identification and valuation of competencies of

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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS

COPY RIGHT © 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 58

MAY 2013

VOL 5, NO 1

IDENTIFICATION AND VALUATION OF

COMPETENCIES OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGERS

CASE STUDY: HEADMASTERS OF SECONDARY

SCHOOLS IN QAZVIN CITY

Dr.Bijan Abdollahi

Assistant professor, Kharazmi University, Faculty of Education & psychology,

Iran Dr.Javad Mehrabi

Department of Accounting and Management, Qazvin Branch, Islamic Azad

University, Qazvin,

Somayyeh Taymoori

Post graduate of Educatonal management, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran

Dr.Fariddedin Allameh Haery

Assisstant Professor of Economics.Islamicazad University Mobarakeh Branch

,Isfahan,Iran

Abstract

Purpose of this survey was to determine competencies of headmasters of

secondary schools in Qazvin city. Descriptive-field method was used given to the

nature of the subject and general purposes of the survey. All headmasters of

secondary schools in Qazvin city, educational experts and professors of

educational management constituted the statistical population that were selected

in census form due to their few number (124 persons). Researcher self-made

questionnaire was used to measure competency components. Results indicate

familiarity with principles of educational psychology regarding general

knowledge component and familiarity with principles and theories of human

relations regarding specialized knowledge component at the school are very

important for headmasters. The ability to control school activities and employees

in the field of technical skills, having verbal skills to make appropriate relation in

the field of human skills and the ability to control school affairs under critical

conditions in the field of perceptual skills are more important for headmasters and

have a higher priority. Binding to principles of personal behavior to perform tasks

and responsibilities is in priority in the field of attitude and insight. Having self-

confidence and self-assurance to perform organizational activities in the field of

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personality and behavioral characteristics is more important than other

characteristics. Gaining confidence of higher authorities on public credit and

gaining confidence of employees' subset in professional credit have had a higher

priority. Totally, attitude and insight, personality and behavioral characteristics

and human skills are the first to third priorities among the characteristics required

by headmasters and components such as general knowledge and public credit are

in the last priority.

Key words: competencies of headmasters, general and specialized knowledge,

attitude and insight, personality and behavioral characteristics, professional credit

and public credit

Introduction and statement of the problem

Headmasters are an important factor in enhancement of educational quality of

schools. Educational mangers must be able to direct their schools that are

involved in several challenges in a complicated environment (Leithwood & Riehl,

2003). "If educational mangers in a society do not have adequate knowledge and

skills, undoubtedly the educational system will not have high effectiveness,

efficiency and credit" (Mirkamali, 2006, p 9). Unprecedented and wonderful

changes that are appeared in various aspects of human knowledge illustrate

competencies of educational mangers with extensiveness and complicacy more

than ever so that only professional headmasters will be able to perform influential

tasks by optimal performance. As a result, "realization of educational purposes,

strategies and programs as well as accurate reaction towards needs of education

addressees is not possible without knowledgeable, skillful and innovative

educational mangers" (Ghorchian & Mahmoudi, 2005, p 107). Managers of each

organization are involved in a lot of explicit and implicit problems, difficulties

and complexities to conduct their organizational mission and tasks. Precise and

relatively reasonable prediction of these problems will be faced with difficulty

without having the required competencies and skills. In order to overcome such

uncertainty conditions, empowering the managers through obtaining competencies

and professional skill and knowledge is the only way for planners. Studies show if

managers have the competencies and skills required by their organization,

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likelihood of success and effectiveness to conduct tasks is increased (Naderian

Jahromi, 2003).

It seems that "one of the great challenges in education is growth and development

of abilities and knowledge of educational managers. They need to create

knowledge and have the ability to use it in order to be effective persons" (Boyaltiz

et al, 2002, p 150). Using competencies to plan management development

programs is one of the approaches that has been proposed in the field of managers'

education (Karami, 2008). Nowadays, managers' competencies have an increasing

importance in the world of changes and enhance the ability to attract, develop and

maintain employees and are led to the organization's effectiveness and job

demands. They increase set of skills to meet purposes of the organization and its

growth and give rise to integration of management's performance (Bhute, 2000).

