof, in order to have 28 As this case exemplifies, the entire population as a

ty was targeted. Reciprocally immediately after the war and

the march 2004 upheavals, the Serb orthodox monasteries became the

primary target of the Albanian mob. In the events after the war, more than seventy

buildings were vandalized or destroyed in revenge-attacks. On the 17th of March



Serbs. Several thousand more Kosovo Serbs have left their homes to seek refuge in

Serbia proper or in the Serb-dominated north of Kosovo. These post


religious Orthodox sites were generally perceived as "political statements" b

restored under Milosevic as part of the pro-Serbian propaganda seeking to secure

full control by Serbia over Kosovo. Secondly, historical misinterpretations led to the

that the Serb Orthodox monasteries were originally Albanian

tholic before being colonized by force by the Serbians.29

in parallel with the other Yugoslavian wars


Art and architecture became a proxy by which other ideological, ethnic

were fight out. Hence art and architecture take on a


worship, but become to the enemies a the token of the presence of a community



its presence and future existence. "Buildings are not political but are politicized by

why and how they are built, regarded and destroyed".30 Hence the role of cultural


cultural diplomacy in the Western Balkans became the (re-) creation of the


international actors in the Balkans was marked by an increasing tendency towards,

new interpretation of the common Yugoslavian (and Balkan) history through

concept of the region's multicultural past". 31

Riedlmayer, p. 118. Cultural Diplomacy in war-affected societies: international and local conflict (re-) construction of religious heritage in former Yugoslavia,

Three Piece Puzzle: the Relationship between Culture, International Relations and , Berlin, 2011, p.12.

Quoted from: Tonka Kostadinova, p. 3.

the building did not

succeed. Men had to climb upon a ladder to set fire unto the roof, in order to have

As this case exemplifies, the entire population as a

ty was targeted. Reciprocally immediately after the war and

the Serb orthodox monasteries became the

after the war, more than seventy

On the 17th of March



s to seek refuge in

These post-1999 attacks


as "political statements" built or

Serbian propaganda seeking to secure

interpretations led to the

that the Serb Orthodox monasteries were originally Albanian

in parallel with the other Yugoslavian wars - thus subverted


Art and architecture became a proxy by which other ideological, ethnic

Hence art and architecture take on a


enemies a the token of the presence of a community



are not political but are politicized by

Hence the role of cultural


) creation of the


increasing tendency towards,

new interpretation of the common Yugoslavian (and Balkan) history through the

affected societies: international and local ) construction of religious heritage in former Yugoslavia, in: A

Three Piece Puzzle: the Relationship between Culture, International Relations and

3.The Role of Culture and Heritage in Post

Besides being a tool of propaganda, instrument of a governmental game, culture in

politics can also become the means of exchange and cooperation between cultures,

in order to achieve dialogue.

and diplomacy find each other in cultural diplomacy. Cultural diplomacy is about

human values, finding a common ground between and among cultures and about

cultivating a richer understanding of the human condition.

the ICD, "cultural diplomacy is the use of culture by diplomacy, as

understanding, conciliation and to obtain agreements with language teaching,

educational exchanges and other forms of cultural contact."

processes and attitudes of nations and pe

as a common ground or language that binds all of humanity,

dependent on the readiness to recognize shared values and on the will of cultural

assimilation between countries.

UNESCO, Council of Europe (CoE) and Cultural Heritage Without Borders (CHWB)

make cultural diplomacy their core business. Through cultural and heritage

management programs they try to engage societies in dialogue and reconciliation.

For these institutions, the protection and reconstruction of cultural heritage clearly

is not an aim in itself, but

maintenance of peaceful relations between different communities.

heritage can be the focus of extreme conflicts, it is also a domain where increased

trust, understanding and collaboration between communities can be established.

An emphasis on the common features of cultural heritage can help create a

platform that is based on mutual respect.

public participation in restoration projects

chances of reconciliation between and within communities through the

management of conflicting interpretation.

politics of remembering, forgetting and silences

heritage as embodied by the "New Museology Movement". The recent focus on

heritage and reconciliation is based upon the assumption t

important tool in forging and perceiving identity, including the identity of "the

other". In cases of conflict or misunderstanding, heritage can be used as an object

of reflection and dialogue which bridges the differences between cultu

takes part in human culture in general and in the collective memory of given

people. Hence, the importance of heritage crosses national or ethic boundaries and

heritage can act as a relatively neutral object of reflection between communities

importance for the collective memory of a people can at the same time trigger the

interest and dialogue between cultures.

without Borders, a Swedish NGO founded in 1995 to work in the spirit of the 1954

Hague Convention on the protection of cultural heritage in event of armed conflict,

32

ICD, Evolution of Cultural Diplomacy

http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/pdf/case

dd. 26/08/2012]

15

The Role of Culture and Heritage in Post-conflict reconciliation



in order to achieve dialogue. This is the action field of cultural diplomacy. Culture

lomacy find each other in cultural diplomacy. Cultural diplomacy is about


cultivating a richer understanding of the human condition. As defined in a paper of

omacy is the use of culture by diplomacy, as


educational exchanges and other forms of cultural contact."32 Changing thought

of nations and people is not an easy task. Culture can act

as a common ground or language that binds all of humanity,


assimilation between countries. International organizations and NGO's including




he protection and reconstruction of cultural heritage clearly

, but can also serve the purpose of the re-establishment and

maintenance of peaceful relations between different communities. Indeed, if cultural

eritage can be the focus of extreme conflicts, it is also a domain where increased



sed on mutual respect. This idea rests on the assumption that

public participation in restoration projects and cultural initiatives


management of conflicting interpretation. Social justice and memory studies

politics of remembering, forgetting and silences - represent the reflexive view on


heritage and reconciliation is based upon the assumption that heritage is an



of reflection and dialogue which bridges the differences between cultu



heritage can act as a relatively neutral object of reflection between communities


interest and dialogue between cultures. Furthermore, research by Cultural Heritage

a Swedish NGO founded in 1995 to work in the spirit of the 1954

gue Convention on the protection of cultural heritage in event of armed conflict,

Evolution of Cultural Diplomacy, Berlin, s.d., [online version:

http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/pdf/case-studies/Gerome-Evolution-of-Cultural-Diplomacy.pdf

conflict reconciliation



This is the action field of cultural diplomacy. Culture

lomacy find each other in cultural diplomacy. Cultural diplomacy is about


As defined in a paper of

omacy is the use of culture by diplomacy, as a way to reach


Changing thought-

is not an easy task. Culture can act

as a common ground or language that binds all of humanity, but it remains


s and NGO's including




he protection and reconstruction of cultural heritage clearly

establishment and

Indeed, if cultural

eritage can be the focus of extreme conflicts, it is also a domain where increased



This idea rests on the assumption that

and cultural initiatives improves the


Social justice and memory studies - the

represent the reflexive view on


hat heritage is an



of reflection and dialogue which bridges the differences between cultures. Heritage



heritage can act as a relatively neutral object of reflection between communities. Its


, research by Cultural Heritage

a Swedish NGO founded in 1995 to work in the spirit of the 1954

gue Convention on the protection of cultural heritage in event of armed conflict,

Diplomacy.pdf, latest view

has shown that people living in conditions where they feel home and secure are less

prone to aggressiveness and conflict, especially after a war or a conflict based on

ethnic wages. Working with cultural heritage helps victimized groups strengthen

and regain their sense of pride. Restoration of heritage and development of cultural

property can also help poverty reduction.

political crisis, culture is often of low priority. Government and citizens, in first case

try to find solutions to provide in basic human needs. Culture is probably the one of

the most distinguishing outputs human capacity. Since the industrial and

technological society, people

culture than about surviving in periods of extreme socio

question is thus raised if culture and heritage are really allowed, by the given social

and economical context, to play a role in post

strategies are fruitful.

After the cessation of the ethnic conflicts in Kosovo, it was obvious

international community that the issues concerning cultural heritage needed to be

given greater attention if a long

achieved. Not only did the reminders that war

of, but also the intertwined cultural past of the Balkans.

other” had played an important role in the

heritage. Now culture and heritage could start to play an equally important role in

the considering of "the other

variegated cultural heritage

reconciliation symbolize the reality of co

Outstanding architectural monuments going back to the Middle

Ottoman period attest to the historic continu

exceptional artistic crafts of its inhabitants. This heritage includes 14

churches and monasteries, mosques of a great stylistic perfection and many

exceptional non-religious buildings which all testify of the den

artistic activity of the region. Indeed, Kosovo can be considered as a reduced

model of the Balkans. This richness and diversity consequently raises a challenge to

the (international) community to help to bring about stability and co

region.

Each ethnic group involved in the 1990's Yugoslav

sought to justify its existence and territorial claim by suppressing or destructing the

identity of "the other". Culture as main bearer of "collectiv

became the primary target and was used as an operation ethnic cleansing tool. The

desecration of religious sites and buildings and the massive destruction of

architectural heritage clearly aimed

different communities in Kosovo and was clearly based on a “misunderstanding”

and "denial" of “the other”. Systematic abuse, violation, looting and vandalism of

cultural heritage was noted until 2004 and remains

region which used to be known for its richness and diversity now carries the stigma

of profanation and intentional destruction associated with violence and hatred. In

33 CHWB, Cultural Heritage, Reconciliation, Reconstruction, Hopes for the Future2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest view dd. 22/08/2012]

16


and conflict, especially after a war or a conflict based on

wages. Working with cultural heritage helps victimized groups strengthen


property can also help poverty reduction.33 However, in situations of economic and

s, culture is often of low priority. Government and citizens, in first case



, people - and especially government- tend to care less about

culture than about surviving in periods of extreme socio-economic uncertainty. The


to play a role in post-conflict reconstruction and if so what

After the cessation of the ethnic conflicts in Kosovo, it was obvious

that the issues concerning cultural heritage needed to be

greater attention if a long-standing peace and reconciliation was to be

achieved. Not only did the reminders that war-damaged monuments had to be care

of, but also the intertwined cultural past of the Balkans. De-humanization of “the

important role in the killing of people and in the


the other" as an equal human being. While in period of conflict,

eritage were used to emphasis differences; it could

reconciliation symbolize the reality of co-existence and common past.

Outstanding architectural monuments going back to the Middle

Ottoman period attest to the historic continuity of life in Kosovo and to the

exceptional artistic crafts of its inhabitants. This heritage includes 14


religious buildings which all testify of the den

artistic activity of the region. Indeed, Kosovo can be considered as a reduced


community to help to bring about stability and co

Each ethnic group involved in the 1990's Yugoslav -hence in the Kosovo


identity of "the other". Culture as main bearer of "collective memory and identity"



architectural heritage clearly aimed at wiping out the traces of a past shared by



cultural heritage was noted until 2004 and remains an existing threat. Hence, the



Cultural Heritage, Reconciliation, Reconstruction, Hopes for the Future

2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest view dd. 22/08/2012]


and conflict, especially after a war or a conflict based on

wages. Working with cultural heritage helps victimized groups strengthen


However, in situations of economic and

s, culture is often of low priority. Government and citizens, in first case



tend to care less about

economic uncertainty. The


conflict reconstruction and if so what

After the cessation of the ethnic conflicts in Kosovo, it was obvious for the

that the issues concerning cultural heritage needed to be

standing peace and reconciliation was to be

damaged monuments had to be care

humanization of “the

killing of people and in the destruction of


While in period of conflict,

could in periods of

existence and common past.

