White Paper

ICT for Development: Environmental Sustainability

Graduate Program in International Affairs, New School Practicum in International Affairs Final Project

Prepared for: UN Global Alliance on ICT for Development (GAID)

May 17, 2010

Prepared by:

Mansura Khanam Shoshana Goldstein

Michael Cahayla

Advisor: Ambassador Rafat Mahdi

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................2 1.1 Environmental Sustainability and ICT Overview .................................................................2 1.2 Importance of MDGs ............................................................................................................3 1.3 ICT as a Way Forward ..........................................................................................................3

2. Role and Importance of ICT in Environmental Sustainability .............................................5 1.1 Global Environmental Research, Observation and Analysis ................................................5 2.2 Environmental Planning and Management Capacity Building .............................................7 2.3 Mitigation and Action .........................................................................................................11 2.4 Preparedness, Adaptation and Emergency Management ....................................................14 2.2 Empowerment and Education .............................................................................................17

3. Challenges and Barriers of ICT Implementation .................................................................21 3.1 Access, Availability, Connectivity .....................................................................................21 3.2 Issues in Data Gathering and Sharing .................................................................................22 3.3 Cost as a Barrier ..................................................................................................................22

4. Role of Stakeholders ................................................................................................................24 4.1 National Governments ........................................................................................................24 4.2 Private Sector ......................................................................................................................26 4.3 International Community ....................................................................................................26 4.4 NGOs and Community Based Organizations .....................................................................27 4.5 Academia ............................................................................................................................27 4.6 Media ..................................................................................................................................28 4.7 Local Communities .............................................................................................................28

5. Key Recommendations ............................................................................................................30 6. Glossary ....................................................................................................................................31 7. Appendix ...................................................................................................................................33 MDG 7 Targets Redux ..............................................................................................................33 Table of ICT Applicability Areas and Related Case Studies ....................................................38

8. Endnotes....................................................................................................................................40

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1. Introduction

1.1 Environmental Sustainability and ICT Overview

Environmental sustainability refers to the long-term preservation, protection, and management of valued environmental resources in an ever-changing human context.1

The last decade has seen the proliferation of ICT worldwide. Due to its ability to reduce interaction costs, expand markets, and make information flows more efficient, ICT has been credited with unprecedented global gains including GDP growth, global connectivity, information exchange, and capacity building. Subsequently, many stakeholders purport ICT are a viable means to improving the wellbeing of the global citizenry.

Intricately linked to the concept of enduring development, environmental sustainability also implies sustainable human, social and economic development. Issues of environmental sustainability are more urgent now than ever before as the world faces an extraordinary array of challenges ranging from air and water pollution, food insecurity, climate change, natural disasters, an upsurge of slums, inadequate sanitation, unprecedented loss of forests and biodiversity, fragmented leadership at the local, national, and international levels, conflicts and complex emergencies, and glaring disparities in human development across the globe. Therefore, tools and strategies that enable environmental sustainability have become critical to development. Information Communication Technologies (ICT) are such a tool.

The Global Alliance for Information and Communication Technologies and Development (UN-GAID) is a multi-stakeholder forum established by the United Nations Secretary General in 2006 focusing on the utilization of ICT in development. Amongst many other objectives, UN-GAID seeks to raise awareness of ICT related issues in development by identifying technical solutions to obstacles, promoting an ICT agenda within the larger UN development scheme, and facilitating multilateral collaboration

Under the direction of UNGAID, this paper will:

1) provide an overview of the use of ICT towards achieving the seventh Millennium Development Goal: to ensure environmental sustainability be means of examining trends, barriers, challenges, opportunities and successes

2) provide information that could be used towards UN-GAID’s larger goal of creating a matrix of ICT applications for use by development practitioners

3) support UN-GAID in its role in promoting ICT for development

This paper is based on the following two premises:

- That the goal of ensuring environmental sustainability is important to development and ICT are a way to achieve this goal

- ICT have great potential but are currently underutilized in this area

While the four targets contained in MDG 7— to incorporate sustainability into national agendas, to tackle deforestation and biodiversity loss, to provide clean water and basic sanitation, and to improve the lives of slum dwellers—functioned as guideposts for our initial research, we quickly realized that any discussion of environmental sustainability would be incomplete without including the pressing challenges of climate change and natural disasters, which we have addresses as “MDG Plus” targets.

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1.2 Importance of the MDGs

Endorsed by 189 national governments in 2000, the UN-sponsored Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) produced common targets for sustainable human development. Appropriately, the seventh MDG is to ensure environmental sustainability, which underpins all other MDGs. On this tenth anniversary of the MDGs, the goals are as important today as at their inception.

The MDGs:

• continue to provide clear, attainable paths for international cooperation and development programs, anchoring them to time-bound development targets

• place the issues of over a billion-plus people living in extreme poverty at the center of national and international agendas, and in the process provide a means to a more productive life for many of the world’s poor

• reduce poverty and ultimately contribute to the eradication of violent conflict, instability and terrorism, in turn fostering global security and peace.

Thus, as noted in the UN Millennium Project Report, the MDGs are simply too important to fail.2

• 1.6 billion people have gained access to safe drinking water since 1990, meaning the target of halving the population without access is on schedule. However, 1 billion people still lack access and 2.5 billion require access to basic sanitation services.

However, progress in achieving the goals remains varied and not all successes have been felt uniformly across countries and populations. Remaining challenges are felt more acutely by poor, underdeveloped, or disadvantaged regions like Sub-Saharan Africa and Small Island Nations. Political instability, conflicts, natural disasters, and other complex emergencies further impede progress towards the MDGs. Within the context of environmental sustainability, the 2008 Millennium Development Report asserts:

• Currently only 22% of the world’s fisheries are sustainable, compared to 40% in 1975.

• 2.4 billion people live without access to modern cooking and heating services and 1.6 billion have no access to electricity.

• More than one third of the growing urban populations in developing countries live in slum conditions. That means that over a billion people suffer from insecure housing, increased vulnerability to disease and disasters, and carry a disproportionate burden of environmental hazards.3

1.3 ICT as a Way Forward

The benefits of ICT for Development (ICT4D) are numerous. For example the World Bank showed that each 10 percentage points of broadband penetration results in 1.21% increase in per capita GDP growth in developed countries, and 1.38% increase in developing countries.4 Another study found that among developing countries, a 10% increase in mobile phone penetration contributed to a .59% increase in GDP per capita when compared to similar countries.5 Nonetheless, measuring and describing ICT benefits to development defy simple metrics and many obstacles remain for optimum ICT implementation and utilization, especially in least developed and developing countries.

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Differential access to ICT across socio-economic levels remains a barrier and rapid deployment of ICTs without proper planning, regulation, and legal frameworks contributes to development setbacks and “business as usual” models that perpetuate existing inequalities and may bring about new ones. Some economists even postulate a low telecommunications trap whereby the lack of ICT in a developing country makes commerce prohibitively expensive, directly resulting in diminished comparative advantage, lower incomes, limited ability to attract investment capital, and subsequent reduced ability to fund the development of ICT infrastructure.6

Barring these challenges, ICT are valuable tools for various stakeholders in the development process. For instance, the Yale Center for Environmental Law & Policy, in conjunction with the World Economic Forum, recently established the Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI). This ordinal index allows for the comparative analysis of countries concerning environmental sustainability issues. The ESI is useful because it provides a mechanism by which country policies, initiatives, and practices, can be quantitatively evaluated and compared. As will be discussed at length in this paper, the expansion of information collection and distribution methods based on ICT is an integral part of achieving MDG 7and consequently improving the lives of millions of people around the world.

The full potential of ICT in facilitating development is still largely underutilized. In the area of environmental sustainability especially, ICT can provide multiple opportunities that span global environmental research, planning, and action: from the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the EU, to the delivery of clean water and sanitation in a Brazilian favela, to the production of environmental education by middle-school students in Lebanon. As the threats of climate change, natural and man-made disasters rise and disproportionately affect the poor, every advantage ICT can provide towards ensuring environmental sustainability must be taken up by national and international institutions, local communities, civil society, donor organizations and development practitioners.

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2. Role and Importance of ICT in Environmental Sustainability ICT can have tremendous impact on environmental sustainability initiatives in the areas of analysis, planning and action. In our review of ICT for achieving MDG 7, we found that the majority of ICT applications can be organized into the following categories: (1) global environmental research, observation and analysis; (2) environmental planning and management capacity building; (3) mitigation and action; (4) preparedness, adaptation, and emergency management; and (5) empowerment and education. The following segments will provide an analysis of each application category along with exemplary case studies, best practices, and lessons learned.7

2.1 Global Environmental Research, Observation and Analysis

The role of ICT in environmental monitoring and data gathering is paramount and serves as the cornerstone for technological advancements. ICT such as satellite imagery, wireless sensor networks, geographic information systems (GIS), and communications hubs enable a wide variety of applications for environmental sustainability. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) found ICT like data recording technologies and surveillance systems greatly contribute to observing, monitoring, and ultimately understanding the environment.8

This section includes tools and technologies for environmental research, observation and analysis that include:

However, the task of acquiring relevant data and the ability to draw pertinent conclusions for future actions requires appropriate tools.

• Remote sensing, data collection and storage applications, telemetric systems, meteorological and

climate related recording and monitoring systems • GIS as it applies to data recording and geo-referenced data format • Computational and processing tools used for analysis and comparison of data sources • Storage and visualization tools for geographic information and change

It should be noted that just as important as being able to gather and analyze data, is the ability to share it with other relevant stakeholders. ICT can overcome isolation, or what has been referred to as islands of information, by enabling networking and data sharing which can increase efficiency, reduce costs, and promote uniformity and interoperability.

As environmental issues and impacts become larger and more globally integrated, global collaboration becomes an important contributing factor of ICT usage, development, and success. The following case studies were drawn from areas, primarily in the developing world, that have demonstrated usage and application of ICT for environmental research, observation and analysis.

2.1.1 Mapping Environmental Hazard, Dhaka, Bangladesh Many serious environmental problems, such as land and groundwater, pollution, poor sanitation, and riverbank erosion, pose obstacles to economic development and the improvement of living conditions for the roughly 9,000 slums in Dhaka.9 ICT have proven to be an effective method by which data can be gathered and analyzed in an attempt to remedy this situation. Census data applied to advanced GIS technology has found a wealth of information helping policy makers and NGOs to understand the complexity of what is happening on the ground and see the diversity within the general slum categorization.10

With this data, policy makers can make more informed decisions, ultimately leading to more successful programs aimed at improving the lives of slum dwellers within the city.

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The Center for Environmental and Geographic Information Services, established as a public trust in 2002 by the government of Bangladesh, has conducted studies of the slums in Dhaka using satellite imagery to map and identify slum settlements, their physical characteristics and boundaries. Such data is accessible online. It is also essential for such agencies as UN HABITAT, USAID, and the World Bank in aiding and collaborating with in-country institutions to make infrastructural improvement or implement slum-upgrading projects and determining the feasibility of in-situ projects or the necessity of relocation. Lessons Learned: Having the ability to analyze topographical changes on already settled land, as well as looking at changes over time through retro-grade satellite imagery, can tell the story of a city’s growth and development as well as help cast predictions as to how certain patterns will affect the future development of the city, especially in light of climate change forecasts predicting rising sea levels. 2.1.2 CARPE, Congo Basin

The Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE), a long-term project of USAID and the international Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP), endeavors to address the issues of deforestation and biodiversity loss in the Congo Basin, a tropical forest area second in size only to the Amazon Basin. Satellite technology has led to breakthroughs in mapping the most impenetrable and unreachable areas and provided information that is critical to the design of sustainable forest resource management plans. To a large extent, this information comes in the form of Landsat satellite derived maps that can be continuously updated using geospatial databases. A tropical forest zoning map of the Mai-Ndombe region has been developed under the auspices of CARPE that consists of high-resolution satellite images that have been combined with GIS data sets containing information on vegetation as well as socio-economic data. In its final version the map will assist local policy makers in identifying which forest areas and species are under threat from logging, cultivation and other human activities.11

In addition, an elephant telemetry project, which is tracking elephants tagged with Global Positioning System (GPS) collars via satellite, has been deemed a success. The project combines spatial data, based on remote sensing technology, with statistics on elephant densities and distribution as well as demographic information. Researchers can then generate maps indicating the number and density of elephant herds in relation to their distance from roads and villages. As elephants are indicators of the health of the entire forest ecosystem, this information could be widely useful.