The term competency that is in relation with learning and work performance has

highly been considered in recent years. Perceiving this term is related to human

tasks (Sicilia, 2005). According to the American Society for Training and

Development (2006), competencies are fields of personal abilities that enable

people to conduct their job successfully and include knowledge, skills, attitudes,

values and personal characteristics. The term "competency is used to describe a

set of behaviors that reflects a uniform combination of knowledge, skill, abilities

and motivations and is related to performance in an organizational role" (Karami,

2008, p 24). Competencies in education create an environment that develops

empowerment, responsiveness and evaluation and acquiring the competencies

could be through talent, experience or training of performance (Verma, Paterson

& Medves, 2006, p 117). A competency model determines essential competencies

such as knowledge, skills, behavior and personality characteristics for each job

(Noe, 2007, p 114).

Woodruffe (1992) has accomplished several studies about managers'

competencies. He concluded that competency is applied for effectiveness at work

and determined nine major competencies for managers and represented many

secondary subsets for each one. "Recent studies in this regard emphasize

development of managers' competencies more. For example Golman (1997)

identified two extensive sets of competencies (personal and social competencies)

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(quoted by Chin, Tubbs & Gu, 2001, p 21). Ghaffarian (2004) referred six clusters

of competency by offering managers' competency model that include:

professional credit, public credit, professional knowledge, skills, personality

characteristics and attitude and insight. "Managers' competency model is a

descriptive tool to determine knowledge, skills and behaviors that are required to

conduct an organizational role effectively" (Naquin & Holton, 2006, p 145).

Studies indicate schools in Iran are administered traditionally and by people who

have teaching experience without specialty and competency in educational

management, while successful and effective performance of educational managers

in each organization needs a set of competencies, skills, capabilities and special

characteristics and human resources management in the education system lacks a

suitable model for competency of educational managers that is harmonized with

changes of the modern era (Ghurchian & Mahmoudi, 2005). Since the

accomplished researches in this regard are more about industrial managers and a

few studies have been accomplished about educational management, purpose of

this paper is to determine which competencies are needed by headmasters of

secondary schools to perform tasks effectively given to the dominant social and

cultural conditions in the educational system. There are two main reasons why

managers of organizations need a set of competencies: first, competencies help

managers enhance their employees' performance through evaluation, training and

other activities of employees and second, competencies are a tool to determine

organizational values and purposes (Bolden & Gosling, 2006). Being successful in

role playing and do one's responsibility is related to managers' empowerment and

effectiveness more than anything else. Managers' effectiveness, too, depends on

their competency, skill, knowledge level, insight and capabilities. It is intended

continuously to find and train persons who have that kind of competency,

capabilities and skills to convert them into effective managers and helpful leaders

due to the importance of these factors in managers' success (Naderian Jahromi,

2003). Competent managers have the capability to plan and develop their work

groups. They can work with their employees directly and control them and

establish talents that employees need (Blvd, 2006). Herington (2004) believes one

of the most important competencies of education managers in the 21st century is

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that they are able to create a better and more favorable learning environment in

order to identify learning obstacles and activities.

The most major advantage of this approach is more precise identification of

managers' educational needs and increased efficiency of training from one side

and applicability of training and avoiding pure knowledge transfer from the other

side (Karami, 2008). "Continuity of efficient management of headmasters depends

on acquiring knowledge and skills proportional with their professional needs.

They must have a proper understanding of the current status and future

perspective of their schools and can predict environmental changes and their

impacts on their schools" (Nasr et al, 2003, p 181). Managers work under

unpredictable conditions, so they must have considerable skills, attitude and

knowledge in order to be effective managers (Patricia, 2008). Given to above-

mentioned issues, educational management plays a vital and special role in

advancement of education purposes. A manager should have special

characteristics, abilities and skills so that it is possible for him/her to control

children, teenagers and the youth.

Research questions

- Which knowledge is required by headmasters of secondary schools in

Qazvin city?

- Which skills are required by headmasters of secondary schools in Qazvin

city?

- What is the attitude and insight required by headmasters of secondary

schools in Qazvin city?

- What are the personality and behavioral characteristics required by

headmasters of secondary schools in Qazvin city?

- What is the professional credit and public credit required by headmasters

of secondary schools in Qazvin city?

- Which competencies are required by headmasters of secondary schools in

Qazvin city?