Outstanding architectural monuments going back to the Middle-ages and the

ity of life in Kosovo and to the

exceptional artistic crafts of its inhabitants. This heritage includes 14th century


religious buildings which all testify of the dense multicultural

artistic activity of the region. Indeed, Kosovo can be considered as a reduced-scale


community to help to bring about stability and continuity in the

hence in the Kosovo - conflict


e memory and identity"



wiping out the traces of a past shared by



an existing threat. Hence, the



Cultural Heritage, Reconciliation, Reconstruction, Hopes for the Future, Sweden,

order to re-establish dialogue and to create the possibili

between the different communities it is necessary to equilibrate commitments and

expectations. Heritage and culture could be an interesting point of departure.

However, when the 2001 UNESCO report was drafted

Serbians and Albanians concerning heritage management differed quite heavily.

While the Serbians feel personally concerned with the fate of the Orthodox

Monasteries, the Albanians identify themselves le

from the Ottoman period than the Serbians usually tend to do.

overriding significance of Serbian heritage as a unifying symbol for the Serbian

Orthodox Church. This asymmetry should gradually make place for the awareness

of the citizens of both communities th

from the past is a common responsibility and duty towards the future generations

and mankind in general.

that cultural heritage is not only one of the pre

democratic development in the region but also and important political and

economic asset: “Through the support given to cultural heritage, an increased

administrative capacity and harmonization of legislation with the rest of Eu

be achieved. In addition to the democratic and environmental gains, work

opportunities can be created for local artisans and small business.”

Consequently the emphasis on identity, culture, heritage and religion in

Comprehensive Proposal was not gratuitous.

Kosovo's status should be independence to be supervised for an initial period by the

international community. According to Ahtisaari "Uncertainty over its future status

has become a major obstacle

economic recovery and inter

war, Kosovo and Serbia had been governed in complete separation by the

establishment of UNMIK pursuant to resolution 1244

exercised any governing authority over Kosovo. Hence a return of Serbian rule over

Kosovo was not acceptable to the majority of the people of Kosovo while Belgrade

could not regain its authority without provoking violent opposi

Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement envisaged the provisions

necessary for a future Kosovo that was viable, sustainable and stable. It included

detailed measures to ensure the promotion and protection of the rights of

communities and their members including minorities and the preservation and

protection of cultural and religious heritage in Kosovo, contributing to the

development of a multi-ethnic, democratic Kosovo. The Settlement placed great

emphasis upon ensuring the

Church in Kosovo. Protective zones were to be created around more than 40 key

religious and cultural sites regardless of their ownership. Specific restrictions were

applied to activities within th

functioning of major religious and cultural sites. Athisaari recommended that

Kosovo should have its own, distinct, national symbols; including a flag, seal and

anthem, reflecting its multi

nondiscrimination and equa

34 K. Matsuura, p. 9. 35 CHWB, 2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest v

17

establish dialogue and to create the possibility of peaceful co



However, when the 2001 UNESCO report was drafted, the expectations



Monasteries, the Albanians identify themselves less with the monuments dating

an period than the Serbians usually tend to do.



of the citizens of both communities that preserving culture and heritage inherited


and mankind in general. The CHWB project for the Balkans, explicitly mentions

cultural heritage is not only one of the pre-requisites for a peaceful and



administrative capacity and harmonization of legislation with the rest of Eu


opportunities can be created for local artisans and small business.”

Consequently the emphasis on identity, culture, heritage and religion in

was not gratuitous. Ahtisaari's plan recommended that



has become a major obstacle to Kosovo’s democratic development, accountability,

economic recovery and inter-ethnic reconciliation." As since the end of the 1999


establishment of UNMIK pursuant to resolution 1244 (1999), Serbia had no longer



could not regain its authority without provoking violent opposi




ommunities and their members including minorities and the preservation and


ethnic, democratic Kosovo. The Settlement placed great

emphasis upon ensuring the undisturbed existence of the Serbian Orthodox



applied to activities within these zones to guarantee the peaceful existence and



anthem, reflecting its multi-ethnic character and the pri

nondiscrimination and equal protection under the law. Athisaari's thus clearly

, 2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest view dd. 22/08/2012]

ty of peaceful co-habitation



the expectations of Kosovo



s with the monuments dating

an period than the Serbians usually tend to do.34 Hence the



at preserving culture and heritage inherited


explicitly mentions

quisites for a peaceful and



administrative capacity and harmonization of legislation with the rest of Europe can


opportunities can be created for local artisans and small business.”35

Consequently the emphasis on identity, culture, heritage and religion in Ahtisaari 's

Ahtisaari's plan recommended that



to Kosovo’s democratic development, accountability,

ethnic reconciliation." As since the end of the 1999


(1999), Serbia had no longer



could not regain its authority without provoking violent opposition. Hence, the




ommunities and their members including minorities and the preservation and


ethnic, democratic Kosovo. The Settlement placed great

undisturbed existence of the Serbian Orthodox



guarantee the peaceful existence and



ethnic character and the principles of

protection under the law. Athisaari's thus clearly

iew dd. 22/08/2012]

commended the creation of a new Kosovar identity based on its diverse historical

past and culture. Athisaari's plan adopted by the

Obligations for Kosovo that "

enabling Communities, and their members

identities. The Government shall in particular support

Communities and their m

Kosovo shall promote a spirit of tolerance, dialogue and support reconciliation

between Communities and respect the standards set forth in the Council of Europe

Framework Convention for the Protection of

Charter for Regional or Minority Languages."

As we will see, social involvement and the superseding of

binary are prerequisites for the establishment of dialogue and collaboration between

communities by means of heritage

course be part of a process of

heritage should not be stigmatized with conflict discourse. They first of all need to

include a rhetoric of remembrance of human culture, ideals and values

reconstruction and harmony.

rescue mission for the saving of democracy, minority rights etc. Heritage is not

something that is lost can

users. Hence, it is necessary to trigger the dialogue which is activated in heritage.

Dialogue sessions can for instance use heritage as a starting point to discuss the

importance of identity, origin

remain inaccessible and silent to "the other" and even beco

of a mini-crusade based on misconceptions and non

culture and heritage as a unifying factor

to serve nationalistic claims shifting culture from a unifying factor to a dividing

force, especially in regions where different cultural groups are formed on religious

and ethnic basis. The meanings and memories

artifacts are created by human agency and remain there. Hence

at the coin of culture in

culture and heritage heavily depends on the will of the

reconciliation. This involves exchanging the nationalist and separatist discourse in

which culture and heritage are often broadcasted

unification based on multi

problems regarding the status of culture and heritage in post

leaving even behind hard

reconstruction.

36 United Nations Security Council, addressed to the President of the Security Council, Addendum Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement, Washington, 26 march 2007, 10/09/2012]. 37 Sarah Wolferstan, Community Participation in Heritage in PostDemocracy, Dialogue and Reconciliation through Cultural HeritageThe Future of Heritage. ChanSelected Papers from the Third Annual Ename International Colloquium

18


Athisaari's plan adopted by the UN explicitly mentioned in his

gations for Kosovo that " 2.1 Kosovo shall create appropriate conditions

enabling Communities, and their members to preserve, protect and develop their

ent shall in particular support cultural initiatives from

Communities and their members, including through financial assistance.


Communities and respect the standards set forth in the Council of Europe

Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and the European

Regional or Minority Languages."36

social involvement and the superseding of the victim / aggressor

rerequisites for the establishment of dialogue and collaboration between

unities by means of heritage. Restoration or reconstruction of heritage can of

a process of "mea culpa" and forgiveness. However, culture and


rhetoric of remembrance of human culture, ideals and values

reconstruction and harmony. Restoration work should however not be seen as a


something that is lost can be saved.37 Heritage is loaded with significance by its



importance of identity, origin and tradition. Without such a dialogue, heritage will

remain inaccessible and silent to "the other" and even become ones more t

crusade based on misconceptions and non-understanding.

culture and heritage as a unifying factor appears fragile as it is easily manipulated



The meanings and memories that are brought to (cultural)

artifacts are created by human agency and remain there. Hence there are two sides

post conflict reconstruction. The reconciliatory role of

culture and heritage heavily depends on the will of the people to succeed in

reconciliation. This involves exchanging the nationalist and separatist discourse in

which culture and heritage are often broadcasted - for a discourse of tolerance and

unification based on multi-culturalism. Saying this, I point out some of the major

problems regarding the status of culture and heritage in post

leaving even behind hard-core heritage discussions on the authenticity of

United Nations Security Council, Letter dated 26 March 2007 from the Secretary

addressed to the President of the Security Council, Addendum Comprehensive Proposal for the , Washington, 26 march 2007, [online edition latest view dd.

Community Participation in Heritage in Post-Conflict Kosovo. Promoting Democracy, Dialogue and Reconciliation through Cultural Heritage, in: Interpreting the Past. The Future of Heritage. Changing Visions, Attitudes and Contexts in the 21st Century. Selected Papers from the Third Annual Ename International Colloquium, Ghent, 2007, p. 285.


explicitly mentioned in his

appropriate conditions

to preserve, protect and develop their

cultural initiatives from

embers, including through financial assistance. 2.2


Communities and respect the standards set forth in the Council of Europe

National Minorities and the European

the victim / aggressor

rerequisites for the establishment of dialogue and collaboration between

Restoration or reconstruction of heritage can of

"mea culpa" and forgiveness. However, culture and


rhetoric of remembrance of human culture, ideals and values nourishing

Restoration work should however not be seen as a


Heritage is loaded with significance by its



and tradition. Without such a dialogue, heritage will

me ones more the object

understanding. The role of

appears fragile as it is easily manipulated



that are brought to (cultural)

here are two sides

The reconciliatory role of

people to succeed in

reconciliation. This involves exchanging the nationalist and separatist discourse in -

for a discourse of tolerance and

some of the major

problems regarding the status of culture and heritage in post-conflict Kosovo,

core heritage discussions on the authenticity of

Letter dated 26 March 2007 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council, Addendum Comprehensive Proposal for the

online edition latest view dd.

Conflict Kosovo. Promoting Interpreting the Past.

ging Visions, Attitudes and Contexts in the 21st Century. , Ghent, 2007, p. 285.

Firstly, A majority of the cultural and historical sites and initia

politicized and subverted during the conflict in order to support nationalistic

claims. The will to undo this discourse has been driven by the international

community. Hence the danger exists for a repetition of the "failed" reconstruction

the Mostar-Bridge (Bosnia-

and decency is echoed in the fragility of its monuments."

reconstruction in circumstances where there has been an attempt to forced

forgetting by destruction are particularly treacherous.