Carpe has also teamed up with Santé Rurale (SANRU), a USAID-funded rural health project, and has mapped health facilities and epidemiological data to show potential risk spots for disease outbreak. Lesson learned: Information for decision makers in the management of resources is critical. Satellite mapping of hard-to-reach or previously inaccessible areas is particularly invaluable. 2.1.3 The Integrated Biodiversity Assessment Tool (IBAT)

The Integrated Biodiversity Assessment Tool (IBAT) is a collaboration between internationally renowned organizations such as the United Nations Environmental Program, Birdlife International, and Conservation International, and private corporations such as BP, Microsoft, Bank of America, and Rio Tinto. The mission of this initiative is to make a biodiversity database available to businesses seeking to incorporate environmentally sustainable measures into their projects. IBAT enables decision makers to obtain relevant information about endangered species, at risk areas, and other environmental concerns from a single, reputable source.

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Having early access to this information enables project developers to account for environmentally sensitive factors and to adjust their plans accordingly. This is not only beneficial to the environment but also to the firm because doing so could ultimately limit their exposure to lawsuits resulting from inadequate knowledge about the environmental impact of their endeavor. Additionally, IBAT can be used to retroactively evaluate the environmental impact of projects already completed.

The datasets presented in IBAT are derived from the World Database of Protected Areas (WDPA) and provide the user with information regarding both legally protected sites, as designated by a governmental body, as well as globally important sites for biodiversity, which are submitted by local partners. These sites are operationalized as any location “…known to hold one or more globally threatened species, endemic species, globally significant concentrations or populations, significant examples of biological communities, or any combination of these features.”12

Since its launch in 2008 IBAT has become the authoritative source for all data concerning biodiversity, endangered and at risk species, and environmentally sensitive areas. Already BP has used this database to assess the effect of propose pipelines on the local environment and modified their plans accordingly.

The ability of corporations and governments to have access to this database will promote environmental sustainability in the private sector.

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Lessons Learned: ICT can be successfully used to organize and disseminate information regarding biodiversity, which can be used by governments and the private sector when planning and evaluating projects.

2.1.4 COMMONSense Net, Tumkur, India

Another area where ICT show tremendous potential is the use of sensors and sensor networks to boost water usage efficiency. This technique, known as precision agriculture, utilizes computer systems to collect data such as temperature and humidity via remote sensors. This information is then analyzed and other factors such as weather forecasts are . The computer then calculates the exact amount of water necessary to obtain maximum crop yields, which is an integral step towards economic growth. This is a vast improvement over farmers who generally irrigate their fields with uniform amounts of water.

COMMONSense Net (CSN) is a project researching and applying the use of wireless networks on small farms in rural India. (See Figure 1) CSN reports that unpredictable and fluctuating rainfall in the already arid region of central India adversely affects poor farmers because they are less likely to invest in yield boosting resources such as additional seeds, fertilizer, or improved technology.14

Lessons Learned: Precision agriculture can be especially beneficial for resource poor farmers. ICT, such as those used by CSN, can achieve this goal. Doing so will lead to more efficient use of water, which may also aid in overcoming other development obstacles as well.

A low cost alternative to drilling water wells, which also run the risk of not providing enough water, is to construct wireless networks that enable precision agriculture. CSN has constructed such a wireless sensor network in Tumkur, India, although evaluative information is not yet available.

2.2 Environmental Planning and Management Capacity Building

This section covers technologies and applications that increase the capacity of stakeholders to effectively manage resources and incorporate environmental planning into development. Relevant applications include: • Mathematical Modeling and Computer Simulations for resource management • Biodiversity and hazard mapping • Information sharing and coordination technologies

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• Standard setting applications and tools • Knowledge and information creation and sharing for better decision making

The following is an overview of case studies and lesson learned for ICT for environmental planning and management capacity building.

2.2.1 e-Land Registry and Land Information System (LIMS), Mozambique

Accurate and accessible information is necessary for proper land management and the sustainable development of land, forests, and waterways. The digitization of land management systems has many benefits for countries that want to better manage their resources, which in turn, can promote rural development, poverty elimination, and environmental sustainability. Leveraging its larger e-government initiative, Mozambique developed an electronic land information management network, creating a modern and transparent land management system. In 2005, the Development Gateway Foundation, an international nonprofit organization with the mission to reduce poverty and enable change in developing nations through information technology, acknowledged the importance of such a system and provided Mozambique with the financial support to create an electronic land information management system. The project constituted the first phase of a national electronic land registry. It was implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture through the National Directorate of Lands and Forest. Two years later all ten provincial offices of the ministry were connected. According to Arlito Cuco, the director of the National Directorate of Lands and Forest, "This system has changed how we work…This has helped tremendously in the decision-making process. When the system is completely and fully integrated it is going to enable us to know exactly what is available where and for what use."15

The system can capture and update data in real time online with accuracy which has great benefits for proper land use and efficiency. The country now has a reliable system of land information that clarifies the legal status of each land parcel, type of occupancy, usage, and soil type. It has improved budgetary forecasts due to more accurate estimates of income from taxes. Finally, the system has improved decision-making by making critical information accessible even from remote locations.

The success of Mozambique’s e-government projects may be limited by its recovery from the recent civil war and frequent flooding. Additionally, it also suffers from infrastructure and access limitations, which will be discussed at length later in this paper. Lessons Learned: Previous land licensing and planning system failures such as apathy and resistance from vested interests should be accounted for in this project, as well as technological errors and operational shortcomings.16

2.2.2 Jal-Chitra and Sim-Tanka, Rajasthan, India

Local community involvement is essential to success of any program designed for poor, rural populations. Thus, the Panchayat-Raj amendment to the Indian constitution, an attempt to incorporate local leadership into development plans, should be supported. Through this bill, Panchayats, or the local village parliament, have a limited say in the use of the development funds for the village. Panchayats, in turn, are accountable to the village through the institution of the village assembly, or Gram-Sabha. In an effort to increase the capacity of Panchayats to effectively use development funds, the Ajit Foundation, a volunteer organization, has dedicated itself to creating ICT tools for the benefit of better rural resource management. The Scientific Resource Centre of the Ajit Foundation believes that the use of mathematical modeling, made possible by increased computational power coupled with information storage and

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retrieval capabilities of computers, applied in rural contexts can result in powerful tools for making appropriate decisions for sustainable development.17

Sim-Tanka The Foundation began with the development of a mathematical model for determining the reliability of rainwater harvesting systems for covered tanks. Covered tanks, or tankas as they are called in Rajasthan, have been used for more than a millennium in various parts of the world. In 1997, the mathematical model was converted to a free, more user-friendly software called Sim-Tanka. Through computer simulations and models, Sim-Tanka is able to determine the demand placed upon each tanka and calculate whether the demand will be met. It was a new method for enhancing an old system. Although various research organizations found the software useful, when it came to actually building rainwater-collecting systems in Rajasthan, Sim-Tanka was often rejected. One of the primary downfalls was that the user-interface was in English, barring use from much of the community that primarily functioned in Hindi. When developers realized that the Barefoot College in Tilonia refused to use Sim-Tanka in their program of constructing rainwater harvesting systems, Ajit Foundation decided to work with the college to create a system that would be more well-received by the community at large. Through this collaboration, Jal Chitra was born. Jal-Chitra By providing the interactive storage and retrieval of information on village water resources, Jal Chitra allows a community to generate an integrated view of all the water sources available to a rural community. This time, however, the software was made available in Hindi. One of its uses is to allow the community to prepare for future events based on the past records. According to the software developers, the minimum information that Jal- Chitra needs to function is “the monthly record of the amount of water available from various sources. This requires finding the discharge rate of hand pumps, the area of the water cover in the rainwater reservoir, the average depth of water in the reservoirs. For more advance use it also requires maintaining meteorological records like rainfall.”18

A monthly water budget of the village.

Using this information Jal-Chitra can generate the following monthly reports:

Maintenance report, indicating water sources that require some form of maintenance. A maintenance log of every water source in the village, showing all the repair works done on that

source.

The Ajit Foundation has proposed that these records can be kept by local school children, and the process of keeping these records become a part of a child's education. According to Dr. Vikram Viyas of the Scientific Resource Centre, “the involvement of the village school in the use of Jal- Chitra not only allows the school children to participate in the development of the village but also gives them an opportunity to apply some of the abstract concepts from elementary mathematics to real life situation. This has the potentiality of making the learning of science and mathematics more interesting, relevant and rooted in the child's own environment.”19

Since January of 2002, Jal-Chitra has been used in more than a dozen villages in Rajasthan.

Benefits:

• Facilitates wider participation by using Hindi as the language for interacting with the user • Allows user to draw an interactive community based water resource map of the village.

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• Allows the community to keep a monthly record of the amount of water available from each of the water sources.

• Facility for keeping record of water quality testing. • Facility for keeping record of maintenance work required and the maintenance works that has

been done. • Estimates the water demand for domestic, livestock, and agriculture uses. • The farm records also suggest the optimal water irrigation required depending on the crop planted

and the amount of rainfall. • Generates future monthly water budget based on the past records, as more monthly records are

kept the corresponding estimates become more reliable. • Informs community as to how much of its annual water need is being met from underground

water. It also estimates the approximate amount of recharging that is taking place. • Finds out the reliability of covered rainwater- harvesting systems. 20

Lessons Learned: Learning from the failures of Sim-Tanka, which was written entirely in English, Jal Chitra was an upgraded version for rural use. It was specifically written in Hindi to grant access to the hundreds of people in rural villages that did not read or write in English. It was immediately taken up by the Barefoot College to be used in its community-based projects.

2.2.3 Rede Jovem, Rio De Janeiro, Brazil

As Brazil’s megacities cities grow, the development of slums puts local communities at odds with formal planning institutions. Limitations in GIS data for environmental planning can be addressed through fieldwork and creative ICT solutions.21 Not only confined to Rio, Youth Net (Rede Jovem), sponsored by the Comunitas, has been promoting youth empowerment and ICT training through the use of computing centers since 2003. Projects include Multimedia Sustainable IT Centers, Mobile Youth Net, online courses, Wikimap, training of young managers and monitors for IT centers, methodological and interaction consulting to community based IT Centers, free e-mail and blog accounts, as well as youth networking and interactive services for young people. 22

In recent years, a new project has been developed to map Rio’s uncharted favelas as a way of promoting social inclusion and recognition of informal settlements. Cell phones and other mobile hand held technologies are now being used to map the “unmapped.” 23 These maps are interactive and available online to see through a wikimap system. This new mapping project addresses the areas of cities that have previously been neglected by mapping services, due to lack of secure tenure in such locations, further “demystifying the slums, usually known as violent and marginal areas” and promoting the “democratization of information” about the slums.24

Lessons Learned: Mobile phones can easily be adapted as hand-held research tools for mapping and data gathering. In this case, their social role was that of triggering youth involvement and a sense of inclusion through the power of mapping areas not recognized by formal institutions. However, long-term funding obstacles have challenged the continuation and expansion of this program.

2.2.4 Trees for Tomorrow, Jamaica

The Trees for Tomorrow project was started in 1998 following the widespread destruction to Jamaica caused by Hurricane Gilbert. Realizing the valuable role forests play in mitigating soil erosion and future hurricane damage, the project was designed to support both the forest management sector and reforestation plan by means of utilizing GIS to map areas suitable for reforestation.

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Since then, the Forestry Department has used the GIS database to identify areas at risk that are then set aside as protected national forest reserves. Additionally, the project’s Forest Awareness Campaign aims to gain public support for the sustainable management of forests and watersheds through information centers, a website, and educational videos .The Trees for Tomorrow project shows a clear example of a local implementation of e-Environment applications within a structured project to jointly improve forest and watershed management, as well as enforcement and capacity building.25

Lessons Learned: Deemed a success largely because it was a long-term project that allowed for support in adoption of new technologies. “The project took an innovative approach in adopting technology as they became available (GPS, GIS, Satellite imagery), and was reported to have intuitive interfaces and smooth transition to local ownership of the tools.”