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Methodology

Descriptive-field method was applied in the present survey. All headmasters of

secondary schools in Qazvin city, educational experts and professors of

educational management constituted the statistical population that were selected

in census form due to their few number (110 persons). Distribution of samples

consisted of 54% females and 46% males in terms of gender. In terms of

educational degree 5.5% had associates and lower than it, 77.3% had B.A, 8.2%

had M.A and 9% had PhD. Researcher self-made questionnaire was used as a tool

for data collection and was prepared in Likert five-option scale. Opinions of the

clear-sighted were used to determine validity and the following actions were done

to determine its reliability for a pretest before final distribution of the

questionnaire. Questionnaires were completed by 30 persons of the statistical

population who were selected randomly. Cronbach alpha method was used to

measure reliability of pretest. This method is used to calculate internal

coordination of measurement tools such as questionnaires or tests measuring

various characteristics. Reliability coefficient of the questionnaire was equal to

0.85 using Cronbach alpha method.

Research findings

Question 1: Which knowledge is required by headmasters of secondary schools in

Qazvin city?

A) General knowledge

Table 1- Findings related to general knowledge required by headmasters

Components Mean Mean standard

error

Degree of

freedom

t

Educational psychology 4.37 0.66 109

Educational sociology 3.95 0.67 109

Politics in education 3.95 0.77 109

Philosophy of education 3.73 0.64 109

Economy in education 3.7 0.68 109

Mathematics and statistics 3.49 0.77 109

Sum of general knowledge 3.86 0.64 109 16.24**

*P<0.05; **P<0.01; ***P<0.001

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Given to the data in Table 1, educational psychology with mean equal to 4.37 is

highly required by headmasters in the field of general knowledge. Then there are

educational sociology and politics in education. The lowest need of headmasters is

related to mathematics and statistics (with mean equal to 3.49). Totally,

headmasters' need to general knowledge is significantly higher than theoretical

mean (3). Results of t-test show a significant difference between experimental

mean and theoretical mean.

B) Specialized knowledge

Table 2- Findings related to specialized knowledge required by headmasters

Components Mean Mean

standard error

Degree of

freedom

t

Principles and theories of

human relations

4.60 0.54 109

Rules, regulations and

instructions

4.44 0.65 109

Measurement 4.28 0.63 109

Teaching methods and

techniques

4.26 0.63 109

Research methods 4.20 0.70 109

Modern theories of

organization and management

4.18 0.62 109

Sum of specialized knowledge 4.33 0.58 109 23/82**

*P<0.05; **P<0.01; ***P<0.001

Data in Table 2 reveal that principles and theories of human relations at the school

are highly required by headmasters in the field of specialized knowledge. Then

headmasters need to know rules, regulations and instructions of the education

organization more. The lowest need of headmasters is related to their familiarity

with modern theories of organization and management and leadership methods in

educational organizations. Totally, headmasters' need to specialized knowledge is

significantly higher than the average level or theoretical mean. Results of t-test

show a significant difference between experimental mean and theoretical mean.

The experimental mean is higher than the theoretical mean.

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Question 2: Which skills are required by headmasters of secondary schools in

Qazvin city?

A) Technical skills

Table 3- Findings related to technical skills required by headmasters


error

Degree of

freedom

t

Controlling the school and

employees' activities

4.56 0.51 109

The ability for educational

planning

4.55 0.51 109

Admission, registration and

controlling of students

4.48 0.63 109

The ability to perform

administrative affairs

4.46 0.60 109

Assignment of responsibilities

and authorities to education cadre

4.45 0.58 109

The ability of planning in

teaching

4.38 0.60 109

Comprehensive evaluation of

educational activities

4.35 0.61 109

The ability to attract participation

of people

4.25 0.68 109

The ability to regulate and

register financial documents

4.02 0.80 109

Computer skills 3.90 0.84 109

Sum of technical skills 4.34 0.58 109 24.06**

Given to the data in Table 3, having the ability to control activities of the school

and employees with mean equal to 4.56 is highly required by headmasters in the

field of technical skills. Then is the ability of planning in educational affairs. The

lowest need of headmasters is related to computer skills. Totally, headmasters'

need to technical skills is significantly higher than the average level or theoretical

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mean. Results of t-test show a significant difference between experimental mean

and theoretical mean.