The very name "Mostar" means "bridgekeeper". The bridge unified the old Ottoman

town centre at the East with the more heter

of what before the Bosnian

multi-national city of the region. Before the conflict the city had the highest rate of

mixed marriages between Serbs, Croats or Muslim. The destruction of the bridge

during the war, actually was an attack on the multi

essence of the city. The longstanding bridges between the several communities were

literally blown up. Mostar, as so many other Balkan cities was victim of "urbicide".

The reconstruction of the bridge was finalized in 2004. Nevertheless, Mosta

remains divided into a Catholic Croat West and a Muslim East. The bridge, however

faithful to his original design, is now rather a symbol of hope in a less divided

future than the symbol of present cosmopolitan unity as it used to be.

The same problem with the use of culture and heritage

Kosovo. It is raised by the fact that it is primarily the international community

which opened the debates on the creation of a common cultural past emphasizing

"traditional" multi-ethnicity and m

Many of the reconstructed Serb Orthodox churches and monasteries are

surrounded by military zones of protection out of fear for Albanian attacks as in

2004. These protection zones prohibit free access to the site

increasingly difficult for the surrounding community. The presence of police or

military forces underline “the otherness” of the sites and are all but in favor of

dialogue and contact between the communities.

government recently gave to

participate in the restoration of the Serb Orthodox Churches which were left

uncompleted by the Reconstruction Implementation Commission on Kosovo's

territory.40

In order to be successful heritage initiatives must be integrated in a regional

development plan involving local men and women. Hence it can support the

development of networks and co

be a generator for economic developme

tower inn Rahovec is a success based upon the involvement of local people,

development of networks and inter

backgrounds worked together on this restoration. This e

understanding and trust between them. The restoration of this historical

38 R. Bevan, p.9 39 R. Bevan, p. 177. 40

Information communicated by the Belgian Diplomatic Services in 41 CHWB, 2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest view dd. 22/08/2012]

19

majority of the cultural and historical sites and initia

subverted during the conflict in order to support nationalistic


community. Hence the danger exists for a repetition of the "failed" reconstruction

-Herzegovinia). "The continuing fragility of civil

and decency is echoed in the fragility of its monuments."38


struction are particularly treacherous.


town centre at the East with the more heterodox West. The bridge was the symbol

Bosnian war had most probably been the most cosmopolitan and

national city of the region. Before the conflict the city had the highest rate of


during the war, actually was an attack on the multi-ethnic and


Mostar, as so many other Balkan cities was victim of "urbicide".

The reconstruction of the bridge was finalized in 2004. Nevertheless, Mosta



future than the symbol of present cosmopolitan unity as it used to be.

ith the use of culture and heritage occurs

is raised by the fact that it is primarily the international community


ethnicity and multi-culturalism of the Balkans and Kos



These protection zones prohibit free access to the sites and make daily life



dialogue and contact between the communities. Furthermore, the Kosovo

gave to understand it was no longer willing to fund and



successful heritage initiatives must be integrated in a regional


development of networks and co-operation between ethnic and religious groups and

be a generator for economic development.41 The restoration project of the clock


development of networks and inter-ethnic cooperation. Several people from different

backgrounds worked together on this restoration. This encouraged mutual respect,


Information communicated by the Belgian Diplomatic Services in Pristina.

CHWB, 2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest view dd. 22/08/2012]

majority of the cultural and historical sites and initiatives have been

subverted during the conflict in order to support nationalistic


community. Hence the danger exists for a repetition of the "failed" reconstruction of

"The continuing fragility of civilized society 38 The pitfalls of



he bridge was the symbol

the most cosmopolitan and

national city of the region. Before the conflict the city had the highest rate of


ethnic and cosmopolitan


Mostar, as so many other Balkan cities was victim of "urbicide".

The reconstruction of the bridge was finalized in 2004. Nevertheless, Mostar



future than the symbol of present cosmopolitan unity as it used to be.39

occurs in post-conflict

is raised by the fact that it is primarily the international community


culturalism of the Balkans and Kosovo.



s and make daily life



Furthermore, the Kosovo

it was no longer willing to fund and



successful heritage initiatives must be integrated in a regional


operation between ethnic and religious groups and

The restoration project of the clock


ethnic cooperation. Several people from different

ncouraged mutual respect,


CHWB, 2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest view dd. 22/08/2012]

monument also empowered local entrepreneurs in traditional craft and material

techniques.42

A similar case of interest

Presentation of the Holy Virgin, Dolac.

century and heavily restored in the 16th

traditional technique that was used by Serbs and Albanians alike in

namely stone walls and roofs of thick slabs of slate.

in 2004. The reconstruction however, could mean an act of co

both Albanian and Serbs as the required traditional building techniques offer a

of Albanian and Serbian know

rebuilding of a church that once was a symbol of inter

Another example of the involvement of heritage in the reconciliation program

through development cooperation is given by Insertos.

with considerable humanitarian experience in Kosovo

society capacity building projects with its heritage restoration and

program. Insertos organized

stakeholders and common citizens of both Serbian and Albanian origin. These

heritage tours were followed by dialogue sessions that used cultural heritage as a

starting point of discussion between the commun

identity, integrity and community.

and heritage can serve as peaceful identity

means of intercultural dialogue Intersos tried

conditions, re-establish dialogue and strengthen peace, reconstruction and growth.

If the first heritage tours did not involve mixed groups of Albanians

other minorities nor the visit of "the others" heritage, the

spread as well as the request for mixed visits of all possible sites

Intersos' have reduced the emphasis on the political and religious "burden" of

heritage and encouraged a wider discussion on intangible aspects

its relationship to identity, past, present and future.

brought to the surface: tolerance, seekers of peace, heritage as a cure,

transformation. Tolerance requires mutual respect and the restoration of universal

values regardless of religious conviction. Heritage can help to recall pre

behavior and perception which w

other faiths instead of on extreme nationalism. The continuous re

the sites, monuments or other cultural

meanings of sites of war to sites of reconciliation and respect. Hence, heritage and

culture can help to remember how the different communities interacted in the past,

thus transforming their role from the aggressor / victim binary to seekers of peace

and mutual understanding.

If progress has been made there is still a long way to go. The Serbian Orthodox

Church and the Serbian Government still maintain some of their websites that

charge NATO and Albanians with (deliberate) destruction of churches and

monasteries during air raids.

damaged caused to Serbian heritage during the 1999 conflict and the 2004 raids. It 42 CHWB, 2010 Projects, Sweden, 2010 [online version: wwwdd. 20/09/2012] 43 For the evaluation of the project see: Sarah Wolferstan, p. 286

20


of interest could be the Orthodox Monastery Church of the

Presentation of the Holy Virgin, Dolac. This church was founded in late 14th

century and heavily restored in the 16th-17th centuries. It was built with the

traditional technique that was used by Serbs and Albanians alike in

roofs of thick slabs of slate. Albanians destroyed the church

. The reconstruction however, could mean an act of co-operation between

ian and Serbs as the required traditional building techniques offer a

of Albanian and Serbian know-how. Both communities could contribute to the

rebuilding of a church that once was a symbol of inter-ethnic cultural exchange.


t cooperation is given by Insertos. Insertos is

with considerable humanitarian experience in Kosovo. It decided to combine its civil

society capacity building projects with its heritage restoration and

organized heritage tours, bringing together practi



starting point of discussion between the communities. Emphasis

and community. It is precisely in this "dialogue role" that culture

and heritage can serve as peaceful identity-builders in war-affected societies.

means of intercultural dialogue Intersos tried to promote a return to normal living

establish dialogue and strengthen peace, reconstruction and growth.

tours did not involve mixed groups of Albanians

the visit of "the others" heritage, the enthusiasm for the tours

spread as well as the request for mixed visits of all possible sites

have reduced the emphasis on the political and religious "burden" of

heritage and encouraged a wider discussion on intangible aspects

its relationship to identity, past, present and future. Four central themes were



ues regardless of religious conviction. Heritage can help to recall pre

and perception which were often conciliatory and based on tolerance for

other faiths instead of on extreme nationalism. The continuous re

, monuments or other cultural artifacts include a chang



their role from the aggressor / victim binary to seekers of peace

and mutual understanding.43




monasteries during air raids. The website "www.kosovo.net" lists for instance all

damaged caused to Serbian heritage during the 1999 conflict and the 2004 raids. It

CHWB, 2010 Projects, Sweden, 2010 [online version: www.chwbkosovo.org, latest view

For the evaluation of the project see: Sarah Wolferstan, p. 286-288.


Orthodox Monastery Church of the

This church was founded in late 14th

was built with the

traditional technique that was used by Serbs and Albanians alike in this area,

banians destroyed the church

operation between

ian and Serbs as the required traditional building techniques offer a mix

how. Both communities could contribute to the

ethnic cultural exchange.


Insertos is an Italian NGO

decided to combine its civil

society capacity building projects with its heritage restoration and management

heritage tours, bringing together practitioners,



ities. Emphasis was laid on

It is precisely in this "dialogue role" that culture

affected societies. By

te a return to normal living

establish dialogue and strengthen peace, reconstruction and growth.

tours did not involve mixed groups of Albanians, Serbians and

enthusiasm for the tours

spread as well as the request for mixed visits of all possible sites. Initiatives as

have reduced the emphasis on the political and religious "burden" of

heritage and encouraged a wider discussion on intangible aspects of heritage and

Four central themes were



ues regardless of religious conviction. Heritage can help to recall pre-conflict

often conciliatory and based on tolerance for

other faiths instead of on extreme nationalism. The continuous re-interpretation of

include a change from negative



their role from the aggressor / victim binary to seekers of peace




The website "www.kosovo.net" lists for instance all

damaged caused to Serbian heritage during the 1999 conflict and the 2004 raids. It

.chwbkosovo.org, latest view

literally questions " Was the Goal of the NATO campaign in Kosovo to allow

replacement of one repression with another?"

Andrew Hersher and Andras Riedlmayer

with Harvard University's Fine Arts Library an

cultural heritage survey,

damage to the Roman Catholic Church of St. Anthony in Gjakova, proved actually

to have been committed by Serbian soldiers instead of NATO.

Secondly, rebuilding can be as symbolic as destruction. Construction can be used

to "cement" the injuries of a past conflict or on the contrary to mask the past and

erase all traces of violence. In both cases what is remembered, is partial and not

necessarily accurate in an attempt to create a

and identity. Hence it is important to strengthen the role of local institutions in

integrating cultural heritage in the spatial planning program of cities and regions

under reconstruction – see for instance the CHWB “Integrated Conservation

Assistance Support For Central and Local Institutions”

coherent plans and regulations

some mosques are rebuilt with funding from

interiors which were characteristic of Balkan Islamic architecture give way to the

austerity demanded by the Wah

new buildings thus offer a toehold for Islamic extremism

religious differences played an important role in war.

the center of Pristina, four centuries old,

disuse and disrepair. Rather than

the Saudi Joint Committee for the Relief

largest and most prominent

razed to the ground in 2000. In its place appeared a large, white mosque, wrappe

with reflective windows. In that same year, another centuries

town of Rahovec, also undamaged during the war, was

with a new one. In projects where the old structure was retained, reconstruction

made it sometimes almost unrecognizable as a historic object.