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2.3 Mitigation and Action

In recent years, terms like mitigation and adaptation have become buzz words for practitioners in the sustainability sphere, especially in the areas of disaster management and climate change. For the purposes of this paper mitigation refers to the ability of ICT to adjust behaviors that govern the use of critical resources, especially technologies that promote energy conservation through efficiency and that help to increase capacity and awareness that can lead to action. This section primarily includes a review of case studies and technologies that cover:

• Resource and energy conservation systems • GHG emissions reduction systems • Pollution control management and technologies • Information for behavior modification • Systems that allow for new understanding of environmental assets

2.3.1 Trading Bows and Arrows for Laptop Computers, Rondonia, Brazil

The case of the Surui and their efforts to protect their land and the Amazon rainforest from illegal logging is primarily a success story of technological empowerment and advocacy through multi-stakeholder collaboration. This project and corresponding ICTs can actually fall into all five of the applicability areas. The issues surrounding this case have substantial implications for tackling deforestation, mitigating climate change, and ensuring the survival of the indigenous people. The Surui’s first contact with the outside world occurred in 1969 when the Brazilian government contracted a construction company to build a highway straight through the traditional Surui land. Disease quickly decimated the population, leaving only 300 alive. Since then, continuous tensions have occurred between illegal loggers and the Surui, occasionally resulting in violence. Thus far 11 Surui chiefs have lost their lives. Chief Almir was the first of the Surui to attend college. Knowing traditional weapons such as bows and arrows were no longer effective, he contemplated new ways in which his people can defend their land. He realized that computers and maps could be their new tools to defend their land, tell their story, and show the world the plight of the forests and the people that inhabit them. Following an Internet campaign utilizing videos and satellite images, Google partnered with the Surui to teach them how a wide range of ICT can aid them in their campaign. Now equipped with Android phones, the Surui are able to better safeguard their lands from illegal loggers. The Amazon conservation team has also helped to conduct an ethnographic map of the Surui territory. Together, they have charted over 40 million acres of rain forest. Members interviewed their elders, photographed their territory, and plotted

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out more than 2,000 important sites using GPS and GIS. The ethnographic map includes ceremonial lands, hunting grounds, fishing spots, even strands of the three types of trees necessary for making their arrows. Now there is a socio-cultural, historical layered map of the territory, instead of a one dimensional map of forest assets. Benefits of this project include:

• High-quality satellite images make it easier to monitor and defend the land from loggers and miners.

• Helped to grab the world's attention and enlist new allies in the Surui's struggles • Helps track positive developments, including preservation of threatened rain forest and planned

plant of 7,000 hectares of trees. • Supports the "Surui carbon project" that could funnel money to the tribe through global cap and

trade programs. • Part of Almir's "50-year plan" to help the Surui people become financially self-sufficient. • Ensures that engagement with the outside world does not mean relinquishing Surui identity or

exhausting their resources Lessons Learned: Local stewards of the forests are the best managers. Local communities can be equipped with the means to survey and monitor their lands from encroachment simultaneously protecting forests for generations to come. International public-private collaborations can help developing countries bolster their global environmental research and analysis capacities. 2.3.2 SMEs and Supply Chain Efficiency

According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), manufacturing and commercial companies achieve greater output with less energy consumption by putting their supply chain on the Internet. This is achieved by reducing inventories, overproduction, unnecessary capital purchases, mistaken orders, and paper transactions.27 The use of the Internet for increased supply chain efficiency can have overwhelming positive effects for small and medium enterprises (SMEs) by not only connecting them to the global supply chain, but also streamlining their production processes via reduced time, energy, costs, and even travel. 28

2.3.3 Smart Grids and Smart Power Systems, Europe

Smart grids and smart power systems are highly complex combination and integration of multiple digital and non-digital technologies that can measure and control energy usage.29 According to the consulting firm McKinsey, boosting the use of intelligent devices and applications could reduce global CO2 emissions by as much as 15% by 2020.30

SMART GRIDS and SMART SYSTEMS How are they useful?

More efficient energy routing and thus an optimized energy usage; A reduction of the need for excess capacity and increased power quality and security; Better monitoring and control of energy and grid components; Improved data capture and thus an improved outage management; Two-way flow of electricity and real-time information allowing for the incorporation of green energy

sources, demand-side management and real-time market transactions; Highly automated, responsive and self-healing energy network with seamless interfaces between all parts of

the grid. How can it be implemented? This technology can be used to create eco-development and green, smart cities. Smart Grids can be retrofitted to outdated energy systems and applied to new infrastructure development projects in developing as well as developed countries.

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The European Commission noted that the ICT sector could help reduce greenhouse gas emissions in three ways. First, ICT can encourage energy savings in traditionally energy demanding sectors like buildings, transportation, and manufacturing by means of smart technology. Second, by enabling teleconferencing and e-commerce transportation outputs are reduced. Third, these technologies catalog and disseminate information about power consumption with the intention of raising awareness, which in turn could reduce demand.31

2.3.4 CDKNetwork, United Kingdom

The CDKNetwork is a new UK government funded program to help decision makers in developing countries design and deliver climate resilient growth, mainly through research, advisory services and knowledge management in support of locally owned and managed policy processes. They work in partnership with leaders from the public, private and non-governmental sectors, both nationally and internationally, to enable policy development that leads to action. Having access to the very best experts from around the world, allows the clients to enhance their ability to develop successful environmentally sustainable initiatives and projects.32

CDKNetwork’s vision is to become a flexible and scalable platform, reaching out to 60 countries over the next five years, and to become a global focal point for knowledge and understanding of the interface between climate change and human development. The UK’s Department for International Development will allocate £50 million over 5 years to establish and run the Climate Network.

Lessons Learned: With increased corporate social responsibility platforms, there is great interest from the private sector for collaborations on social issues like climate change and development 2.3.5 The GREENTIE Directory GREENTIE's primary product is a directory of information about suppliers of products, technologies, and information related to the mitigation of greenhouse gases. Under the GREENTIE concept, people needing information on suppliers of greenhouse gas technologies are connected to the information sources. In October 1995, the GREENTIE Center in the Netherlands completed the first edition of a directory of this supplier information and made the directory available to all member countries. The online directory ranks producers and consumers according to the amount of GHGs created by their products, economic activities, and the presence any pollution offsetting mechanisms they offer.33

2.3.6 Akvo.org

The Internet has become a powerful tool in the endeavor to use ICT to promote both mitigation and action of environmental issues. An exemplary example is Akvo, which is a multifaceted website that displays information and best practices for numerous water and sanitation improvement projects. Through thoughtful and innovative design this website is able to overcome many of the obstacles commonly associated with widespread implementation of ICT as well as demonstrate the potential of ICT is this sector.

Not only does Akvo provide users with an exhaustive catalog of water and sanitation projects, the site also displays relevant information enabling users to replicate best practices. In order to bypass common literacy constraints, emphasis is placed on text free interfaces, such as instructional diagrams, photographs, manuals, and videos. Lastly, the site also serves as a clearinghouse that provides detailed information about projects in need of funding. As of May 2010, Akvo has facilitated in 24 projects being completed, which resulted in 19,032 people gaining access to clean water and 12,798 with access to

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improved sanitation. There are currently 154 projects still underway which when completed will provide 386,478 people with potable water and 136,135 people with improved sanitation.34

Lessons Learned: ICT have the potential to not only disseminate relevant information and best practices among practitioners at all levels, can also be used as a means to ensure funding for underfinanced projects.

2.4 Preparedness, Adaptation, and Emergency Management

For maximum effectiveness, mitigation and action-orientated efforts must align closely with preparedness, adaptation, and emergency management strategies. This also includes tactics that employ ICT to ease the effects of a changing environment and dwindling resources.

This section comprises of ICT applications that facilitate:

• Risk, vulnerability and hazard assessments • Simulation and predictive modeling • Early warning systems • GIS and GPS for search and rescue • Remote sensor data for determining severity and impact of disasters

As we have seen, advanced modeling and simulations based on environmental databases have significant implications for global environmental research, analysis and planning. These technologies also lend themselves to predictive capabilities and early warning systems.

Uncertainty is still a key factor in weather-related disasters despite advances in monitoring and predictive capacities. Nevertheless, while the exact "when-where-what" of weather-related hazard events remain a mystery, not only can it be assured that certain hazards like cyclones, earthquakes, and hurricanes will occur in certain regions and with some intensity, but the likelihood of most events are calculable to an estimated probability. These probability statistics, coupled with enactment and modeling techniques, can give a fairly good idea—within limits—of potential devastation to systems and people, and can help to formulate mitigation and warning mechanisms such as building codes, stockpiling materials or communications and information sharing.35

2.4.1 Firehawk- Firewatch Electronic Fire Prevention System, South Africa

ICT can enhance national hazard and disaster management systems across the board, positively affecting everything from alerting populations about an impending disaster like a heat stroke or tsunami and the appropriate actions to take, including: evacuation or additional cover; the exact location and type of services available should one fall ill or need assistance; and how a country should prepare overall for the next disaster and what its response could look like at the municipal, community and national levels. As climate change poses greater challenges for already stressed communities, with imminent sea level rises and temperature fluctuations, preparedness and adaptation mechanisms—particularly geared towards the poor and disadvantaged groups—can go a long way in securing development achievements that are often “washed away by the storm”.

Firehawk, an electronic forest fire detection system is an example of a new (and better) way of doing old things through the use of ICT. The system was developed, patented and trademarked in South Africa by Digital Imaging Systems in 2000. It has replaced or enhanced manned lookout towers in plantations in KwaZulu Natal. Millions of dollars are spent annually in the combat of fires but nothing is done about their early detection. While manned lookout towers have been the norm for hundreds of years, human error and late reporting can lead to destruction of forest assets and even death.

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Through the use of rotating digital cameras, continuous picture and video are taken of large forestry areas. These are then transmitted to several base stations where the Firehawk software differentiates between fire, smoke and glow and automatically raises the appropriate alarm. During the past six years the system has been installed and tested in various forestry areas throughout South Africa. In Northern Kwa-Zulu Natal during the 2000 fire season a total of 153 fires were detected. Of these, 87 fires were detected at night. Results at the end of the season showed a burnt area rate of less than one hectare per fire (0.7 ha per fire), whereas during the 1998 fire season, before the Firehawk system was installed the burnt area rate was 5.68 ha per fire.36

Other capabilities: 1. Multi-tower capabilities. Up to eight (8) remote camera installations can be connected to a single

Firehawk processor. A base station can have many processors. 2. Cameras scan a full 360 degrees in less than four minutes. 3. Detection of smoke, fire and glow 24 hours a day. 4. Manual manipulation of any camera in the system without affecting any other camera in the system. 5. Multiple alarm reporting capabilities. Alarms are reported by the system without affecting any camera

scanning its designated area. 6. Geographical information on any camera and sector position by a simple one touch button operation.

This provides valuable information to forestry personal, such as fire location and best access details. 7. User friendly software, using the latest software platforms and operating systems. 8. The system can be used for Management checkups and controlling fire fighting operations.

Lessons Learned: Testing of most GIS and remote detection equipment must be done in-situ to determine specific weather conditions that may affect equipment and measurement.

2.4.2 Building Damage Atlas, Haiti

Recent earthquakes like that in Haiti and Chile in 2010 were devastating. Both rapid response and long term recovery and reconstruction are critical in reducing trauma and creating more resilient communities. The earthquake that struck Haiti on 12, January 2010, caused horrific damage. Using remote sensing technology and satellite imagery, a comprehensive atlas of all damage caused in Haiti by the magnitude 7.0 earthquake is now available to help in planning recovery and reconstruction measures. The atlas is based on the comparison between pre-disaster satellite imagery and post-disaster aerial photos. By providing an overview of building damage in the main affected cities in Haiti, the Atlas shows that “almost 60,000 buildings, ten times more than initially estimated, were either destroyed or very heavily damaged”.37

This technology: • Provides comprehensive atlas of all damage caused in Haiti by the magnitude 7.0 earthquake on 12

January 2010. • Shows that residential buildings and buildings in slums bore the worst damage, particularly in Port-

Au-Prince, Carrefour, Delmas and Leogane communes. • Using better resolution airborne data, the damage is now assessed at ten times that of original

estimates, allowing planners and development agents to better address needs in the recovery and reconstruction phases

Lessons Learned: Substantiation of estimates of damage and needs are critical to providing relevant assistance throughout the response, recovery, reconstruction phases. Effected communities are better

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served through accurate needs assessments that allow for better planning and delivery of relief in post-disaster scenarios. 2.4.3 Multi-Hazard Early Warning System, Shanghai

The Shanghai Municipal Government announced the pilot of its multi-hazard early warning detection system in 2007. The project was conceived as a necessary component of protecting the city from the threats of natural disasters and climate change through early detection. Shanghai faces multiple and varied hazards from typhoon, storm surges to heat waves, amongst others. This system was first introduced in anticipation of the Shanghai Expo in 2010. It was put in place in conjunction with various municipal environment and civil protection agencies to enhance the current capacity of the Shanghai Meteorological Bureau in preventing the potentially devastating impact of natural disasters on one of China’s most rapidly developing and economically important cities.38

• Multi-hazard Detection & Monitoring System

As a pilot program, lessons learned would be able to inform national policies and could be a strong model to other coastal megacities in South Asia as well as other members of the World Meteorological Organization. This system includes ICT components both technical and organizational:

• Forecast & Prediction System • Early warning & Pre-assessment System • Multi-hazard Information Database • Dissemination and User Application System • Teamwork Mechanism for Multi-Agency Response • Multi-hazard issuance and response standards • Community Safety Program (Community Risk Response Readiness Program)39

Lessons Learned: Shanghai’s multi-hazard system is quite recent, so has not faced significant trials to its effectiveness. Their program is both technical and involves government response procedures and coordinate various agencies, making for a more cohesive government response in the face of a natural disaster. This multi-hazard system should be watched for viability for similar systems for other countries that face varied and multiple hazards.