B) Human skills

Table 4- Findings related to human skills required by headmasters


error

Degree of

freedom

t

Verbal skills for making

relation

4.61 0.50 109

Auditory skill 4.60 0.49 109

Conflict management 4.50 0.60 109

Influence in people 4.49 0.61 109

Team work 4.47 0.50 109

The ability to create

motivation

4.40 0.57 109

Guiding teachers to enhance

professional growth

4.33 0.63 109

Specialized training to

teachers

4.03 0.77 109

Sum of human skills 4.43 0.53 109 27.99**

Given to the data in Table 4, headmasters need to have verbal skills for making

appropriate relation (with mean equal to 4.61) more than any other thing in the

field of human skills. Enjoying auditory need is in the second rank. The ability to

train teachers and pave the way to develop specialized capabilities is in the last

rank and is the lowest need of headmasters to this skill. Totally, headmasters' need

to human skills is significantly higher than theoretical mean. Results of t-test

show this significant difference.

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C) Perceptual skills

Table 5- Findings related to perceptual skills required by headmasters


error

Degree of

freedom

T

The ability to control the

school under critical

conditions

4.57 0.53 109

The ability to perceive

interdependency of various

units of the school and make

a logical relation among

them

4.47 0.57 109

The ability of effective

decision-making based on

accurate evaluation of the

existing solutions

4.47 0.55 109

The ability to solve the

school problems and offering

scientific solutions

4.46 0.57 109

The ability to provide the

ground for creativity and

innovation in the school

4.43 0.60 109

Flexibility and considering

problems in their different

directions

4.40 0.61 109

Thinking skill and

discovering basic issues and

stating them in each situation

4.25 0.64 109

Holistic view and viewing

the problems in an extensive

field

4.25 0.60 109

Sum of perceptual skills 4.41 0.54 109 27.22**

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Given to the data in Table 5, the ability to control the school under critical

conditions with mean equal to 4.57 is highly required by headmasters in the field

of perceptual skills. The ability to perceive interdependency of various units of the

school and make a logical relation among them is the second need. The lowest

need of headmasters is related to holistic view skill and viewing the problems in

an extensive field with mean equal to 4.24. Totally, headmasters' need to

perceptual skills is significantly higher than the average level. Results of t-test

show a significant difference between experimental mean and theoretical mean.

Question 3: What is the attitude and insight required by headmasters of secondary


Table 6- Findings related to attitude and insight required by headmasters


error

Degree of

freedom

T

Principles of personal

behavior to perform tasks

4.73 0.46 109

Fair behavior 4.69 0.46 109

Respecting cultural values

and maintaining them

4.66 0.47 109

Faith and belief and

monotheistic attitude

4.51 0.63 109

Reinforcement of the

spiritual atmosphere of work

environment

4.46 0.63 109

Sum of attitude and insight 4.61 0.48 109 34.84**

Given to the data in Table 6, binding to principles of personal behavior to

perform tasks is highly required by headmasters (with mean equal to 4.73). Fair

behavior with mean equal to 4.69 is the next need. Headmasters need

reinforcement of the spiritual atmosphere of work environment less than other

attitudes (with mean equal to 4.46). Totally, headmasters' need to attitude and

insight is significantly higher than the average level and theoretical mean. Results

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of t-test show a significant difference between experimental mean and theoretical

mean.

Question 4: What are the personality and behavioral characteristics required by

headmasters of secondary schools in Qazvin city?

Table 7- Findings related to personality and behavioral characteristics required by

headmasters


error

Degree of freedom T

Having self-confidence and

self-assurance

4.70 0.45 109

Perseverance and bravery

against difficulties

4.58 0.55 109

Courage of self-criticism 4.57 0.60 109

Cognitive ability and the power

to solve the problems

4.48 0.52 109

Mental stability to perform

tasks

4.46 0.53 109

Attention and the required

sensitivity to perform tasks

4.44 0.57 109

Sum of personality and

behavioral characteristics

4.54 0.46 109 32.89**

Given to the data in Table 7, having self-confidence and self-assurance (with

mean equal to 4.70) is highly required by headmasters in the field of personality

and behavioral characteristics. Then headmasters need to have perseverance and

bravery against difficulties (with mean equal to 4.58). The lowest need of

headmasters is related to attention and the required sensitivity to perform

organizational activities and tasks (with mean equal to 4.44). Totally,

headmasters' need to personality and behavioral characteristics is significantly

higher than theoretical mean and the average level. Results of t-test show a

significant difference between experimental mean and theoretical mean.