Hamam mosque in Peja was plastered over and the portico was enclosed in a glass

and metal frame to make it more austere

controversial projects, the impunity of the Saudi

challenged. The Hadum mosque in Gjakova, a handsome stone structure with a

large dome, was part of a historic complex in the center of the old town, which

Serbian militias had badly damaged. Althoug

the complex, the SJRC had

bulldozed to make room for a new Islamic center. After UNMIK’s Department of

Culture (DOC) was notified

undo the damage they had done, using historically appropriate materials and

techniques. The SJRC pulled its funding and

44 See for instance www.kosovo.net with special attention for "Crucified Kosovo". 45 R. Bevan, p. 85. 46 CHWB, 2010 Projects, Sweden, 2010 [online version: 20/09/2012] 47 R. Bevan, pp. 176, 190.

21

" Was the Goal of the NATO campaign in Kosovo to allow

replacement of one repression with another?" 44 Careful post-

Andrew Hersher and Andras Riedlmayer experts on Islamic art and architecture

with Harvard University's Fine Arts Library and authors of Kosovo’s postwar

proved many of these accusations were false. Major


to have been committed by Serbian soldiers instead of NATO. 45

ly, rebuilding can be as symbolic as destruction. Construction can be used



curate in an attempt to create a meaningful and coherent narrative

it is important to strengthen the role of local institutions in


see for instance the CHWB “Integrated Conservation

Assistance Support For Central and Local Institutions”.46 In absence of such

and regulations, reconstruction may come at a price

some mosques are rebuilt with funding from Saudi sources. The richly decorated


austerity demanded by the Wahhabi Islam of the Saudi funders. Even worse, these

new buildings thus offer a toehold for Islamic extremism in a fragile society where

religious differences played an important role in war.47 The Qater Lula mosque in

the center of Pristina, four centuries old, was not damaged during the war

Rather than to attempt the complicated task

the Saudi Joint Committee for the Relief of Kosovo and Chechnya (SJRC)

largest and most prominent Arab aid organization in Kosovo - had the old structure

razed to the ground in 2000. In its place appeared a large, white mosque, wrappe

with reflective windows. In that same year, another centuries-old mosque in the

town of Rahovec, also undamaged during the war, was demolished and replaced

In projects where the old structure was retained, reconstruction

almost unrecognizable as a historic object. For instance, t


to make it more austere. In the case of at least one

, the impunity of the Saudi-backed construction crews was



Serbian militias had badly damaged. Although its stated intention was to restore

had the remains of the abutting 16th

to make room for a new Islamic center. After UNMIK’s Department of

Culture (DOC) was notified, the works were stopped and the Sau


techniques. The SJRC pulled its funding and left behind a demolished mosque and

See for instance www.kosovo.net with special attention for "Crucified Kosovo".

, Sweden, 2010 [online version: www.chwbkosovo.org

" Was the Goal of the NATO campaign in Kosovo to allow

-war research by

experts on Islamic art and architecture

d authors of Kosovo’s postwar

proved many of these accusations were false. Major


ly, rebuilding can be as symbolic as destruction. Construction can be used



and coherent narrative

it is important to strengthen the role of local institutions in


see for instance the CHWB “Integrated Conservation

In absence of such

, reconstruction may come at a price. For instance

Saudi sources. The richly decorated


abi Islam of the Saudi funders. Even worse, these

in a fragile society where

The Qater Lula mosque in

damaged during the war but in

attempt the complicated task of restoration,

of Kosovo and Chechnya (SJRC) - the

had the old structure

razed to the ground in 2000. In its place appeared a large, white mosque, wrapped

old mosque in the

demolished and replaced

In projects where the old structure was retained, reconstruction

For instance, the


. In the case of at least one of these

backed construction crews was



h its stated intention was to restore

the remains of the abutting 16th-century library

to make room for a new Islamic center. After UNMIK’s Department of

the Saudis ordained to


left behind a demolished mosque and

See for instance www.kosovo.net with special attention for "Crucified Kosovo".

www.chwbkosovo.org, latest view dd.

an empty lot. Some experts on Balkan architectural heritage have charged that

alterations made to the Turkish

imposition of their own standar

sect of the Saudis, stresses

representational imagery.

mosques, where imagery and ornament,

are widely used. Besides heritage

Bajgora, also expresses dissatisfaction with

projects have been carried out:. "We are also concerned that these were done

improperly. They are our cultural heritage." However, the Saudi funders are not the

only to blame. Andras Riedlmayer, is one of the most outspok

sponsored reconstruction projects in the Balkans. But he

appreciation for or identification with Kosovo’s Ottoman mosques

local staff of the agencies charged with th

open hostility toward religion that was an absolute prerequisite for anyone who

wanted to be seen as educated and 'modern' in communist Yugoslavia.”

Nevertheless, there is evidence that working with the conservation and development

of cultural and historic environments can help to promote the process of

reconciliation ; strengthen self

poverty. The Council of Europe in co

Borders, for instance works on a successful project in Peja. Several important

kulla’s in the region are restored in co

and Sports, the municipality, local business an

Architecture from Pristina. The aim of the project is to highlight the region’s multi

cultural values and to contribute to reconciliation. The region’s rich and diverse

cultural, religious and natural sites are promoted as

out, it can rise hopes that different groups and forces can continue to unite in

working for this common cause.

appreciation shown by the people in the area giving way to dialog

cohesion.49

The event “Lessons from Kosovo

and cultural heritage”- is a joint event organized by Cul

Borders and UN Habitat Programs in Kosovo,

heritage in Kosovo’s municipalities

through the use of plans in guiding local development

creation of spatial order, the protection of the

reducing the risk of natural and manmade disasters and mitigating their

consequences. Both organizations

building municipal capacity for strategic planning, engaging civil society in the

participatory planning. This approach has resulted in greater ownership and

functionality, while lowering costs of the planning. In addition, the integration of

cultural heritage into spatial planning promotes diversity and upholds the right of

citizens to partake in culture. Wh

municipal plans, it creates conditions for development and economic growth.

48 http://www.tol.org/client/article/1017249 CHWB, 2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest view dd. 22/08/2012]

22

Some experts on Balkan architectural heritage have charged that

tions made to the Turkish-style mosques reflect the foreign financiers'

imposition of their own standards of Islamic architecture. Wahhabism, the Islamic

sect of the Saudis, stresses austerity and prohibits the use of

This is in sharp contrast with the "traditional"

where imagery and ornament, moldings and elaborate interior frescoes

widely used. Besides heritage organizations, Kosovo's head

Bajgora, also expresses dissatisfaction with the way some of the reconstruction



Andras Riedlmayer, is one of the most outspoken critics of foreign

sponsored reconstruction projects in the Balkans. But he points at

appreciation for or identification with Kosovo’s Ottoman mosques, even

the agencies charged with their protection. Their attitude


wanted to be seen as educated and 'modern' in communist Yugoslavia.”

is evidence that working with the conservation and development


reconciliation ; strengthen self-belief and contribute towards growth and fight of

The Council of Europe in collaboration with Cultural Heritage Without


kulla’s in the region are restored in co-operation with the Ministry of Youth, Culture

and Sports, the municipality, local business and organizations and the School of

Architecture from Pristina. The aim of the project is to highlight the region’s multi


cultural, religious and natural sites are promoted as touristic assets. If this works


working for this common cause. Until now, there is a massive involvement and

appreciation shown by the people in the area giving way to dialogue and even social

The event “Lessons from Kosovo – How post conflict society is dealing with

is a joint event organized by Cultural Heritage without

and UN Habitat Programs in Kosovo, which promotes the

municipalities through spatial and urban planning and

the use of plans in guiding local development. The program aims at the

the protection of the environment and of


organizations, the CHWB and the UN Habitat,


This approach has resulted in greater ownership and



citizens to partake in culture. When cultural heritage is successfully integrated into

municipal plans, it creates conditions for development and economic growth.

http://www.tol.org/client/article/10172-kosovo-heritage-or-sacrilege.htmlCHWB, 2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest view dd. 22/08/2012]

Some experts on Balkan architectural heritage have charged that

style mosques reflect the foreign financiers'

abism, the Islamic

prohibits the use of ornament and

This is in sharp contrast with the "traditional" Balkan

moldings and elaborate interior frescoes

, Kosovo's head Imam, Sabri

the way some of the reconstruction



en critics of foreign-

points at a lack of

, even among the

eir protection. Their attitude reflects “the


wanted to be seen as educated and 'modern' in communist Yugoslavia.”48

is evidence that working with the conservation and development


belief and contribute towards growth and fight of

llaboration with Cultural Heritage Without


operation with the Ministry of Youth, Culture

d organizations and the School of

Architecture from Pristina. The aim of the project is to highlight the region’s multi-


touristic assets. If this works


Until now, there is a massive involvement and

ue and even social

How post conflict society is dealing with planning

tural Heritage without

which promotes the integration of

spatial and urban planning and

. The program aims at the

of cultural heritage,


HWB and the UN Habitat, are engaged in


This approach has resulted in greater ownership and



en cultural heritage is successfully integrated into

municipal plans, it creates conditions for development and economic growth. This is

sacrilege.html CHWB, 2005 [online edition, www.chwb.org , latest view dd. 22/08/2012]

of particular importance in Kosovo that continues to face challenges of post

reconstruction.

Thirdly, when looking at museums

instruments in defining the self and the nation.

society as they collect, preserve, research and educate about past, present and

future. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, museums played an important

role in the creation of national identity and in the promotion of national agendas.

Museums can thus be places where people meet and heritage is shared, but they

can also be manipulated and used as political weapons, representing a biased view

on society. Hence they can be an inc

human rights and democracy acting as

deliberation. But museums can also be

narrow views. This latest scenario can be especially dangerous in regions which

suffered from ideological and ethnic conflicts. Any case of armed conflict renders

the functioning of museums particularly difficu

infrastructure, problems are often encountered with delocalization, destruction and

loss of collections. After conflict it is necessary to provide good infrastructure and to

set up programs which aim at restoring as muc

collections. Trained, scientific staff is another prerequisite as museums are not

"objective", but depend on the curator's choices in the selection of displays. If these

displays are well organized they can unite various grou

respect and a coherent view

As demonstrated by Flora Kaplan in her book "Museums and the making of

self", museums play a fundamental role as social institutions. Kaplan's book clearly

shows that museums can act as a potent force in forging self

specific historical contexts and as part of a political democratization process.