2.4.4 World Food Program & Drought Insurance Scheme, Ethiopia

Not all disasters are imminent or unavoidable. Certain disasters can actually be prevented before they happen. One such effort is the World Food Program’s Drought insurance scheme for Ethiopian farmers who are subject to the effects of regional recurrent droughts. Many farmers are brought to destitution, and forced to sells their tools and means of farming, when even one harvest is missed or diminished. According to Richard Wilcox of the World Food Program (WFP), “Ethiopia has been receiving the wrong kind of aid. Per capita it receives more emergency aid than any other country, but the least amount of development aid. There is a need to explore new ways to help Ethiopia with its chronic food shortages.”40

A premium of $930,000 was paid for $7.8 million worth of coverage or "contingency funds" ready to be paid out if a certain trigger is hit. The US donated 90% of the funds, while Denmark donated 10% towards the premium. 26-30 weather data collection stations monitored by a Maryland company specializing in rainfall statistics were set up throughout the region. Thankfully, no trigger was set off in

The WFP-Ethiopia drought insurance scheme is an insurance product that provides significant contingency cash ($8 million) in the event of certain trigger factors linked to rainfall. So if low rainfall levels occur, farmers are paid before they have to sell their land or equipment and a hazard, essentially, before a hazard turns into a disaster.

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2006, but if it did, there would have been $7.8 millions of funds made available for Ethiopian farmers. The pilot program was launched in 2006 and provided contingency funding for one catastrophe year. Although, in 2006, the trigger was not set off, the program was deemed successful, and a next phase, 3-year drought-protection scheme was created, which is currently ongoing.

Partners include UN WFP, AXA Re, World Bank (provided technical assistance), Third party verifier (based in Maryland, U.S. that measures/ indexes rainfall data for region in Ethiopia), Ethiopian Government, Ethiopian peasants. Lessons Learned: Relief institutions end up paying more for relief than they would have for prevention of disasters. “Less than 10 percent of the money spent on disaster relief by government agencies and institutions like the World Bank goes to preventive measures. According a study [conducted by Tearfund], Mozambique, anticipating major flooding in 2002, asked for $2.7 million to make basic emergency preparations. It received only half that amount from international donor organizations. After the flood, those same organizations ended up committing $550 million in emergency assistance, rehabilitation and reconstruction financing.”41

2.5 Education and Empowerment

Education and awareness building have proven to be effective means of promoting environmentally sustainable practices, specifically in rural areas and urban slums of developing countries. The ability of communication technologies to educate and empower at marginal populations is not bound to advanced technologies. It is important to note that low degree ICT such as behavior modification schemes via educational seminars, instructional demonstrations, and awareness campaigns, have proven to be highly successful in furthering environmental sustainability campaigns, especially when used in tandem with technology heavy strategies. Understanding how communities use information is crucial to meeting the information needs of the poor. Information itself is a resource that anyone in a community must have to function. For instance, slum dwellers must be knowledgeable of how to navigate the community, where to look for employment, how to acquire services, and where to settle with the least likelihood of eviction. While information needs differ from community to community, there is no doubt that lack of information can be a form of poverty in its own right, and it is not always community members, but policy-makers and outside organizations who must learn the dynamics of the community. Flows of communication, both in and out of the slums, are essential for making progress in this regard.42

Additionally, isolation from information as a byproduct of urban poverty can be exacerbated by social barriers to participation. Therefore, strategies promoting education and empowerment are an essential component of addressing the role of ICT in environmental sustainability. A range of ICT tools can serve as ways of ending the isolation of poor communities and slum-dwellers.43

These strategies and tools can be understood as the following:

• Various technologies including radio, broadband, video, social networking • Local monitoring and reporting • Technologies and collaboration that increase transparency • Bolsters research and conservation • Formal education about the environment

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2.5.1 GROOTS, Nairobi, Kenya GROOTS-Kenya is a network of women’s self-help groups and community based organizations (CBOs) working with empowerment projects in Nairobi’s Mathare slum. Currently the network focuses its efforts on governance, AIDS, disaster management, securing tenure, and post conflict resolution.44

GROOTs also provides job training and counseling, as well as small loans and other services to women in informal communities, while offering outreach and space for community organizing. The GROOTs Kenya network of NGOs in Nairobi includes such organizations as:

• Huairou Commission • Map Kibera • OpenStreetMap • JumpStart International • WhereCampAfrica • Social Development Network • Pamoja Trust.45

ICT related initiatives include GROOTs mobile phone project, in partnership with Tactical Tech, which advocates for women and orphans’ rights to own property. With the aid of mobile telephony, community watchdog groups have organized to guard over women who are at risk of property seizure. Their collaborations with other NGOs seek to foster capacity building and sustainable community organizations amongst the women themselves, working around social constraints through the use of ICTs on insecurity of tenure issues in slum settlements.46

In the process the women, as well as community leaders and chiefs, increase their knowledge and skills of property rights. In many cases, resolutions were reached where women had lost property rights. This process also strengthens partnerships between community based organizations and government administrators.

Lessons Learned: Literacy remains a hindrance for the spread adaptation of mobile phones as solutions, since many women in this program could not read text messages. The cost of phones is also a challenge. It was noted that teleconferencing, while a simple tool, would have greatly eased the facilitation of holding meetings and bringing together many stakeholders to communicate at once from various regions and across great distances. 2.5.2 Digital Doorway Project, South Africa

As the world’s cities expand, new spatial configurations of urban growth emerge. The physical environment, commonly referred to as slum is not only relegated to densely populated urban centers, but the periphery of the city, between urban and rural or peri-urban. In such cases, provision of infrastructure is exponentially more difficult.

Durban, South Africa is one such example, where nearly 67% of the city’s land is comprised of peri-urban areas, with roughly 750,000 people spread across 1,500 sq km. Because of the expansiveness of these areas, infrastructure and access to main roads is limited as well as access to municipal services such as libraries. Communities are severely restricted in terms of economic opportunity and spatial barriers to access to information and ICT.

The government of South Africa addressed this issue through a collaborative effort between the Department of Science and Technology and the Meraka Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research called the Digital Doorway Project. This initiative called for the introduction of easily assembled, vandal proof computer kiosks that were designed to be installed outdoors, operated by people as young as five, and utilized open-access software to reduce costs. Each kiosk can be updated remotely

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via satellite receiver, and comes with educational programs and games, word-processing and other office suite software. Users are allowed to create personal accounts and save data that can be saved to portable devices.

These kiosks, or digital doorways, were placed in four high traffic areas near schools and community centers. Community members were trained in how to operate the doorways, and volunteers were appointed to act as community liaisons and caretakers for the kiosks. In tandem to this project, the eThekwini Municipal Library has begun an online database of indigenous knowledge of sustainable using WikiMedia software, which builds on the oral histories and video collected by fieldworkers in the community. This information will eventually be added to the digital doorways for the community to view.

Lessons Learned: Even though the kiosks are well-used their impact is limited. It is difficult to see significant outcomes in improving lives on a small scale. However, the approach and the digital doorway prototype are easily transferable to other situations and countries. Programs have been implemented in other Sub-Saharan African countries, including Kenya and Uganda.47

2.5.3 Youth Communicating and Networking, Lebanon

By focusing on youth empowerment and technical training of students and teachers in Lebanon, the Youth Communicating and Networking—Mediterranean (Youth CaN Med) project has introduced “sustainable, systematic technology into Lebanese schools to enhance student’s understanding of environmental issues”48

Youth CaN Med has held a teacher training workshop and eight week course on the integration of an international online collaborative project in the classroom. The program also encouraged activities like environmental hikes, site visits to other schools and conferences for students to interact directly with their peers and their environment. Furthermore, the project enabled students to document and share what they learned through the use of ICT.

. The project uses ICTs to support education that is activity-oriented and stimulates a desire to learn and act locally. It is funded by USAID/Lebanon dot-edu project funds and implemented by the Education Development Center.

On May 5th, 2003, Youth CaN Med held its second annual youth conference at the Children’s Science Museum in Beirut. “Approximately four hundred students from schools across Lebanon and an Egyptian delegation made presentations on 27 projects and participated in discussions about environmental protection. The conference became truly international when participants held live discussions with YouthCaN New York and delegations from Morocco, India and Lebanon via videoconferencing technology. Topics included landmine awareness, pesticide use, recycling, wastewater treatment, deforestation and silkworm art. Students also shared information about their use of telecommunications and other technologies in local, national and global environmental projects.”49

One outstanding benefit of the project was the empowering of conference participants to become environmental leaders. Additionally, in the months leading up to the conference, students held an environmental rally, prepared presentations, and exchanged ideas with youth from other communities. They learned how to post content online, develop PowerPoint presentations, and discuss environmental issues both in class and in online discussion groups. These skills will enable them to continue working on environmental issues in their own communities.

Lesson Learned: This is a wonderful example of mainstreaming the environment in education programs and fostering leadership in youth. By making the experience interactive and giving students the skills and capacity to document and exchange ideas and stories about environmental issues and concerns, students are more likely to become leaders in this area.

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2.5.4 InfoDev.org (Information for Development Program)

Launched in 1996 by a partnership between the World Bank and other international organizations, InfoDev is a wide-reaching development program tackling poverty and empowerment issues in developing countries through an ICT approach. The website benefits public institutions by promoting efficiency and transparency, supports small and medium size enterprises that rely on ICT, and improves local access to education and health services. InfoDev’s work centers around three main themes: enabling access for all, mainstreaming ICT as tools of development and poverty reduction, and maximizing innovation, entrepreneurship, and growth.

Operating in over 50 countries and with grants for hundreds of projects, InfoDev has shifted in recent years to more research and education based programs that emphasize the role of ICT in achieving the MDGs. Through the course of its work, InfoDev has become an invaluable tool to those responsible for transforming information into action. This is achieved by means of developing educational and informative literature, workshops, and toolkits as well as providing decision makers with more complete data. This site has tremendous potential to improve the lives of slum dwellers in addition to serving as the primary evaluative tool for a wide variety of projects. Among its catalog of initiatives is a current Climate Technology Program, which sponsors design and implementation of clean technologies.50

Lessons Learned: ICT programs can be quite effective when backed by adequate funding and support, as well as a broad ranging network of ICT practitioners and partnerships. InfoDev is an excellent example of how an organization can provide a platform for facilitating knowledge sharing and pair research with practice. As a largely grant-funding organization, it has received some criticism for not playing a closer guiding role with grantees once they received funding.

2.5.5 Ushahidi

Ushsahidi is a web application that creates a moving picture of developing crisis and response. It allows anyone to take distributed information from text messages, web pages, blogs, twitter, and emails and visualize it on a map or timeline. Ushahidi was originally used to map the post-election violence in Kenya in 2008 and it has since been redeployed in disaster situations like the 2010 Haiti Earthquake. Ushahidi began with Kenyan blogger Ory Okkolloh, who was documenting the 2008 post-election violence in Kenya on her blog. When she realized she had a wealth of information from texts, tweets, emails from people all over the country, she posted a message wondering if any techies would create a mash-up of the violence and put it on a google map. Developers responded by creating software that did this in real-time and allowed for direct input from citizens. According to a Forbes article on citizen voices, “Ushahidi, Swahili for ‘testimony’, uses free software called FrontlineSMS that turns a laptop and a mobile phone into a text-broadcasting hub. As an SMS is sent from a hot zone, the message synchs with the Ushahidi software and shows up in a Web administrator's in-box. The Web admin can decide to send a text message back to the sender to verify the information, send out a blast alert to large numbers of people or post the information onto a Web page with location information from Google Maps (or do all three).”51

Frontline SMS works along with SwiftRiver which is a free and open source software platform that uses algorithms and crowdsourcing to validate and filter news.