Question 5: What is the public credit required by headmasters of secondary


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Table 8- Findings related to public credit required by headmasters


error

Degree of

freedom

t

Gaining confidence of higher

authorities

4.27 0.70 109

Active participation in

circles and associations

4.24 0.68 109

Making informal relations 4.23 0.69 109

Having professional and

public works (articles,

speeches, theories, etc)

4.62 0.86 109

Sum of public credit 4.09 0.69 109 16.47**

As the data in Table 8 reveal gaining confidence of higher authorities with mean

equal to 4.27 is highly required by headmasters in the field of public credit. Then

headmasters need active participation in circles and associations. The lowest need

of headmasters is having professional and public works such as articles and

speeches with mean equal to 3.62. Totally, headmasters' need to public credit is

significantly higher than the theoretical mean. Results of t-test show a significant

difference between experimental mean and theoretical mean.

Question 6: what is the professional credit required by headmasters of secondary


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Table 9- Findings related to professional credit required by headmasters


error

Degree of

freedom

t

Gaining confidence of

employees' subset

4.59 0.55 109

Making formal relations with

higher authorities and

colleagues

4.33 0.64 109

Learning permanently 4.26 0.67 109

Undertake one's own

learning responsibility

4.24 0.56 109

Lecturing in professional

circles

4.11 0.76 109

Sum of professional credit 4.30 0.58 109 23.34**

Given to the data in Table 9, gaining confidence of employees' subset with mean

equal to 4.56 is highly required by headmasters in the field of professional credit.

Then headmasters need to make strong formal relations with higher authorities

and colleagues. The lowest need is related to lecturing in professional and

specialized managerial circles with mean equal to 4.11. Totally, headmasters' need

to professional credit is significantly higher than theoretical mean and the average

level. Results of t-test show a significant difference between experimental mean

and theoretical mean.

Question 7: Which competencies could be determined for headmasters of

secondary schools?

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Table 10- Prioritization of educational managers' competencies

Row Variable Mean Priority

1 Attitude and insight 4.61 1

2 Personality and behavioral characteristics 4.54 2

3 Human skills 4.43 3

4 Perceptual skills 4.41 4

5 Technical skills 4.34 5

6 Specialized knowledge 4.33 6

7 Professional credit 4.30 7

8 Public credit 4.09 8

9 General knowledge 3.86 9

Given to the above table, attitude and insight with mean equal to 4.61 is in the

first priority among the competencies required by managers. Then there are

personality and behavioral characteristics with mean equal to 4.54, human skills

with mean equal to 4.43, perceptual skills with mean equal to 4.41, technical skills

with mean equal to 4.33, professional credit with mean equal to 4.30, public credit

with mean equal to 4.09 and general knowledge with mean equal to 3.86.

Discussion and conclusion

All competencies including general and specialized knowledge, technical, human

and perceptual skills, attitude and insight, personality and behavioral

characteristics and general and professional credit of educational managers were

confirmed. Attitude and insight, personality and behavioral characteristics and

human skills of secondary school headmasters had more importance than other

competencies. Components of educational psychology and principles and theories

of human relations at school (general and specialized knowledge), the ability to

control activities of school and employees (technical skill), having verbal skills to

make appropriate relation (human skill), the ability to control school affairs under

critical conditions (perceptive skill), binding to principles of personal behavior to

perform tasks and responsibilities (attitude and insight), having self-confidence

and self-assurance to perform organizational tasks and activities (personality and

behavioral characteristics), obtaining the trust of higher authorities and that of

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employees (general and professional credit) have a higher priority in the subset of

competencies.