Museums, collections and exhibitions can thus be agents of social and political

change. This is in line with the objective of the

museology, "museology is concerned with the theoretical approach to any individual

or collective human activity related to the preservation, interpretation and

communication of our cultu

which a specific man/object relationship takes place.

museums in former colonial territory have demonstrated that collections and

displays can help in reducing conflic

richness and diversity of multi

where elites and competing social or ethnic groups can expre

worlds views in a non-competing environment. Contr

governmental buildings, noble residences etc

heriditarity, ordained monopoly of access or possession and display of instruments

of power. They are thus very suitable to the accommodation of diverse c

ideas and make possible cross

level.

50 Flora E Kaplan, Museums and the Making of Ourselves, The Role of Objects in National Identity, Leicester, 1996, p.1.

23

of particular importance in Kosovo that continues to face challenges of post

museums, one should be aware that they are treated as

instruments in defining the self and the nation. Museums represent and reflect


Since the beginning of the twentieth century, museums played an important


thus be places where people meet and heritage is shared, but they

ated and used as political weapons, representing a biased view

Hence they can be an inclusive vibrant force in society contributing to

human rights and democracy acting as a place for discussion, debate and

But museums can also be exclusive, elitist, biased and proponents of



the functioning of museums particularly difficult. Besides the bad condition of the



set up programs which aim at restoring as much as possible from the initial



displays are well organized they can unite various groups in a state, create mutual

view of heritage, society, values etc.

As demonstrated by Flora Kaplan in her book "Museums and the making of

", museums play a fundamental role as social institutions. Kaplan's book clearly

that museums can act as a potent force in forging self-consciousness within

specific historical contexts and as part of a political democratization process.

, collections and exhibitions can thus be agents of social and political

This is in line with the objective of the International committee for

museology is concerned with the theoretical approach to any individual


communication of our cultural and natural heritage, and with the social context in

which a specific man/object relationship takes place." Studies on the social role of


displays can help in reducing conflict and unite culture based on the principle of

richness and diversity of multi-culturalism in one nation. Museums become spaces

where elites and competing social or ethnic groups can express their ideas and

competing environment. Contrary to churches, temples,

governmental buildings, noble residences etc. museums do not lay a claim on

ditarity, ordained monopoly of access or possession and display of instruments

of power. They are thus very suitable to the accommodation of diverse c

and make possible cross-cultural comparison on national and international

Museums and the Making of Ourselves, The Role of Objects in National

of particular importance in Kosovo that continues to face challenges of post-conflict

, one should be aware that they are treated as

represent and reflect


Since the beginning of the twentieth century, museums played an important


thus be places where people meet and heritage is shared, but they

ated and used as political weapons, representing a biased view

lusive vibrant force in society contributing to

a place for discussion, debate and

exclusive, elitist, biased and proponents of



lt. Besides the bad condition of the



h as possible from the initial



a state, create mutual

As demonstrated by Flora Kaplan in her book "Museums and the making of our

", museums play a fundamental role as social institutions. Kaplan's book clearly

consciousness within

specific historical contexts and as part of a political democratization process.50

, collections and exhibitions can thus be agents of social and political

International committee for

museology is concerned with the theoretical approach to any individual


ral and natural heritage, and with the social context in

Studies on the social role of


t and unite culture based on the principle of

culturalism in one nation. Museums become spaces

s their ideas and

ary to churches, temples,

museums do not lay a claim on

ditarity, ordained monopoly of access or possession and display of instruments

of power. They are thus very suitable to the accommodation of diverse contents and

on national and international

Museums and the Making of Ourselves, The Role of Objects in National

Museums can also be a medium enabling the

left on society. Adopting this heritage in reconciliation programs however requires

once more commitment to change. But the benefits can be huge, especially when

reaching out to people excluded or experiencing discrimination.

Museum established in 1963 h

back to around 6,000 B.C.: from the Neolithic Period. Also housed here are exhibits

illustrating what daily life was like for the people of the region during various

periods: from Illyrian, to Dardanian,

show the richness of the common cultural past of the Balkan region. However, just

before the troubles in 1999 started, many important archeological artifacts have

been forcibly moved to Serbia. Hundreds of arch

items have yet to be returned. The return of art, artifacts and archives from Serbia

(Belgrade) to Kosovo could be a way to support dialogue and collaboration between

the countries. The president of Serbia, in his

Nations in 2012, made it however clear, that Serbia is not

return artifacts which according to him clearly belong to Serbia in the same way as

Kosovo remains Serbian territory.

and of a lack of funds, the Nati

public until this day. In order to develop

potential for reconciliation

Heritage Without Borders" has launched several programs in

achievement is the establishment of “The Western Balkan Regional Museum

Network”. The Network’s objectives are: “To contribute to the understanding of

cultural diversity and to reconciliation and EU integration of the countries in the

Western Balkans and to promote understanding that the right to own one’s cultural

heritage is an integral part of human rights.”

the different national communities and “to make them understand and not just

tolerate difference”. The network also establishes cross

between museum professionals. Many problems are shared through discussions

and common solutions found. T

part of a group of similar concerns even though the situation and location might be

different. Hence the museum directors are motivated to become creative leaders

supporting change so that the museums be

network’s initiatives was the exhibition “1+1 Life Love” running in parallel in

several museums of the Balkans.

creation of the travelling exhibition several museums in the

communicated across borders and were linked together in a cultural program in the

same way as the history of the region was linked together. The eleven exhibitions

which opened on the 11th of march 2011 represented elements of local life, co

history and relation to international life values. A bus

openings, bringing together the different partners to celebrate

collaboration. Each museum was also asked to select a part of their exhibition to

form part of a travelling exhibition for international touring.

in Belgrade for instance selected films, photographs and sculptures representing

51 CHWB, The Western Balkan Regional Museum Networklatest view dd. 23/09/2012.]

24

Museums can also be a medium enabling the discussion on the conflict and

Adopting this heritage in reconciliation programs however requires


reaching out to people excluded or experiencing discrimination. Kosovo's National

Museum established in 1963 houses an extensive archaeological collection dating



periods: from Illyrian, to Dardanian, to Roman times. The museum collection clearly



been forcibly moved to Serbia. Hundreds of archeological finds and ethnographic



The president of Serbia, in his inaugural speech for the United

Nations in 2012, made it however clear, that Serbia is not prepared to


Kosovo remains Serbian territory. As a consequence of its "dilapidated" collections

and of a lack of funds, the National Museum of Kosovo remains closed for the

In order to develop the capacity of museums

reconciliation in the Western Balkans, the Swedish NGO "Cultural

Heritage Without Borders" has launched several programs in the region


The Network’s objectives are: “To contribute to the understanding of



heritage is an integral part of human rights.”51 A major objective is to reach out to

different national communities and “to make them understand and not just

tolerate difference”. The network also establishes cross-border collaborations


and common solutions found. The key strength of the network is the sense of being



supporting change so that the museums becomes an actor in society.

initiatives was the exhibition “1+1 Life Love” running in parallel in

several museums of the Balkans. Through the simultaneous exhibition and the

creation of the travelling exhibition several museums in the



of march 2011 represented elements of local life, co

history and relation to international life values. A bus tour accompanied the

openings, bringing together the different partners to celebrate the outcome of the


t of a travelling exhibition for international touring. The national museum


The Western Balkan Regional Museum Network, Sweden, 2011 [online version,

discussion on the conflict and scars it

Adopting this heritage in reconciliation programs however requires


Kosovo's National

ouses an extensive archaeological collection dating



to Roman times. The museum collection clearly



eological finds and ethnographic



speech for the United

prepared to and will not


dated" collections

nal Museum of Kosovo remains closed for the

of museums and their

the Swedish NGO "Cultural

the region. A major


The Network’s objectives are: “To contribute to the understanding of



A major objective is to reach out to

different national communities and “to make them understand and not just

border collaborations


he key strength of the network is the sense of being



comes an actor in society. One of the

initiatives was the exhibition “1+1 Life Love” running in parallel in

Through the simultaneous exhibition and the

creation of the travelling exhibition several museums in the Western Balkan



of march 2011 represented elements of local life, common

tour accompanied the

the outcome of the


The national museum


, Sweden, 2011 [online version,

the city and its young inhabitants, the city and the status of the museum. In

Kosovo traditional costumes linked to the different geographic regions were selected

for display.

Another successful NHWB

European Mobility week and the European Heritage day, “Tour de Culture”

promoted common cultural heritage through a cycling tour in Hoça e Madhe. Of the

more than 400 participants 20% were Serbians.

If the museums and cultural institutions of both Serbia and Kosovo show

enthusiasm for collaboration and reconciliation through culture, both governments

clearly show disinterest and even unwillingness. I have already referred to Kosovo's

withdrawn from the reconstruction project of Serbian Orth

RIC. The Serbian government not only refuses to return artifacts to their original

collections in Kosovo but even condemns this Kosovar request as "an effort

flagrantly to falsify history, as

of existence of the Serbian people in Kosovo and Metohija".

to admit that culture and heritage can certainly play a role in post

reconciliation and in the creation of n

prerequisites and conditions to fulfill in order to be successful

widely spread.

First of all a readiness for change in attitude and dialogue is required

parties and on all levels. Not only specialists in culture and heritage have to feel

concerned, but also the government in order to provide the necessary structure and

funds and certainly the citizens who at the end have to be mobilized for

participation in cultural and heritage pr

culture and heritage will remain easy agents for the promoters of segregation,

nationalism and extremism. Hence it is necessary to include cultural and heritage

initiatives in social development

then culture and heritage can play a fundamental role in re

and reconciliation.

Secondly, the development of cultural and heritage programs are heavily dependent

on income from the state and from inter

huge financial deficit, bad infrastructure and a high rate of unemployment it is

difficult to generate funding for culture. It is a known

heritage cannot be a priority as long as basic n

living are not fulfilled.