Benefits: • Empowers individuals to document events as they unfold • Helps disaster responders locate emergent needs • Gives those involved in crises a glimpse of the “big picture”, often crucial for disaster victims.

Lessons Learned: While Ushahidi has worked in various places around the globe, in future development many interfaces should be created in multiple languages that allow for wider input.

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3. Challenges to the use of ICT in Environmental Sustainability

While there has been progress, albeit limited, towards meeting some of the targets of MDG 7, such as halving the number of people without access to potable water, many issues remain that hinder more extensive achievements in meeting all the targets. The majority of these challenges are in the areas of national government coordination and participation in sustainable resource management, deforestation and biodiversity loss, lack of clean water and sanitation, and unmitigated population growth and migration resulting in rapid urbanization and slums. Climate change and natural disasters also present unique challenges for achieving MDG 7. Given these issues, the nature of MDG 7 lends itself to ICT intervention. However, there are many obstacles barring ICT from reaching their full potential in promoting and ensuring this goal. The following section discusses the unique issues, challenges and constraints to the full utilization of ICT for environmental sustainability under three broad categories: (1) Access, Availability, and Connectivity; (2) Information Gathering and Sharing; and, (3) Cost as ICT Barrier.

3.1 Access, Availability, and Connectivity

Science and technology, in general, are often viewed as inherently gender, culture, and language- neutral. However, when it comes to the application and use of technology, it is clear that the design and implementation of technology often reflect dominant—even, negative—paradigms of society. For example, most manuals, Internet sites, and operating systems are written in only one of four “world” languages: English, Chinese, German, and Japanese, obstructing use by much of the world’s populations that are not familiar with these languages. A recent study found that out of over 1300 African websites, only 3.22% were written in an African language.52

For real, extensive, and effective use of ICT to occur in the environmental sector, it is imperative that content be made more accessible to the poor and those living in slums and rural areas. We have already discussed the case of SimTanka and Jal Chitra. The primary failure of SimTanka—that it was restricted to English-language users—presented an opportunity to learn and tailor Jal Chitra, the next software attempt by the Ajit Foundation, to the local community. They paired with the Barefoot College and made sure that this time the application was available in Hindi. This immediately increased usage in the rural population and allowed the Barefoot College to utilize Jal Chitra in all its programs.

Additionally, potential users, especially in rural areas of the developing world, are barred from using ICT that require a level of technological literacy that is often lacking. Outdated social norms and inadequate governmental support can further hinder or even preclude certain groups of people from using or gaining the skills necessary to use ICT. These literacy barriers must be overcome before ICT can be taken advantage of in the various environmental capacities proposed.

Collaborations between academic institutions and the private sector have already proven successful, although there remains much work to be done. Another such example is the joint project between researchers from MIT, Adobe and Microsoft who have been developing text-free user interfaces that allow people who are illiterate, semi-illiterate or who do not speak an international language to use computer software at community kiosks.53

The availability of ICT to promote this MDG is also contingent on the supporting infrastructure, networks, and reliable power supply necessary for the operation of the technology. Locations in the developing world and rural areas in particular, often lack some or all of these elements. One example that

The strength of this project is that they draw on ethnographic research from the start of development and design phase through implementation to create a product that is user-specific and sensitive to religious, cultural, and social needs.

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encapsulates the complexity of this issue is Ghana, where business and communications are at the mercy of a faulty telecommunications system where approximately 50% of all phone calls are dropped and prices are exorbitantly high due to waste, inefficiency, and corruption.54

As the applications for bandwidth intensive communication such as video and flash technology increase, and become crucial for a range of uses from video advocacy for the Surui or the long-range photograph and video requirements of Firehawk, or the mapping needs of Carpe, countries must update their ICT infrastructure so that these applications remain viable solutions. Connectivity infrastructures of this nature are not only initially expensive, but are also subject to periodic damage, both intentional and unintentional in origin, and the costs of subsequent repair and routine maintenance. Electricity, phone, and fiber optic lines in developing nations are at a greater risk, resulting in higher costs.

Therefore, the use of ICT to promote environmentally sustainable programs would be severely inhibited in with Ghana’s current infrastructure limitations.

Almost ten years ago Mauritius connected to the SAFE underwater fiber-optic cable for international connectivity, positioning the small-island nation to become a leading ICT nation in Africa. The installation of this underwater cable not only guaranteed Mauritius inclusion in the global flow of information, but also represented a major advantage for Mauritius over other countries in the region in that it is protected from storms and cyclones that sweep through the Indian Ocean between November and April, disrupting conventional land line and satellite service. Navinchandra Ramgoolam, the Mauritian Prime Minister, credits the optical cable for allowing the development of Mauritius’s ICT sector, which contributes to at least 6% of the country’s gross domestic product.55

3.2 Information Gathering and Sharing

Currently Mauritius is attempting a second point of connectivity through the LION cable project, to ensure redundancy and security, should the SAFE connection go out for any reason.

A principal function of ICT is to collect, analyze, and ultimately facilitate in the dissemination of data. Doing so allows for decision makers to have access to accurate and current data at the earliest stages of their projects or initiatives, as in the case of COMMONSense Net and IBAT. However, there are presently several barriers to information gathering and sharing that prohibit ICT’s full use towards environmental sustainability projects.

As Denko et al. state there are serious missing links in the information chain when it comes to environmental data because much of the data is gathered in the field, and is not readily available to other practitioners, decision makers, and stakeholders. 56 Instances where ICT are employed without uniformity and coordination amongst the vested interests can lead to the creation of islands of information as was the case when India’s various forestry departments went “electronic”.57

Additionally, there are few places where the data is organized and displayed for stakeholder analysis. While they are currently websites attempting to tackle this issue, such as Akvo and IBAT, there is still a great amount of work that needs to be done. A more centralized approach between the efforts of national governments, international institutions, and the private sector would help to overcome issues in data gathering and sharing.

These islands often employed different software, and ultimately led to duplication of efforts, needlessly high costs and prevented interoperability and any efforts at sustained sharing and collaboration.

3.3 Cost as an ICT Barrier

Many of the information and communication technologies that could be of best use for promoting environmental sustainability, like precision agriculture, require great amounts of capital, thereby severely limiting widespread implementation. This is especially true for the hardware, software, and infrastructure

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an ICT system consists of. However, the world cannot wait for the price to fall as opportunities for ICT use, especially in the developing and least developed countries, pass us by. Here, multi-stakeholder collaboration and international funding become critical.

Another funding obstacle is the protracted costs commonly associated with ICT. Many of these initiatives require funding for an extended period of time. In many cases this is attributable to associated training and education programs as well as maintenance and repair. Since many of these projects require funding for months or even years, investors and donors tend to view them as riskier and are less willing to invest. Here, research, like that conducted by Sachs and Reid58

The recent economic recession and financial crisis have put additional strains on the limited money available for such ventures. As a result, many of the programs under MDG 7 have fallen onto the backburner as more immediate issues are addressed. However, as noted by many prominent development economists, long term environmentally sustainable practices are a necessary part of the development process and consequently require increased attention and funding.

in their article entitles “Investments for Sustainable Development”, can be highly useful in educating investors to potential benefits and easing investor reluctance. This report shows that investments in programs like Jal Chitra and supporting frameworks, can actually have parallel, long-range pay-offs for development like better flood-control and disaster management that off-set the initial investments.

As is the case for all nations, developing countries are bound by budgets, and must prioritize opportunity costs accordingly. However, unlike developed countries, those countries still in the development phase not only have a harder time attracting investments to fill budgetary gaps, but they also pay a higher price for doing so. Thus, the high cost of capital among least developed countries remains an impediment for full implementation ICT for development.

One area where an environmental challenge presents an opportunity and incentive for developing countries is climate change and forest protection. As climate change becomes a focal point for international action, especially amongst private donors and corporations, tools and policies that promote forest protection and climate change mitigation and adaptation can attract foreign investment.59 New ways of thinking about the value of forests is also on the rise. REDD, or Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries, is a UN-led effort to create a financial value for the carbon stored in forests, offering incentives for developing countries to reduce emissions from forested lands and invest in low-carbon paths to sustainable development. 60

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4. Stakeholder Participation in ICT for Ensuring Environmental Sustainability

4.1 National governments

National government participation is such an integral part of the success of ensuring environmental sustainability that the first target of Goal 7 urges nations and the international community to “Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources.”61

Awareness of the need for sustainable development remains a barrier in many countries. Where awareness is present, proper data collection and information needed to facilitate environmental decision-making is lacking. Budget shortfalls curtail investment for environmental projects and policies at the national level and; balancing priorities of economic development preclude environmental sustainability and can prevent holistic approaches. Countries are often caught unprepared for dealing with shocks and risks associated with the forces of global change, migration, conflict, and disasters that induce local and regional instability and render government action inept. The current global economic downturn threatens to put environmental initiatives on the back burner of country policies. Institutional impediments include isolated government entities with outdated and limited resources that often duplicate efforts across departments and at times even undermine them. Bureaucratic systems adverse to institutional change or overrun by corruption impede implementation. Finally, lack of stakeholder participation in formulating government policies in managing resources remains a barrier, especially at the local level. Given these and other challenges, countries face the daunting task of promoting growth and utilizing their natural resources while effectively preserving them for the benefits of generations to come.

With increased climate risks and the number of natural disasters on the rise, environmental issues have become a priority for developed and developing countries alike, but several issues limit success in this area.

National governments hold a unique and powerful leadership position to foster change and growth across sectors. Through the use of ICT, many opportunities exist for governments to proceed effectively to integrate principle of sustainable development into country policies and reverse the loss of environmental resources.

1.1 The interplay of National Policies-A three-part solution

National strategies for environmental sustainability are unwieldy, and success can be dependent on everything from political economy and governance to geography and unique hazard profile of a country. But they also offer an opportunity for country-specific solutions that can have far-reaching benefits. Thus, national strategies must be tailored to each country and development practitioners must be cautioned in transferring techniques from one community to another. Overall, it is important to note that poorer countries have decreased capacities to deal with environmental losses.

In the process of this research, several fundamental strategies for national governments surfaced. Key among them was that while many countries are implementing ICT4D projects and policies, they are not simultaneously incorporating environmental sustainability and e-environment projects. ICT can assist in achieving MDGs, but only if appropriately applied; the development of ICT national plans must be integrated with environmental sustainability policies for maximum gains.

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Figure 3 demonstrates the relationship of national environmental policies, ICT policies and development policies.

• First, environmental degradation reverses gains from development and impedes future development; without direct support on the national level—in terms of investment, action and monitoring—unique hurdles of environment cannot be overcome. Therefore, the environment must be mainstreamed into national development policies.

• Second, each country and region faces unique ICT challenges including structural and social barriers for successful ICT application. ICT for development policies should take into account the unique landscape of country institutions and practices, with an eye for interoperability across agencies and the international community. Thus, ICT policy must be mainstreamed into national development policies.

• Finally, as ICTs can be effective in addressing many of the challenges in meeting Target 1, from awareness and isolation, to instability caused by external shocks like disasters and climate change; the broad applicability of ICTs to environmental issues must be exploited. Policies should therefore integrate and promote ICT development alongside environmental sustainability measures and planning in order to see real and lasting gains.

Participation: For Target 2, (tackling deforestation and biodiversity loss) national government participation can occur through representatives of forest and marine life agencies, scientists, the judiciary system and other departments of government. In terms of meeting Target 3 (providing clean water and basic sanitation), governments can intervene by enacting legislation that protects the rights to both for all people living within its borders. National and municipal governments are also the key determinants of urban policy and planning, pertinent to Target 4 (improving the lives of slum dwellers). This can include eviction and demolition policy, rent control and other legal parameters for tenure. National and municipal governments also direct the provision of public services and infrastructure such as roads, access to power-grids, clean water and sanitation, as well as public programs in health and education, and other public goods which raise the quality of life for urbanites, including slum-dwellers.