Generally competency emphasizes basic characteristics and features of a person

that includes a set of skills, knowledge and attitudes for successful performance in

the management role. Therefore, competencies of secondary headmasters are as

below in terms of order of importance in viewpoint of managers and must be

considered by policy makers and planners of human force in the Ministry of

Education and Education Organization in Qazvin province:

A) Attitude and insight: binding to principles of personal behavior to perform

tasks and responsibilities has the first priority among the components of attitude

and insight and components of fair behavior, respecting cultural values and

maintaining them among the employees, having faith, belief and monotheistic

attitude and reinforcement of spiritual atmosphere at the work environment are the

next priorities. It seems that managers of educational units deal with the following

cases as professional ethics: academic honesty, neutrality, honesty, trusteeship,

believing in confidentiality of others' information, fairness in information

analysis, professional consultation, professional responsiveness, accurate decision

at times of conflict of interests, professional discipline, independence, trust

building, management, self-respect, execution of rules and regulations and non-

execution of personal interests. Knowing these, observing ethical principles and

binding to them are like maps which help headmasters play their managerial roles

clearly.

B) Personality and behavioral characteristics: it was determined in this survey that

having self-confidence and self-assurance to perform organizational tasks and

activities is more important than other characteristics about personality and

behavioral characteristics. Then there are components of perseverance and

bravery against problems, courage of self-criticism, cognitive ability and thinking

power to solve the problems, mental stability to perform tasks and finally having

the required attention and sensitivity to accomplish organizational tasks and

activities. Some of the human features and ethical virtues are so important that

they can be called "fateful features". Self-assurance or self-confidence is among

such spiritual virtues. Believing in human’s existence and paying attention to the

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nature that is higher than animal and superior than machine is the first institution

of self-assurance and self-confidence. Role of education especially managers in

this regard is vital, since if headmasters have high self-confidence, they can

reinforce such sense of self-confidence among their teachers and students.

Therefore, the society will be dynamic and will have self-confidence in the future.

C) Human skills: having verbal skills for making appropriate relation is very

important for headmasters among human skills components. One of the main

signs of good listening in social interactions is to use verbal signs. These signs are

appeared in the form of confirmation, admiration, reflection of feelings,

interpretation and so on in our speech. Speech in social interactions must be

balanced and proportional with the status and states of the addressee, because

extravagance and dissipation in speech or asking inappropriate questions

demotivate the other party to continue interaction, loss of confidence and thus not

receiving adequate information.

Three classes of competency include the following intelligential competencies and

capabilities:

1- Cognitive intelligence competencies: the individual's ability for thinking and

analyzing the information and situations that are led to superior performance like

systemic thinking and understanding power.

2- Emotional intelligence competencies: the individual's ability to understand and

manage himself like self-awareness, adaptation and self-control.

3- Social intelligence competencies: the individual's ability to understand others

and control relations like empathy and team work.

About headmasters training and according to Peter Draker if we want to have

consensus only in one thing in the modern management world, it is the issue that

leaders are built and are not born. There must be a systematic method in

organizations so that it is possible to develop the required talents and skills.

Competencies have been defined as a set of knowledge, skills and capabilities

which enable managers to perform their job duties successfully. Scientific

experiences and viewpoints of managers are not just effective in managerial

process; rather their whole personality is effective on establishment of appropriate

and favorable conditions and positive change in this environment. Balanced and

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positive personality along with scientific and practical dominance of managers

makes them valuable and creditable in viewpoint of their colleagues. A capable

manager is strong when he/she is aware of human principles and methods and

mutual interactions and knows how to make proper relation with others

(colleagues, parents and students). Courses of action should be proportional with

the recognized principles in human relations, because the most important task of

managers is cooperation with all people in the educational environment to achieve

favorable purposes of education. Findings of this survey are consistent with some

parts of findings and results of internal studies such as Ashrafabadi (2001), Khalili

(2001), Naderian Jahromi (2003), Nickbakhsh (2004), Gharaeepour (2004),

Ghurchian and Mahmudi (2005), Bagherizade et al (2005), Mohammadi (2004),

Falahatgar (2006) and Abili and Molaee (2008) as well as some parts of external

researches and findings like Thornton and Byham (1982), Dulewiez (1989), James

and Wudcok (1985), Charlswoodruffe (1992), Mc Evoy (2005), Boyatzis (2008)

and William (2008).

Therefore, the following are suggested to headmasters, planners and decision-

makers of education given to the findings:

Long-term and short-term training of educational managers should be established

on the basis of competencies to improve capability and change their skills,

knowledge and social attitude and behavior. A general difference between

traditional education programs and education based on competency is that the

former is on the basis of learning while the latter is on the basis of performance.

Hence, education based on competency should be related to results of job

performance like behavior change or learning transfer.

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