Thirdly, the financial dependence on international funding has "recuperation" and

"propaganda" as implication. Even if most of the international partners are NGO's

or supra-national organizations,

their values can sometimes have perfidious and unwanted repercussions. Hence the

creation of a multi-ethnic national identity in Kosovo (where 90% pct of the

population is Albanian) and the cross

driven by the ambition to become part of the European Union. As Tomislav Nikolic

summarizes "We are more and more frequently forced by the powerful and mighty

52 CHWB, 2010 [online version: www.chwbkosovo.org, latest view dd . 20/09/2012]53

T. Nikolic, Statement for the General

25


ostumes linked to the different geographic regions were selected

B project was “Tour de Culture 2010”. Being part of the



more than 400 participants 20% were Serbians. 52


for collaboration and reconciliation through culture, both governments


he reconstruction project of Serbian Orthodox churches after the

The Serbian government not only refuses to return artifacts to their original


flagrantly to falsify history, as a historical revisionism and obliteration of any trace

of existence of the Serbian people in Kosovo and Metohija".53 Consequently, one has

to admit that culture and heritage can certainly play a role in post

reconciliation and in the creation of national identity. Nevertheless

prerequisites and conditions to fulfill in order to be successful and the

First of all a readiness for change in attitude and dialogue is required

Not only specialists in culture and heritage have to feel



participation in cultural and heritage programs. If there is not such a readiness,



s in social development programs and not to be stuck within the past. Only

then culture and heritage can play a fundamental role in re-establishing dialogue

the development of cultural and heritage programs are heavily dependent

on income from the state and from international organizations. In a country with a


difficult to generate funding for culture. It is a known disorder

heritage cannot be a priority as long as basic needs and healthy conditions for

financial dependence on international funding has "recuperation" and


national organizations, the will to please their agenda's and accommodate


ethnic national identity in Kosovo (where 90% pct of the

population is Albanian) and the cross-border projects with Serbia are of course also



CHWB, 2010 [online version: www.chwbkosovo.org, latest view dd . 20/09/2012]Statement for the General Assembly of the United Nations, 67th session, New


ostumes linked to the different geographic regions were selected

project was “Tour de Culture 2010”. Being part of the




for collaboration and reconciliation through culture, both governments


dox churches after the

The Serbian government not only refuses to return artifacts to their original


a historical revisionism and obliteration of any trace

Consequently, one has

to admit that culture and heritage can certainly play a role in post-conflict

Nevertheless there are many

and the traps are

First of all a readiness for change in attitude and dialogue is required from both

Not only specialists in culture and heritage have to feel



If there is not such a readiness,



be stuck within the past. Only

establishing dialogue

the development of cultural and heritage programs are heavily dependent

national organizations. In a country with a


that culture and

eeds and healthy conditions for

financial dependence on international funding has "recuperation" and


the will to please their agenda's and accommodate


ethnic national identity in Kosovo (where 90% pct of the

jects with Serbia are of course also



CHWB, 2010 [online version: www.chwbkosovo.org, latest view dd . 20/09/2012] , New-York, 2012, p.6.

to face a tough choice to give up Kosovo and Metohija or EU

kind of choice is that? Am I to tell our citizens that they are going to live better if

they abandon themselves?". I have also pointed to a even more precarious situation

in Kosovo where some mosques are rebuilt with

the strict Wahhabi Islam rules. Wahhabi

Kosovo, but its introduction in Kosovo could clear the way for the spread of

religious extremism.

However, these arguments should not advocate for the dismissal of cultural and

heritage programs in post

understanding is essential for peacekeeping and the establishment of bi

lateral relations and partnerships.

in re-establishing contacts, minimize the negative views on “the difference of the

other”. Hence the importance of cultural diplomacy as a soft power mechanism.

The development of cultural herita

activities such as tourism, construction, education etc. and facilitate integration of

a state on the international scene. Kosovo for instance developed heritage and

conservation laws together with the international

laws and programs are in coherence with International conventions and up

with international scientific programs.

Last but not least, I have pointed out that cultural heritage management is an

essential tool in the crea

heritage are the expressions of a people's thinking, values, memories, hopes and

achievements. They are the collective memory of the existence and development of

generations, people and nations. Hence,

alive for the present and future generations.

26

to face a tough choice to give up Kosovo and Metohija or EU membership. What



in Kosovo where some mosques are rebuilt with Wahhabi funding and a

the strict Wahhabi Islam rules. Wahhabi Islam is not part of the Islamic culture of



heritage programs in post-conflict situations. Respect based on mutual

understanding is essential for peacekeeping and the establishment of bi

tnerships. Culture and heritage can than play an active role

contacts, minimize the negative views on “the difference of the

Hence the importance of cultural diplomacy as a soft power mechanism.

The development of cultural heritage programs can generate socio



conservation laws together with the international community. Consequently these

laws and programs are in coherence with International conventions and up

with international scientific programs.


essential tool in the creation of a collective memory and identity. Culture and



generations, people and nations. Hence, it is a collective duty to keep this memory

alive for the present and future generations.

membership. What



Wahhabi funding and according to

Islam is not part of the Islamic culture of



conflict situations. Respect based on mutual

understanding is essential for peacekeeping and the establishment of bi- (multi)

Culture and heritage can than play an active role

contacts, minimize the negative views on “the difference of the

Hence the importance of cultural diplomacy as a soft power mechanism.

ge programs can generate socio-economic



community. Consequently these

laws and programs are in coherence with International conventions and up-t-date


tion of a collective memory and identity. Culture and



it is a collective duty to keep this memory

4. Assessment of international law and regulation on cultural artifacts

during war-time

The notion of respect and safeguarding of monuments is an Enlightenment idea.

However, the period of the enlightenment itself also witnessed massive destruction

of monuments, eg. during the French Revolution with as major event the storming

and demolition of the Bastille. The idea of 'respect' towards monuments evolved

simultaneously with the their deliberate erasure for ideological reasons.

pleas for the protection of monuments in war or conflict date from the 18th century.

In 1758 Emmerich de Vattel wrote

"for whatever cause a country be devastated, these buildings should be spared

which are an honor to the human race and which do not add to the strength of the

enemy, such as temples, tombs, public b

beauty."54 The "Brussels Declaration of 1874 Regarding the Law and the Customs of

War", was the first international attempt to protect historic monuments from 'willful

damage'. Since the end of the 19th

war-time is prohibited by international law and conventions

mandate UNESCO is bound to promote the protection and preservation of cultural

heritage. Hereto a series of standard setting instruments such as the

Convention concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage

1899 and 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the

Event of Armed Conflict with its tw

Additional Protocol I to the four 1949 Geneva Conventions for the protection of war

victims" have been developed

culturally important locations except where "military nec

such a waiver".55 The 1977 additional proto

1999 additional protocol

"military necessity waiver"

works of art or places of worship which constitute the cultural or spiritual heritage

of people.56 In pursuance of 31 C/Resolution 26 (

the common heritage of human

54 E. de Vattel, Le droit des gens ou Principes de la loi naturelle appliqués à la conduite et aux affaires des nations et des souverainsPour quelque sujet que l’on ravage un pays, on doit épargner les Edifices qui font honneur à l’humanité, & qui ne contribuent point à rendre l’Ennemi plus puissant ; les Temples, les Tombeaux, les Bâtimens publics, tous les Ouvrages respectable55 UNESCO, UNESCO Constitution:Event of Armed Conflict with Regulations for the Execution of the Convention 1954

Hague, 1954 [online edition:URL_ID=13637&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html20/08/2012] 56 UNESCO, UNESCO Constitution:Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 1999

http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php01.html, last view dd. 20/08/2012]The 1977 Protocol to the Geneva Convention ev

27





of the Bastille. The idea of 'respect' towards monuments evolved

simultaneously with the their deliberate erasure for ideological reasons.


ttel wrote "Le droit des gens" including a paragraph


to the human race and which do not add to the strength of the

enemy, such as temples, tombs, public buildings and all edifices of remarkable

Brussels Declaration of 1874 Regarding the Law and the Customs of

, was the first international attempt to protect historic monuments from 'willful

end of the 19th century the targeting of cultural artifacts during

time is prohibited by international law and conventions. By its constitutional


a series of standard setting instruments such as the

Convention concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage

1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the

Event of Armed Conflict with its two Protocols of 1954 and 1999


have been developed. The 1954 convention prohibits on attacking

culturally important locations except where "military necessity imperatively requires

1977 additional protocol to the "Geneva Conventions

additional protocol to the "The Hague Conventions" fairly restraint

and prohibits all hostilities against historic monuments,


In pursuance of 31 C/Resolution 26 (Acts Constituting a “crime against

the common heritage of humanity”) adopted by the General Conference, UNESCO

Le droit des gens ou Principes de la loi naturelle appliqués à la conduite et aux affaires des nations et des souverains, Neuchâtel, 1758, Part II, Book III, ChapterPour quelque sujet que l’on ravage un pays, on doit épargner les Edifices qui font honneur à l’humanité, & qui ne contribuent point à rendre l’Ennemi plus puissant ; les Temples, les Tombeaux, les Bâtimens publics, tous les Ouvrages respectables par leur beauté."

UNESCO Constitution: Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict with Regulations for the Execution of the Convention 1954

Hague, 1954 [online edition: http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.phpURL_ID=13637&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html, latest view dd.

UNESCO Constitution: Second Protocol to the Hague Convention ofProtection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 1999

p://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.phpURL_ID=15207&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html, last view dd. 20/08/2012] The 1977 Protocol to the Geneva Convention even annuls the military waiver.





of the Bastille. The idea of 'respect' towards monuments evolved

simultaneously with the their deliberate erasure for ideological reasons. The first


including a paragraph that


to the human race and which do not add to the strength of the

uildings and all edifices of remarkable

Brussels Declaration of 1874 Regarding the Law and the Customs of

, was the first international attempt to protect historic monuments from 'willful

rgeting of cultural artifacts during

By its constitutional


a series of standard setting instruments such as the "1972

Convention concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage", "the

1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the

o Protocols of 1954 and 1999", "the 1977


The 1954 convention prohibits on attacking

essity imperatively requires

Geneva Conventions" and the

fairly restraint the

and prohibits all hostilities against historic monuments,


Acts Constituting a “crime against

adopted by the General Conference, UNESCO

Le droit des gens ou Principes de la loi naturelle appliqués à la conduite et aux , Neuchâtel, 1758, Part II, Book III, Chapter 9, §168: "

Pour quelque sujet que l’on ravage un pays, on doit épargner les Edifices qui font honneur à l’humanité, & qui ne contribuent point à rendre l’Ennemi plus puissant ; les Temples, les

s par leur beauté." Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the

Event of Armed Conflict with Regulations for the Execution of the Convention 1954, The http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-

, latest view dd.

Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 1999 [online version:

URL_ID=15207&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=2

en annuls the military waiver.

adopted the "Declaration Concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural

Heritage" in 2003. Recalling

measures to combat the intentional destruction of cultural heritage were reinforced

The Declaration states that:"

prevent, avoid, stop and suppress acts of intentional destruction of cultural

heritage, wherever such heritage is located.

legislative, administrative, educational and technical measures, within the

framework of their economic resources, to protect cultural heritage and should

revise them periodically with

and international cultural heritage protection standards.

endeavor, by all appropriate means, to ensure respect for cultural heritage in

society, particularly through educational, awar

programs. 4. States should: (a) become parties to the 1954 Hague Convention for

the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and its two 1954

and 1999 Protocols and the Additional Protocols I and II to th

Conventions, if they have not yet done so; (b) promote the elaboration and the

adoption of legal instruments providing a higher standard of protection of cultural

heritage, and (c) promote a coordinated application of existing and future

instruments relevant to the p

In reality however, the deliberate destruction of heritage in conflict has certainly not

come to an end. According to Bevan, it even increased since in the 20th and 21st

centuries the ideology of destruction goes hand by hand with the notion of heritage

as a proxy by which ideological, ethnic and nationalistic conflicts are fought.

UNESCO 2003 Declaration expressed

acts of intentional destruction

heritage during war, is confronted with similar problems as post

management.