Strengths: Overall, governments can institute top down policies backed by enforcement mechanisms, provide leadership, provoke institutional change, support R&D, provide incentives for better management, and provide regulatory frameworks in support of ICT for environmental sustainability. Additionally, governments have the power to implement policies that mitigate the growth of slums, and

Figure 3 – Three Key National Directives to further Target 1

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provide services that improve the lives of slum-dwellers. Government policies and programs can reach out to communities and foster knowledge of ICTs through public education, libraries and other public facilities that provide access to low income communities. Public records can be streamlined and made more readily available, and publicly funded academic institutions have the ability to implement projects targeting innovation and ICT development for environmental sustainability.

Weaknesses: General weaknesses include isolation or duplication of efforts between government agencies due to a lack of coordination or cumbersome bureaucracy, corruption, and stifling of innovation. Public policy alone cannot account for funding gaps in provision of services that are largely dependent on tax revenue. In an urban context, for example, income inequalities can be exacerbated by unequal distribution of public resources. This often comes down to a question of fairness, and whether city governments advocate a policy of transferring wealth throughout the city, or state, to impact those who are in the greatest need, but may be least able to contribute to the support of these services. Generally there has not been a prioritization of ICT as part of urban infrastructure planning for low income communities in developing countries, simply because it is quite costly and difficult to subsidize where user bases will not make up the gap in funding.

4.2 Private Sector

The private sector represents the technical side of ICT innovation, where prioritization of research and future directions are often determined. Collaborations across sectors are frequent and the private sector in turn offers philanthropic assistance such as grants to academic institutions for research and development of ICT and sustainable initiatives. For example, Microsoft Research in India, in conjunction with Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) has conducted projects that cut across academic, private sector, and even disciplinary lines by utilizing ethnographic research in Mumbai to map the demand for and usage of mobile phones and PCs in low-income settings, as well as to study the ecology of mobile phone repair and servicing and PC assembling, the dissemination of ICT skills and adoption.62

Strengths: The private sector supplies the design and market-based environment with mechanisms to spur innovation and financial sustainability. Not limited to multi-national or corporations, the private sector also encompasses small business and tech companies, as well as individual entrepreneurs, to conduct every day business and generate incomes.

Weaknesses: Private sector strategies that rely exclusively on the role of ICT face criticism stemming from the design-reality gap. A great deal of innovation comes from the ground up, dealing with end-users in local communities and their information needs first and foremost.63

4.3 International Community

ICT must be both efficient and affordable to be widely implemented and easily accessed by users. There must be incentives for action, whether they take the form of profit or promise of increased user base in the future.

International organizations, including UN agencies such as UNGAID, the International Telecommunications Union, multilateral organizations and development banks have a tremendous role to play as large-scale organizers for resources and knowledge sharing. Through such forums as the World Summit for the Information Society, the international community serves as a forum for collaboration and developing ICT initiatives.

Strengths: The international community represents the greatest opportunities and access to funding and knowledge transfer, where spaces can be created for developing as well as developed countries to share

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experience, best practices, and resources, and to collaborate directly on ICT and environmental sustainability initiatives, as well as form agreements between national governments to meet certain environmental standards and targets.

Weaknesses: Major criticism of international organizations pertains to effectiveness of international agreements and conferences and the difficulties associated with enforcing such agreements. Especially in dealing with inter-governmental and private sector initiative, many voices may not be heard, which raises concerns over who will benefit or receive prioritization in terms of aid and assistance from within a collection of many stakeholders.

4.4 Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs)

All stakeholders, including NGOs acting around the world rely heavily on ICT for their operations through telephony, internet, logistics systems for the delivery of resources and supplies, and other functions. In many cases, NGOs act as the direct providers of ICT services to communities in which they work, although an NGO’s specific role as service provider may vary tremendously. NGOs that directly address the mandate of using ICT for development offer tele-centers, job training and ICT workshops, offering programming and projects that incorporate ICT into their operations, such as mobile phone mapping or texting.

Strengths: NGOs often play a key role as intermediaries in grassroots efforts between larger organizations, target groups and constituents. NGOs also use ICT for the dissemination of information on current activities, future plans and past successes. This is particularly important for private funding and attracting donors, as well as building advocacy and public awareness. For example, micro-credit institutions, such as Kiva, allow anyone to make a donation through the web. Donations are then deployed as small loans to entrepreneurs in developing countries.64

Weaknesses: Due to limitations in the size and scope of NGOs projects, which may be largely dependent on funding, ICT projects may face lifecycle challenges that inhibit the sustainability of project in providing these services and skills training over time. Building long-term capacity development and access is within the mandates of many organizations, but is not universally feasible. Monitoring and evaluation of project successes also presents challenges, as many organizations lack the resources to later address and determine the long-term outcomes of their activities. This information, were it easily obtainable, could be utilized to secure long-term funding and to implement improvements in project implementation and planning.

Such applications of ICT provide more access points for NGOs to receive funding and reach a broader audience around the world as well establish a clear pathway between the donor and benefactor, for the purposes of transparency and accountability.

4.5 Academic Institutions

Academic Institutions have an important role to play in a pedagogical sense, with ICT as tools for teaching and facilitating engagement with academic studies. With adequate funding and interest, academic environments provide a laboratory space for conducting research and innovations for ICT that cut across sector lines, blending social practice with technological advancement for the purpose of ensuring environmental sustainability. For example, Microsoft provides direct funding to universities for academic research projects focused on energy efficiency in computing in the areas of datacenter power efficiency, power management and the creation of parallel computing architecture with decreased power demands in slums.65

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Strengths: Academic institutions in developed countries may have a significant advantage in terms of resources and creative space to innovate on ICT and environmental sustainability solutions. However, institutions in middle and low income countries offer talent and ideas that can be supported through UNGAID’s efforts. Academic environments present advantages that the private sector may lack. While many private sector collaborations may also spring from philanthropic activities, academic institutions often undertake ICT projects from a perspective of of intellectual enquiry and public service, and are therefore less likely to be concerned with return on investment or strictly market-based results. Projects also benefit from the close proximity of varying disciplines within an institution. For example, inter-disciplinary collaborations between environmental sociologists, anthropologists, information architects and ICT engineers have the potential to influence the direction of a project, incorporating highly sensitive social factors with technical needs in creative and thoughtful ways.

Weaknesses: Academic institutions, particularly in developing countries may need significant investments in order to fund innovation and research. Even with resources to innovate, these institutions must have the ability to directly implement a project through collaboration with the private sector, NGOS or local governments, making them highly dependent on other stakeholders to have an impact or significant role in promoting ICT for environmental sustainability.

4.6 Media

The media plays a multi-faceted role, as both reliant on ICTs for effective communication, but also as educators and informants for the issues of ICT and environmental sustainability. While media works through traditional print, broadcast and radio, the Internet has flattened the accessibility of platforms for information dissemination and individualized content to be seen by a much wider and increasingly international audience through ICT tools such as blogs, online forums, discussion boards, and social networking. This has transformed the way ICT interact with media and who or what constitutes media.

Strengths: Media is, by definition, a figurehead for ICT, due to its role in spreading information and building awareness, drawing public concern and attention to important issues. Media is also tool that can be harnessed by national governments to build popular consensus or mainstream issues. Conversely, it is a tool for local communities and organizations to galvanize efforts and put pressure on governments to adopt policy changes or reforms.

Weaknesses: While a voice for many, media can still be manipulated or impede knowledge and information in areas where national policies limit or censor specific sites or content from mainstream sources. This is a growing problem in many countries where government perceive a threat from unfiltered or regulated content flowing to their citizens and perhaps provoking them to be more critical of government activities or become exposed to content regarded as inappropriate. Additionally, simple ignorance or avoidance of a particular issue in the media can be detrimental to the cause of fostering awareness of environmental sustainability or ICT.

4.7 Local Communities

The primary stakeholders for MDG 7 are target communities in both urban and rural areas across the world, not only in low and middle income countries, but in the developed world where the impacts of climate change and depleted natural resources are shared. While it is important to address the digital divide between urban and rural communities, MDG 7 also stresses the mandate to make significant improvements in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers by 2020. Currently, a billion people live in slums word-wide, a number that is projected to double by 2030.66 Slums are characterized by lack of

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access to clean water and sanitation, lack of durable housing, lack of secure tenure and insufficient living space or overcrowding. Accompanying these material conditions, communities may lack access to basic health and education, and public services, linkages to local infrastructure, power grids and transportation. This problem is most pronounced in countries with high unregulated rates of urbanization such as those of Sub-Saharan Africa, where average annual urban population growth rates have reached upwards of 5%.67

The beneficiaries of MDG 7 are a diverse group. Recognizing strengths within these communities requires knowing the specific environmental and ICT problems they face cross-regionally, within countries and within a range of environmental problems. While some problems, such as climate change, are projected to affect a global population, the impact of this change will not be universally felt or acted upon. Therefore, it is important to take regional vulnerabilities into account. A localized problem, such as access to clean water and sanitation for a mega-city in a flood-prone delta such as Dhaka, differs from the problem of access to water and sanitation in the Sahel. Internet connectivity may not be as significant an obstacle in Brazil’s favelas as for a peri-urban village on the outskirts of Durban, South Africa.

Strengths: A common strength across this sector is local knowledge and creativity, often in situations of extreme scarcity. This knowledge can inform top-down ICT solutions, and help identify essential information needs. This kind of knowledge includes that of physical environments, linguistic and cultural resonances that can help programs and ICT solutions be more relevant and respectful of social structures and how information is naturally transmitted through a community, who the key informants are, and how information is then used toward action. From engineers in Sub-Saharan Africa, devising ways of recharging cell-phones without access to power grids, to ancient methods for water monitoring and regulation in the Philippines, experience and expertise is not in short supply, and can be harnessed and incorporated in finding ICT solutions.

Weaknesses: Environmental burdens are most significant in underprivileged communities, and are highly related with the problem of economic sustainability and development.68

The challenges to using ICT for environmental sustainability are interconnected with overarching problems of poverty or lack of access to basic services. They include, but are not limited to, problems of technological and basic literacy, low incomes or extreme poverty which make ICT cost prohibitive, lack of awareness or education about the environment, and lack of education about ICT. In some cases lack of agency or direct representation within policy-making institutions means communities may have an unfair environmental burden or face an inequitable distribution of government resources in terms of tackling environmental obstacles. Additionally, lack of agency in policy making can impact land use policies regarding tenure and the likelihood of eviction for slum-dwellers.

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5. Key Recommendations

National Governments 1) Mainstream development, ICT, and environmental sustainability planning so they work in tandem to

achieve shared goals.

2) Demonstrate leadership in the implementation of ICT for development and environmental sustainability by adopting pro-ICT measures at municipal and national levels.

3) Create favorable strategic and policy frameworks that allow for ICT implementation and attract investment.

4) Provide incentives for: • Innovation, research and development in the use of ICT for environmental sustainability • Collaboration amongst key stakeholders

5) Support the efforts of civil society and international organizations working in ICT for environmental

sustainability International Community 6) Take stock of where we are today in post-WSIS and ICT4D initiatives and continue efforts to

promote ICTs in achieving MDGs.

7) Assist developing countries that lack capacity for environmental research, observation and analysis (especially high-tech and large scale efforts).

8) Provide funding in the forms of grants, trade incentives, leverage of private sector finances, and subsidies as a means to:

• Encourage governments to fulfill their commitments. • Enable civil society groups working in ICT for ensuring environmental sustainability.

Private Sector 9) The design and development of ICT products should be user-specific and sensitive to environmental,

cultural, and social needs.

10) Planned implementation of ICT should emphasize coordination and interoperability between sectors and locations.

NGOs 11) Continue to adopt low-technology methods—like seminars and workshops on sanitation—

especially in rural areas, in tandem to high-tech strategies.

12) Promote long-term vision in project planning and design. Projects should be devised with an eye towards flexibility, so they can incorporate new technology and new applications as they become available or widely introduced.