Firstly, legal protection of cultural heritage as set forth in for instance the UNESCO

2003 Declaration, implies that

political claims cultural heritage so that

issues of culture. Events around the world, including the Balkans, but more

recently the destruction of mosq

the nationalistic upheavals in Hungary show that t

heritage in support of political claims and projects is

discourse.58 The ineffectiveness of internatio

heritage care, is the result of the growing number of non

more and more states adhere to these laws and commitments, these engagements

are without effect as long as the proliferation of outlaw an

continues. These groups fight in a "machiavellistic way" for the safeguarding or

forced implementation of their ideologies, without respect for international laws on

the protection of human rights and heritage. Cultural Heritage becomes 57 UNESCO, UNESCO Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage17 October 2003, [Online Resource: URL_ID=17718&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html30/08/2012] 58 A. Herscher, A. Riedlmayer, p. 109.

28

Declaration Concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural

Recalling the tragic destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan

measures to combat the intentional destruction of cultural heritage were reinforced

The Declaration states that:"1. States should take all appropriate measures to


rever such heritage is located. 2. States should adopt the appropriate



revise them periodically with a view to adapting them to the evolution of national

and international cultural heritage protection standards. 3. States should

, by all appropriate means, to ensure respect for cultural heritage in

society, particularly through educational, awareness-raising and information

4. States should: (a) become parties to the 1954 Hague Convention for


and 1999 Protocols and the Additional Protocols I and II to the four 1949 Geneva




instruments relevant to the protection of cultural heritage."57

deliberate destruction of heritage in conflict has certainly not


y of destruction goes hand by hand with the notion of heritage

as a proxy by which ideological, ethnic and nationalistic conflicts are fought.

UNESCO 2003 Declaration expressed serious concern about the growing number of

estruction of cultural heritage. As I will show, the protection of

heritage during war, is confronted with similar problems as post

of cultural heritage as set forth in for instance the UNESCO

implies that states commit themselves to it and stop laying

political claims cultural heritage so that war is no longer waged over questions and

Events around the world, including the Balkans, but more

recently the destruction of mosques and shrines in Timbuktu by Mali militants, or

the nationalistic upheavals in Hungary show that the recruitment of cultural

heritage in support of political claims and projects is still prevalent in heritage

The ineffectiveness of international declarations and laws regarding

heritage care, is the result of the growing number of non-state militants. Even if


are without effect as long as the proliferation of outlaw and non



the protection of human rights and heritage. Cultural Heritage becomes

UNESCO Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage

, [Online Resource: http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=17718&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html, Latest view dd.

Riedlmayer, p. 109.

Declaration Concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural

the tragic destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan

measures to combat the intentional destruction of cultural heritage were reinforced.

1. States should take all appropriate measures to


2. States should adopt the appropriate



a view to adapting them to the evolution of national

3. States should

, by all appropriate means, to ensure respect for cultural heritage in

raising and information

4. States should: (a) become parties to the 1954 Hague Convention for


e four 1949 Geneva




deliberate destruction of heritage in conflict has certainly not


y of destruction goes hand by hand with the notion of heritage

as a proxy by which ideological, ethnic and nationalistic conflicts are fought. The

serious concern about the growing number of

As I will show, the protection of

heritage during war, is confronted with similar problems as post-conflict heritage

of cultural heritage as set forth in for instance the UNESCO

states commit themselves to it and stop laying

waged over questions and

Events around the world, including the Balkans, but more

ues and shrines in Timbuktu by Mali militants, or

he recruitment of cultural

prevalent in heritage

nal declarations and laws regarding

state militants. Even if


d non-state militia



the protection of human rights and heritage. Cultural Heritage becomes more and

UNESCO Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage,

, Latest view dd.

more a favored target of terrorists. The destruction of national or international

symbols - for instance the mosques in Timbuktu or the WTC towers in Manhattan

goes hand in hand with the destruction of shared memory and values. Hence, how

cruel it might be, the destruction of national or international symbols is often much

stronger in the collective memory than the killing of human lives. Consequently,

regardless the amount of laws and declaration, the protection and safeguarding of

cultural heritage is totally dependent on goodwill.

This does however not mean that laws and declarations are unnecessary and

without impact. They remain important legal instruments that can be used in

conflict prevention and in the prosecution of war criminals.

Criminal Tribunal for the

Milosevic and four of his colleagues for actions in the province of Kosovo

January and June 1999: Crimes against humanity and

customs of war. This latest included “

property owned by Kosovo Albanian civilians accomplished by

shelling of towns and villages; the burning and destruction of property, including

homes, farms, businesses, cu

these orchestrated actions,

uninhabitable for Kosovo Albanians.

cultural heritage as a war crime is also im

help them to overreach the trauma of the war, but also is a support for the

international community who is helping with reconstruction. One must not forget

that - contrary to the statements made in the

Nara, 1994) which call on respect for cultural diversity through the

acknowledgment of the legitimacy of the cultural values of all parties

heritage associated with Kosovo’s Albanians has been subjected to institu

disregard in the public management of Kosovo’s cultural heritage and during the

1998-1999 massive destructions.

the majority of the Albanians had been dismissed from their government jobs,

including heritage management and protection. This was part of the Serbian policy

to “de-albanize” Kosovo in favor of the Serbian community. Consequent

time of the conflict, some 210 Serbian Orthodox Churches, monasteries and

gravesites – including forty built between 1930

monuments in Kosovo whereas only fifteen out of more than 600 mosques

dating from the Ottoman era

for the Protection of Cultural Monuments of Kosovo, founded in 1952, had

established far more restrictive criteria for considering Albanian architecture as

monuments than for Serbian archi

revenge-attacks on Serbian cultural heritage

Serbian cultural institutions to deflect the attention and minimize the destruction

of Albanian sites and buildings by Serbs.

of destruction of Albanian cultural heritage was made in the context of an

assessment of NATO war crimes, which had ostensibly included the aerial

59 The Nara document was established by a meeting of experts in the midst of the Bosnian war. It recalled the fundamental principles of the Charter of Venice of 1964.60 A. Herscher, A. Riedlmayer, pp. 110, 111.

29


for instance the mosques in Timbuktu or the WTC towers in Manhattan


it might be, the destruction of national or international symbols is often much


laws and declaration, the protection and safeguarding of

tage is totally dependent on goodwill.



conflict prevention and in the prosecution of war criminals. T

Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia for instance, charged Slobodan

four of his colleagues for actions in the province of Kosovo

January and June 1999: Crimes against humanity and Violations of the laws or

. This latest included “a systematic campaign of destruction of

property owned by Kosovo Albanian civilians accomplished by


farms, businesses, cultural monuments and religious sites; as a result of

these orchestrated actions, villages, towns, and entire regions were rendered

uninhabitable for Kosovo Albanians.” This legal recognition of the destruction of

cultural heritage as a war crime is also important for the victims. It will not only



ontrary to the statements made in the Document on Authenticity

which call on respect for cultural diversity through the

acknowledgment of the legitimacy of the cultural values of all parties

heritage associated with Kosovo’s Albanians has been subjected to institu

management of Kosovo’s cultural heritage and during the

1999 massive destructions.59 As I have pointed out by the start of the conflict,



albanize” Kosovo in favor of the Serbian community. Consequent


including forty built between 1930-1990 - were listed as protected

monuments in Kosovo whereas only fifteen out of more than 600 mosques

e Ottoman era – were considered as historic monument. The Institute



monuments than for Serbian architecture since the 1990’s.60 Even the Albanian

attacks on Serbian cultural heritage in 2004 have been appropriated by


of Albanian sites and buildings by Serbs. The only official Serbian acknowledgment



The Nara document was established by a meeting of experts in the midst of the Bosnian war. It recalled the fundamental principles of the Charter of Venice of 1964.

Riedlmayer, pp. 110, 111.


for instance the mosques in Timbuktu or the WTC towers in Manhattan-


it might be, the destruction of national or international symbols is often much


laws and declaration, the protection and safeguarding of



The International

or instance, charged Slobodan

four of his colleagues for actions in the province of Kosovo between

Violations of the laws or

systematic campaign of destruction of

property owned by Kosovo Albanian civilians accomplished by the widespread


ltural monuments and religious sites; as a result of

villages, towns, and entire regions were rendered

This legal recognition of the destruction of

portant for the victims. It will not only



Authenticity (adopted in

which call on respect for cultural diversity through the

acknowledgment of the legitimacy of the cultural values of all parties - architectural

heritage associated with Kosovo’s Albanians has been subjected to institutionalized

management of Kosovo’s cultural heritage and during the

the start of the conflict,



albanize” Kosovo in favor of the Serbian community. Consequently, by the


were listed as protected

monuments in Kosovo whereas only fifteen out of more than 600 mosques – some

were considered as historic monument. The Institute



Even the Albanian

been appropriated by


ly official Serbian acknowledgment



The Nara document was established by a meeting of experts in the midst of the Bosnian war. It recalled the fundamental principles of the Charter of Venice of 1964.

bombardment of several Albanian historic sites and buildings. Furthermore,

initial UNESCO report on the state of cultural heritage in Kosovo after war, was

primarily based on defective information supplied by the Serbian authorities.

must not forget that the destiny of buildings and art in war is often the evidence of

crime against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing.

important to have clear and strict heritage laws in order to re

make sustainable peace possible.

A second problem, which is actually accounted for in the 2003 UN

is the financial problem. According to the declaration, states are bound to provide

preventive initiatives such as heritage awareness and education as well as heritage

protect, BUT in accordance to their available economic resources. As I

in the chapter on "the role of heritage in post

are liable for conflict or who are in conflict, often have no sufficient amount to

provide in basic human needs

the international community ha

humanitarian help for general refugees less than help for people with distinct and

valuable cultural heritage. “The same ideology also underlays the bracketing

cultural heritage from what is called the ‘reconstruction of Kosovo’”.

international organizations which were established in order to implement the

provisions of UNSC Resolution 1244

first instance not addressed the issue of cultural heritage. They first concentrated

on vital priorities such as security, economy and civil administration leaving the

heritage care to respectively the PISG Ministry of Culture in Pristina and the

Coordination Centre of Serbia and

Kosovo, as well as to several NGO's

increasing knowledge on heritage protection not only to experts, but also to states

representatives and representatives

protection and reconstruction should become an integral part of

programs and social development

61 A.Herscher, A. Riedlmayer, p. 113.62 Quoted from: A. Herscher, A63 K. Matsuura, p. 6.

30

bombardment of several Albanian historic sites and buildings. Furthermore,


primarily based on defective information supplied by the Serbian authorities.

he destiny of buildings and art in war is often the evidence of

rime against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing.

important to have clear and strict heritage laws in order to re-establish order and

make sustainable peace possible.