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6. Glossary Capacity Building: Capacity building encompasses the country’s human, scientific, technological, organizational, institutional and resource capabilities. A fundamental goal of capacity building is to enhance the ability to evaluate and address the crucial questions related to policy choices and modes of implementation among development options, based on an understanding of environment potentials and limits and of needs perceived by the people of the country concerned. (From Capacity Building - Agenda 21’s definition, Chapter 37, UNCED, 1992) Coping capacity: The means by which people or organizations use available resources and abilities to face adverse consequences that could lead to a disaster. In general, this involves managing resources, both in normal times as well as during crises or adverse conditions. The strengthening of coping capacities usually builds resilience to withstand the effects of natural and human-induced hazards. (From UN ISDR Basic Terms of Disaster Risk Reduction) Disaster: A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society causing widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources. A disaster is a function of the risk process. It results from the combination of hazards, conditions of vulnerability and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce the potential negative consequences of risk. (From UN ISDR Basic Terms of Disaster Risk Reduction) Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and the nonliving environment interacting as a functional unit. Humans are an integral part of ecosystems. Ecosystems vary enormously in size; a temporary pond in a tree hollow and an ocean basin can both be ecosystems. (From Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) Ecosystem services: Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. These include provisioning services such as food and water; regulating services such as regulation of floods, drought, land degradation, and disease; supporting services such as soil formation and nutrient cycling; and cultural services such as recreational, spiritual, religious and other nonmaterial benefits. (From Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) Hazard: A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity that may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. Hazards can include latent conditions that may represent future threats and can have different origins: natural (geological, hydrometeorological and biological) or induced by human processes (environmental degradation and technological hazards). Hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin and effects. Each hazard is characterized by its location, intensity, frequency and probability. (From UN ISDR Basic Terms of Disaster Risk Reduction) Improved sanitation: any facility that hygienically separates human excreta from human contact. (From Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation) Improved water source: any source that by nature of its construction or through active intervention is protected from outside contamination, particularly from contamination with human excreta. (From Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation)

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Information and Communication Technologies for Development (ICT4D): a general term referring to the application of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) within the field of socio-economic development. ICTs can be applied either in the direct sense, where their use directly benefits the disadvantaged population in some manner, or in an indirect sense, where the ICTs assist aid organizations or non-governmental organizations or governments in order to improve socio-economic conditions. In many impoverished regions of the world, legislative and political measures are required to facilitate or enable application of ICTs, especially with respect to monopolistic communications structures and censorship laws. ICT4D is geographically unspecific, and as such concerns itself directly with overcoming the barriers of the Digital Divide. (From South Asia Development Gateway) Precision Agriculture: (also known as precision farming) the use of sensors, networks, and analytical software to boost water usage efficiency. The system provides farmers with the exact amount of water necessary for irrigation. Advanced systems allow the network to also control the irrigation system. (From GIS Development) Preparedness: Activities and measures taken in advance to ensure effective response to the impact of hazards, including the issuance of timely and effective early warnings and the temporary evacuation of people and property from threatened locations. (From UN ISDR Basic Terms of Disaster Risk Reduction) Slums: Urban neighborhoods or settlements, usually identified by poor living conditions, and public services. Characteristics include insecure housing rights or tenure, overcrowding, lack of access to clean water or sanitation, and lack of adequate or durable housing structures. (From UNHABITAT "The Challenge of Slums: Global Report on Human Settlements” 2003) Slum Upgrading: Basic slum improvement projects, including but not limited to provision of services such as clean water, sanitation, or sewage or waste disposal, as well as addressing regularization of property (tenure), or improved housing structures. Some require relocation to a different area, depending on the feasibility of working with pre-existing built environment, while others can be in-situ (on location) improvements. (From Cities Alliance “What is Slum Upgrading?” 2010) Unimproved sanitation: any facility, public or private, that discharges human excreta directly into the bush, field or bodies or water. (From Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation) Unimproved water source: wells or pipes that allow contaminants into the water supply or water that is imported via carts or trucks and then sold. (From Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation)

Well-being: Human well-being has multiple constituents, including basic material for a good life, freedom and choice, health, good social relations, and security. Wellbeing is at the opposite end of a continuum from poverty, which has been defined as a “pronounced deprivation in well-being.” The constituents of well-being, as experienced and perceived by people, are situation-dependent, reflecting local geography, culture, and ecological circumstances. (From Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) Vulnerability: The conditions determined by physical, social, economic, and environmental factors or processes, which increase the susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards. (From UN ISDR Basic Terms of Disaster Risk Reduction)

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7. APPENDIX 7.1 MDG 7 Targets Redux Target 1 The first target of MDG 7 urges nations and the international community to “Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources.”69

Environmental sustainability goes beyond mere natural capital such as well-managed, sustainable environmental resources, or infrastructure --conceptualized around the goals for water and sanitation and slum dwellers. Environmental sustainability requires long-term and comprehensive strategies for a sustainable future.

Environmental degradation presents a barrier to achieving every other goal and target within the MDGs, especially in reducing poverty, hunger, and disease. While governments are tasked with improving the lives and livelihoods of their citizens, an important input for improvement—natural resources—have been rapidly depleted. IIn a policy paper published in Science, Sachs and Reid note that poverty reduction and environmental goals are inextricably linked:

Environmental goals cannot be reached without development. Poor people will circumvent environmental restrictions in their desperation for land, food, and sustenance. Nor can development goals be achieved and sustained without sound environmental management. Environmental catastrophes will undermine economic life, whether in New Orleans or Nigeria. 70

Governments must play a key role in environmentally sound economic growth. For in-depth discussion on this target see “Stakeholder Section, National Governments.” Target 2 A main indicator for MDG 7, is measuring the proportion of land area covered by forest and the ratio of area protected. The Dutch Federal Ministry on economic development and cooperation summarizes the trend in deforestation as follows:

Deforestation continues, though the pace has slowed. Between 2000 and 2005 the forest cover was destroyed at the rate of 7.3 million hectares per year. That is a little less than in the previous period, but it still equates to 200 square kilometers a day – an area twice the size of the city of Paris. The main reason for deforestation is clearance to create agricultural land in the developing countries. New areas of forest have grown up in the same period through natural expansion and reforestation. Overall, the world’s forests shrank by three per cent between 1990 and 2005. Loss of forests outside the tropics can be reversed through reforestation. Tropical rainforest cannot be reforested. The losses are irretrievable.71

Almost half of all forests lay in tropical areas, including African, Caribbean, Pacific Island nations. The greatest issue facing forestry policy makers today is uncontrolled deforestation that results in soil erosion, desertification, biodiversity loss and related socio-economic upheavals. Finding ways to balance human livelihood and sustainability is integral to the issue. According to a recent report by ITTO and FAO, there is a strong likelihood that large investments will be made in forests to mitigate climate change. How countries, communities and landowners govern their

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forests will determine the level of investment they attract.72 Many African countries have made inroads by creating national forest protection laws, but with weak institutions and lack of funding, implementation and monitoring is lagging or not occurring at all.73

In another report entitled “Forest law compliance and governance in tropical countries,” the ITTO and FAO assert that five factors give rise to a lack of forest law compliance, mainly: failings in the policy and legal frameworks, insufficient enforcement, a lack of information, corruption, and market distortions.74

Key findings including:

• The need for all countries to increase capacity to collect forest-related data and to strengthen the management of information systems through collaboration between institutions, including NGOs and the private sector.

• Accurate and up-to-date information was considered essential in all regions in order to prevent,

detect, monitor and report on illegal activities. • In most countries, improved data are needed on deforestation and forest degradation in order to

identify priorities for remedial action and to enforce the rule of law.75

ICT can be an effective tool in addressing all of the above points. Target 3 The third target of MDG 7 calls for halving the number of people who lack access to clean water and improved sanitation facilities by the year 2015. While conducting a study in Indonesia the US Agency for International Development (USAID) concluded that efforts to improve access to potable water and improved sanitation are best achieved in conjunction with one another, especially with additional support regarding hygiene.76

Improving access to water is a very broad target with many potential solutions. Regardless of the method for improving access, the supplied water must be suitable for human consumption otherwise an immediate need is simply traded for a future health crisis. The World Health Organization (WHO) stipulates water for human consumption must be free from harmful microbial, radiological, and chemical elements, as well as aesthetically appealing to those consuming it.

This reinforces the notion that water and sanitation are inexorably linked and that long-term improvements in one are best achieved by sustainable improvements in the other.

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According to data compiled by the WHO, over 3 million people die every year from diseases directly linked to a lack of clean water and improved sanitation facilities.

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- 32% via improved sanitation

Of these illnesses malaria and diarrheal diseases like cholera account for the vast majority of deaths. Sadly these diseases disproportionally afflict children. Approximately 90% of the deaths attributed to malaria and cholera are of children under the age of five. However, the WHO has found that deaths attributed to diarrhea can be drastically reduced

- between 6% - 25% via improved water quality Additionally, promoting better sanitation and hygiene practices by way of education can lead to a 45% reduction in the number of diarrhea cases.79

According to the most current Millennium Development Goals Report, approximately 880 million people lack regular access to potable water and 2.6 billion people lack access to improved sanitation.

80 Through the coordinated effort of development agencies within the UN, World Bank, and numerous non-governmental organizations (NGOs), the target of halving the number of people across the world without

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access to water is on track, although certain regional aggregates, namely sub-Saharan Africa, are lagging behind. (See Figure 1) Without substantial progress in the next five years, the sanitation target will not be met.81

ICT do not directly contribute to the built infrastructure for clean water or sanitation, but constitute a method to promote efficiency, transparency, and better practices. ICT are not a substitute for a complete lack of water or improved sanitation devices. Intead, they offer a way to ease the planning and implementation of devices for access and improved sanitation. When affordable, ICT offer high potential for improvements in the lives of targeted communities..

Therefore, stakeholders at all levels are calling for increased attention and resources dedicated to this mandate. A combination of technological advances paired with and dropping costs of ICT could enable efforts towards meeting this target.

Target 4 MDG 7, Target 4 stresses the mandate to make a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers by 2020. In 2007, for the first time, urban populations exceeded rural populations worldwide.82 By all accounts, urban populations are on the rise, and 95% of future growth will occur in developing countries.83

Almost one billion people live in slums word-wide, a number that is projected to double by 2030.84 This problem is most pronounced in countries with high, unregulated rates of urbanization such as those of sub-Saharan Africa, where average annual urban population growth rates have reached upwards of 5% in recent years.85

Sustainability in the context of these trends has a twofold meaning; both environmental and economic. Slums are identified through a set of spatial and material conditions often subject to ecological hazards to health and safety, but also environmental justice matters, where the environmental burdens of a city can be most significant in underprivileged communities. These issues are highly interconnected with the problem of economic sustainability and development. As cities continue to burgeon spatially and slum populations in developing countries grow, the question of how cities can handle this growth while providing a safe environment and acceptable living standards for all must be addressed through MDG 7.

Slums are typically identified by any or all of the following characteristics:

• Insecure land tenure • Lack of access to clean or adequate water supplies • Lack of access to proper sanitation facilities • Unsafe or inadequate housing structures • Insufficient living area (overcrowding).86

Slums can include both formal and informal housing settlements. Many slums are also characterized by a of lack basic infrastructure, such as linkages to road or transportation networks, water or electricity, access to waste collection services, educational or health facilities. Due to stigmas and ambiguity of social status and income often associated with the term “slum,” definitions try to emphasize a set of spatial and circumstantial disadvantages rather than specific socio-economic conditions although there is a proven connection. Slum-dwellers are neither victims who lack all agency, nor are problems related to materials conditions in slums separate from socio-economic factors.

87 UN HABITAT’s 2006-2007 State of the World Cities report revealed that slum dwellers are more likely to die early, suffer from malnutrition and disease, be less educated and have fewer employment opportunities than any other segment of the population.88

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Slums present their own set of environmental challenges that must addressed on several levels. Migration to urban centers from rural areas and the impact of drastic growth in population presents stresses to urban infrastructure. This has become the common phenomenon in some of the most densely populated cities in the developing world, already facing grave environmental challenges and vulnerability from rising sea levels and global warming.89

MDG 7 identifies security of tenure as a major indicator for the improvement of living conditions in slums. Every year forced evictions account for hundreds of thousands of families displaced around the world. These displacements are often due to urban planning schemes, private development or government policies that favor demolition in urban renewal projects.

Even on a local scale, for example, the construction of informal settlements on flood planes in Dhaka or on unstable, eroded hillsides, encroaching on natural areas in Rio De Janeiro illustrate a few of the ecological hazards of which pose a threat not only to the environment, but to the safety of the slum-dwellers themselves.

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ICTs have a strong role to play as tools for research and investigation for NGOs and policy makers seeking to design and implement interventions that would secure tenure and improve living conditions through in-situ slum-upgrading projects or relocation projects in urban communities, as well as educate and empower communities. ICTs can also act as tools for local actors and slum-dwellers to improve their living conditions, not only through access to knowledge about housing and tenure, but through training that can generate income which can then be re-invested in making improvements to housing.