A second problem, which is actually accounted for in the 2003 UNESCO declaration



protect, BUT in accordance to their available economic resources. As I

in the chapter on "the role of heritage in post-conflict reconstruction", states who


provide in basic human needs, let alone heritage management or protection. E

international community had conceived of its primary mission in Kosovo in


valuable cultural heritage. “The same ideology also underlays the bracketing

l heritage from what is called the ‘reconstruction of Kosovo’”.


provisions of UNSC Resolution 1244 – UNMIK, KFOR, OSCE and others

sed the issue of cultural heritage. They first concentrated



Coordination Centre of Serbia and Montenegro and of the Republic of Serbia for

, as well as to several NGO's.63 It is thus important to keep on diffusing and

on heritage protection not only to experts, but also to states

presentatives of NATO, UN and national armies. Heritage

protection and reconstruction should become an integral part of

social development programs in conflict regions.

Riedlmayer, p. 113. , A.Riedlmayer, p. 113.

bombardment of several Albanian historic sites and buildings. Furthermore, the


primarily based on defective information supplied by the Serbian authorities.61 One

he destiny of buildings and art in war is often the evidence of

rime against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing. It is thus

establish order and

ESCO declaration



protect, BUT in accordance to their available economic resources. As I have argued

conflict reconstruction", states who


heritage management or protection. Even

mission in Kosovo in


valuable cultural heritage. “The same ideology also underlays the bracketing-off of

l heritage from what is called the ‘reconstruction of Kosovo’”.62 Equally, the


UNMIK, KFOR, OSCE and others – have in

sed the issue of cultural heritage. They first concentrated



Montenegro and of the Republic of Serbia for

It is thus important to keep on diffusing and

on heritage protection not only to experts, but also to states

, UN and national armies. Heritage

protection and reconstruction should become an integral part of emergency relief

5. Conclusion

According to the research compiled in the Cultural Diplomacy

role of culture and heritage is gaining much importance in modern, globalised

society.64 Culture and heritage are important agencies in the field of cultural

diplomacy. Culture and heritage act through different sectors in society, suc

public, private and civil society; different geographical regions and within various

field such as nation building and inter

fundamental to the fostering of international relationships that are based on

mutual understanding and cultural exchange rather than on military action formal

political agreements. There is

heritage can help to promote the process of reconciliation, strengthen self

contribute towards growth and fight poverty. Even if dialogue and social cohesion

sometimes remain long-term achievements, the cultural heritage is certainly a

development factor for society.

fluid and dynamic process. This

understand that the world equally is in a ever changing flow, thus creating the

ability for progress. Furthermore, culture and heritage are not bound to a single

place, but draw on local, regional and i

culture and heritage make them appropriate agents when addressing world

problems. Cultural heritage issues

and nation branding based on peace and human rights. Mutual

heritage is a condition for a society's peaceful development. Hence the importance

to integrate cultural heritage

emergency relief work and development co

However, there are several constraints. Firstly,

and know-how of the Hague Convention on both a national level, the (UN) peace

keeping forces and humanitarian relief agencies.

popular culture is equally nec

instruments for mutual respect and empathy. Secondly,

diplomacy highly depends upon the willingness to create dialogue and change.

Thirdly, the implementation of culture and herit

social development requires a huge financial investment. Such investment is not

always feasible for economically disadvantaged countries or countries recently

affected by conflict. However, economically disadvantaged coun

liable for inter-ethnic or inter

religious extremism and dictatorship. Consequently, inter

unmistakably important role to play in such regions, but is often not

economic priority. Furthermore disadvantaged or post

depend on the international community to establish cultural and heritage programs

within social development programs. Care is to be taken that all levels of society ar

concerned and that the cultural and heritage programs not only suit a "European"

64

ICD, Executive Summary of the ICD Cultural Diplomacy Outlook 2011

31

According to the research compiled in the Cultural Diplomacy Outlook of 2011, the


Culture and heritage are important agencies in the field of cultural

diplomacy. Culture and heritage act through different sectors in society, suc


field such as nation building and inter-religious dialogue. Hence they are


tanding and cultural exchange rather than on military action formal

There is also evidence to say that working with culture and

heritage can help to promote the process of reconciliation, strengthen self

wth and fight poverty. Even if dialogue and social cohesion

term achievements, the cultural heritage is certainly a

development factor for society. This a consequence of culture's characterization as a

fluid and dynamic process. This "fluidity" of culture and heritage should help us to



place, but draw on local, regional and international links. This universality of


Cultural heritage issues thus have their rightful place in

based on peace and human rights. Mutual respect for cultural


to integrate cultural heritage management and culture programs

emergency relief work and development co-operation.

several constraints. Firstly, this requires sufficient information

how of the Hague Convention on both a national level, the (UN) peace

keeping forces and humanitarian relief agencies. Affinity with local customs and

popular culture is equally necessary in order to use culture and heritage as

instruments for mutual respect and empathy. Secondly, the effectiveness of cultural


implementation of culture and heritage in international relations and



affected by conflict. However, economically disadvantaged countries are often more

ethnic or inter-regional conflicts and for the grip nationalism,

religious extremism and dictatorship. Consequently, inter-cultural dialogue has an

unmistakably important role to play in such regions, but is often not

economic priority. Furthermore disadvantaged or post-conflict regions heavily


within social development programs. Care is to be taken that all levels of society ar

concerned and that the cultural and heritage programs not only suit a "European"

Executive Summary of the ICD Cultural Diplomacy Outlook 2011, Berlin, 2011, p. 3.

Outlook of 2011, the


Culture and heritage are important agencies in the field of cultural

diplomacy. Culture and heritage act through different sectors in society, such as


religious dialogue. Hence they are


tanding and cultural exchange rather than on military action formal

evidence to say that working with culture and

heritage can help to promote the process of reconciliation, strengthen self-belief,

wth and fight poverty. Even if dialogue and social cohesion

term achievements, the cultural heritage is certainly a

This a consequence of culture's characterization as a

"fluidity" of culture and heritage should help us to



nternational links. This universality of


have their rightful place in state building

respect for cultural


management and culture programs into the normal

his requires sufficient information

how of the Hague Convention on both a national level, the (UN) peace-

Affinity with local customs and

essary in order to use culture and heritage as

the effectiveness of cultural


age in international relations and



tries are often more

regional conflicts and for the grip nationalism,

cultural dialogue has an

unmistakably important role to play in such regions, but is often not seen as an

conflict regions heavily


within social development programs. Care is to be taken that all levels of society are

concerned and that the cultural and heritage programs not only suit a "European" ,

, Berlin, 2011, p. 3.

"American" or "Islam" dominated view but also and firstly include local and regional

aspirations. Dependence on international organizations

dependent on funding countries

occur with regard to the planning and execution of the "fieldwork", but also

regarding the funding itself. UNESCO for instance, had to minimize its projects and

cut down staff due to a withdrawal of U.S. funding because of U.S. animosities with

Palestine. Such a situation does not only make the daily functioning of UNESCO

extremely difficult; it also raises questions about the aims and credibility of

international partners wishing to prom

border collaboration etc. through institutions as UNESCO.

In Kosovo culture and heritage

process and in the forging of an inclusive national identity. Culture

precisely tackle these objects of misunderstanding which have lead to the

conflict: multi-cultural society, religious backgrounds and mutual mistrust

some initiatives show; the incorporation of cultural and social development

programs can re-establish trust between the several ethnic groups through

dialogue. Such programs demystify

lots of work remains to be done. Mistrust and minority

within Kosovo, while Serbia does not recognize Kosovo as an autonomous Republic.

Hence, Orthodox religious sites remain under strong protection, secluding them

from society, while extreme Islam tries to gain power in a region which is still

searching for its identity. Not all wa

owns many archeological artifacts from Kosovo's National History Museum

Kosovo has not the financial ability to provide necessary infrastructure

in the Northern (Serbian population) province

Kosovo try to adopt an identity and attitude forged on European values of multi

cultural acceptance. If this attitude solely remains a "fast

integration, it is not certain to last nor to provide susta

collaborations. Multi-culturalism is indeed a fundamental element of the Western

Balkans' history, however it cannot be imposed

has to be accepted and integrated through both countries

thus important to continue to integrate cultural projects in broader social and

economic development programs.

A variegated approach which includes culture with politics, economics and social

affairs, should actually have to be applied in

difficult political, social or economic circumstance are very liable to seek a

"scapegoat" to project their problems on. Once the "scape

violence are not far away. Cultural dialogue and i

in conflict-prevention or preventive diplomacy

reconstruction.

32

dominated view but also and firstly include local and regional

Dependence on international organizations - which are again

funding countries - is also extremely fragile. Problems can not only



ithdrawal of U.S. funding because of U.S. animosities with

Such a situation does not only make the daily functioning of UNESCO


international partners wishing to promote messages of tolerance, acceptance, cross

border collaboration etc. through institutions as UNESCO.

In Kosovo culture and heritage can play a fundamental role in the reconciliation

process and in the forging of an inclusive national identity. Culture

precisely tackle these objects of misunderstanding which have lead to the

cultural society, religious backgrounds and mutual mistrust


establish trust between the several ethnic groups through

demystify or rather re-humanize "the other"

lots of work remains to be done. Mistrust and minority-problems are still existing

rbia does not recognize Kosovo as an autonomous Republic.



searching for its identity. Not all war lootings have been restored. Belgrade still

owns many archeological artifacts from Kosovo's National History Museum

Kosovo has not the financial ability to provide necessary infrastructure

in the Northern (Serbian population) provinces remains high, while both Serbia and

Kosovo try to adopt an identity and attitude forged on European values of multi

cultural acceptance. If this attitude solely remains a "fast-lane" to European

integration, it is not certain to last nor to provide sustainable peace and

culturalism is indeed a fundamental element of the Western

, however it cannot be imposed on modern society

has to be accepted and integrated through both countries' future generation


economic development programs.

variegated approach which includes culture with politics, economics and social

affairs, should actually have to be applied in non-conflict situations. People living in


ir problems on. Once the "scapegoat" is identified, ethnic

violence are not far away. Cultural dialogue and initiatives should be more adopted

or preventive diplomacy and not reduced to post

dominated view but also and firstly include local and regional

which are again

fragile. Problems can not only



ithdrawal of U.S. funding because of U.S. animosities with

Such a situation does not only make the daily functioning of UNESCO


ote messages of tolerance, acceptance, cross-

play a fundamental role in the reconciliation

process and in the forging of an inclusive national identity. Culture and heritage

precisely tackle these objects of misunderstanding which have lead to the horrible

cultural society, religious backgrounds and mutual mistrust. As


establish trust between the several ethnic groups through

humanize "the other" . However,

problems are still existing

rbia does not recognize Kosovo as an autonomous Republic.



r lootings have been restored. Belgrade still

owns many archeological artifacts from Kosovo's National History Museum, while

Kosovo has not the financial ability to provide necessary infrastructure. The tension

s remains high, while both Serbia and

Kosovo try to adopt an identity and attitude forged on European values of multi-

lane" to European

inable peace and

culturalism is indeed a fundamental element of the Western

on modern society by "Brussels"; it

future generations. It is


variegated approach which includes culture with politics, economics and social

conflict situations. People living in


goat" is identified, ethnic

nitiatives should be more adopted

and not reduced to post-conflict

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