The issue of tenure and durable housing in many ways represents the intersection of environmental issues with poverty and economic development.

The problem of insecure tenure is compounded by lack of information on what really exists in informal settlements. Cadastral maps quickly become outdated, and traditional mapping strategies have long been replaced by GIS technologies that use satellite imagery. Sites and services projects cannot take advantage of tax maps and other municipal property records in addressing informal settlements and make-shift dwellings on untenured land. Therefore, information that is reiterative and easily updated can help all actors make informed decisions.

MDG Plus 1: Climate Change In 2007, the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, made it clear that climate change and warming is a real and growing threat to the world’s populations and “most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas.”91 The burning of fossil fuels account for more than half of the global greenhouse gas emissions responsible for climate change and continued carbon dioxide emissions have resulted in increased atmospheric concentrations of CO2. According to the World Development Report 2010, countries need to act now because today’s decisions determine both the climate of tomorrow and the choices that shape the future.92

More efficient technologies for the supply and use of energy and a transition to cleaner and renewable energy sources are required in order to break the link between energy use and greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs). Increased vulnerability to climate impacts worldwide due to factors such as unsustainable development and socioeconomic inequality, however, cannot be dealt with through the reduction of GHGs alone. In addition, there has been a greater realization among citizens and governments of less-developed countries that they will be the worst affected by climate change, and this realization has coincided with an increased demand for action and assistance from the developed world.93

Thus, international strategies for combating climate change have taken on a two-pronged approach:

(1) Mitigation of climate change through emissions reduction of green house gases (2) Preparedness and adaptation to the effects of climate change

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ICT can play a critical role in both these strategies, especially in bolstering efficiency and energy conservation and awareness and capacity building that can lead to action.

MDG Plus 2: Natural Disasters In 1989, the UN declared 1990s to be the “Decade of International Natural Disaster Reduction” and charged the UN systems and other international organizations to devise a method of international co-operation to deal with the growing challenges of international hazards and the potential of disasters caused by these hazards. It was later revised in the 2004 ISDR "Living With Risk" document94 and culminated in the “Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015.”95 The UN had begun to address some of the coping questions prompted by their definition of international disaster when they formulated disaster to be a function of human vulnerability and risk. They further stated that vulnerabilities, including social vulnerabilities like poverty, increased the likelihood of loss of life and livelihood and by building capacities in early warning, communication and environmental protections, communities could effectively mitigate the risk of hazards. The relatively new element of climate change added another layer to the international interconnected space, where actions or lack of action in one country can have far reaching global effects in another, creating shared burdens. With rising temperature and sea level changes, climate change also exacerbates and increases occurrences and effects of natural disasters all over the world. This phenomenon of change has led stakeholders on all levels in recent years to address various forms of vulnerability, risk reduction efforts, resilience and adaptation in even newer ways.

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7.2 Table of ICT Application Areas and Related Case Studies Global Environmental Research, Observation and Analysis

• Remote sensing, data collection and storage applications, telemetric systems, meteorological and climate

related recording and monitoring systems • Geographic information systems (GIS) as it applies to data recording and geo-referenced data format • Computational and processing tools used for analysis and comparison of data sources • Storage and visualization tools for geographic information and change Case Studies • Mapping Environmental Hazard, Dhaka, Bangladesh • CARPE Sustainable Management of Forest Resources, Congo Basin • The Integrated Biodiversity Assessment Tool (IBAT) • COMMONSense Net (CSN), Tumkur, India

Environmental Planning and Management Capacity Building

• Mathematical Modeling and Computer Simulations for resource management • Biodiversity and hazard mapping • Information sharing and coordination technologies • Standard setting applications and tools • Knowledge and information creation and sharing for better decision making Case Studies

• e-Land Registry and Land Information System (LIMS), Mozambique • Jal-Chitra and SimTanka, Rajasthan, India • Rede Jovem (Youthnet), Rio De Janeiro, Brazil • Trees for tomorrow Country ICT Strategy, Jamaica

Mitigation and Action • Resource and energy conservation systems • GHG emissions reduction systems • Pollution control management and technologies • Information for behavior modification • Systems that allow for new understanding of environmental assets

Case Studies • Surui Case Study, Rondonia, Brazil • SME and Supply Chain Efficiency • Smart Grids and Smart Power Systems, Europe • CDK Network, United Kingdom • Greentie Directory • Akvo.org

39

Preparedness and Disaster and Emergency Management

• Risk, vulnerability and hazard assessments • Simulation and predictive modeling • Early warning systems • GIS and GPS for search and rescue • Remote sensor data for determining severity and impact

Case Studies

• Firehawk- Electronic Fire Prevention, Kwa Zulu Natal, South Africa • Shanghai Multi-Hazard Early Warning System, China • Building Damage Altas, Haiti • World Food Programme’s Drought Insurance Scheme, Ethiopia

Empowerment and Education

• Various technologies including radio, broadband, video, social networking • Local monitoring and reporting • Technologies and collaboration that increase transparency • Bolsters research and conservation • Formal education about the environment

Case Studies

• ICTs and GROOTS, Nairobi, Kenya • Digital Doorway Project, Durban, South Africa • ICT for Environmental Education and Youth Empowerment, Lebanon • infoDev • Ushahidi

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8. ENDNOTES

1Daniel Esty et al., 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index: Benchmarking National Environmental Stewardship (New Haven: Yale Center for Environmental Law & Policy, 2005), 1. 2 The UN Millennium Project, Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals, (USA: Earthscan, 2005), 2. 3 The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, The Millennium Development Goals Report 2008, (New York: 2008). 4Call for a Comprehensive National Broadband Strategy for South Africa. <http://www.broadband4africa.org.za/preamble> (24 March 2010). 5 Leonard Waverman, Meloria Meschi, and Melvyn Fuss, The Impact of Telecoms on Economic Growth in Developing Countries, (London Business School: unknown date), 2. 6 Waverman et al., 1.

7 The report by Richard Labelle, ICTs for e-Environment, (International Telecommunications Union: 2008), generated a list of ICT applicability areas for e-environment. We began with these categories and adjusting them according to our research.

8 Richard Labelle, ICTs for e-Environment, (International Telecommunications Union: 2008), 26. 9 Nepal C. Dey, A Situation Analysis Report on Environment (MDG 7): Bangladesh. (General Economics Division, Planning Commission, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, UNDP Bangladesh: year unknown), 9.

10 Gustavo Angeles et al., The 2005 Census and Mapping of Slums in Bangladesh: design, select results and application,( International Journal of Health Geographics: 2009), 4. 11Editorial: Rooting ICTs in Forest Management ( <http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/Regulars/Editorial/Editorial-rooting-ICTs-in-forest-management>, 2004). 12 Integrated Biodiversity Assessment Tool. Data Behind IBAT, <http://www.ibatforbusiness.org/default.php?t=SubPageTemplate&r=dbi> (16 April 2010). 13 Andrea Wolfson, “The Brave New World of IBAT,” Conservation International, 6 October 2008, < http://www.conservation.org/FMG/Articles/Pages/brave_new_world_IBAT.aspx> (21 April 2010). 14 CommonsenseNet, 4 15 “E-government Project Focuses on Land,” Development Gateway, unknown date, <http://www.developmentgateway.org/news-events/stories-from-the-field/e-government-project-focuses-on-land.html> (14 March 2010). 16 David Jackson, “A land Licensing and Planning System for Beira City, Mozambique” e-Governance for Development, 19 October, 2008, <http://www.egov4dev.org/success/case/beira.shtml>, (15 May 2010).

41

17 Dr. Vikram Vyas, “Jal Chitra: An Introduction”, <http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/nrm/water/ground/mi03240.htm>, (15 May 2010). 18 Dr. Vikram Vyas, “Jal Chitra: An Introduction” 19 Dr. Vikram Vyas, “Computer as a Tool for Sustainable Development” The Ajit Foundation <http://homepage.mac.com/vsvyas/science.html> (15 May 2010). 20 Dr. Vikram Vyas, “Jal Chitra: An Introduction” 21 Ronaldo Pereira de Oliveira, Francisco A. Lumbreras, and Guilherme da Pedoza, “Integrated Geoinformation Model for Environmental Planning In Rio De Janeiro,” International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 23 (2000): 1073 22 “What is it?”, Rede Joven, <http://www.redejovem.org.br/cgi/cgilua.exe/sys/start.htm?sid=65>, (15 May 2010). 23 Corinne Ramey, “Using Mobile Phones to Map the Slums of Brazil,” MediaShift Idea Lab, 9 November 2009, <http://www.pbs.org/idealab/2009/11/using-mobile-phones-to-map-the-slums-of-brazil311.html>, (15 May 2010) 24 “About the Project,” Wikimapa, data unknown, <http://wikimapa.org.br/in-english>, (15 May 2010). 25 “Trees for Tomorrow, Jamaica,” Canadian Consulting Engineer, October/November 2008, 61. 26 Richard Labelle, ICTs for e-Environment 113. 27 Richard Labelle, ICTs for e-Environment 74. 28 Sailendra Narain, “Using ICT and Knowledge Management to Facilitate SMEs Participation in Regional and Global Supply Chains,” date unknown, UN-ESCAP, 4. 29 Verena Webber, “Smart Sensor Networks: Technologies and Applications for Green Growth,” The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, December 2009 OECD, 6. 30 “ICT and climate change: Problem or solution?”, EurAtiv, 6 April 2009, <http://www.euractiv.com/en/climate-change/ict-climate-change-problem-solution/article-180760>, (15 May 2010). 31 “ICT and climate change: Problem or solution?” 32 CDK Network, “Launch of Climate and Development Knowledge Network”, <http://www.cdknetwork.net/> (15 May 2010) 33 “Welcome to Greentie” <http://www.greentie.org/> (15 May 2010) 34 “Akvo at a Glance,” Akvo, <http://www.akvo.org/rsr/projects>, (16 May 2010) 35 Stephen Collier, “Enacting Catastrophe: preparedness, insurance, budgetary rationalization”, Economy and Society, Volume 37, Issue 2, May 2008 , 224 – 250. 36 Jake Oosthuizen, “Firehawk: Electronic Forest Fire Detection and Management System”, December 2000, <http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/iffn/country/za/za_18.htm>, (15 May 2010).

42

37 European Commission Joint Research Centre, “Haiti: new atlas shows building damage ten times higher than thought”, 17 March 2010, <http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/jrc/index.cfm?id=1410&obj_id=10200&dt_code=NWS&lang=en> (15, May 2010). 38Expo 2010 Weather Service. Shanghai Multi-Hazard Early Warning System Demonstration Project, <http://smb.gov.cn/SBQXWebInEnglish/TemplateA/Default/ProjectInfoList.aspx?CategoryID=ab5b82d9-d020-40db-b06b-eee8e2dfcd8b> (15 May 2010). 39 Expo 2010 Weather Service 40 World Food Programme, “World’s First Humanitarian Insurance Policy Issued”, ReliefWeb, 6 March 2006, < http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/EVOD-6MME4M?OpenDocument> (15 May 2010). 41 Andrew Revkin, “The Future of Calamity” New York Times, 2 January 2005. 42 Theo Schilderman, “Can ICTs Help the Urban Poor Access Information and Knowledge to Support their Livelihoods?” Intermediate Technology Group, unknown date, 4. 43 Anita Kelles-Viitanen, “The Role of ICT in Poverty Reduction,” Finnish Business and Policy Forum, 2003, 2. 44 Everlyne Nairesiae, “Mobile Activism and Community Development,” Affiliated Network For Social Accountability 307, (2007). 45 “Digital Mapping to put Slums on the Map,” Now Public, 21 December 2009, <http://www.nowpublic.com/tech-biz/digital-mapping-put-slums-map>, (15 May 2010). 46 “Digital Mapping to put Slums on the Map,” 47 Elizabeth Greyling, “An Innovative ICT Solution to Steer Rural Communities to Global Understanding: a case study from Durban South Africa,” World Library and Information Congress: 74th IFLA General Conference and Council, (2008) 48 “Using ICT for Environmental Education and Youth Empowerment in Lebanon” Education Development Center, 1 June 2003, <http://www.edc.org/newsroom/articles/using_ict_environmental_education_and_youth_empowerment_lebanon>, (15 May 2010). 49 “Using ICT for Environmental Education and Youth Empowerment in Lebanon” 50 Climate Change Technology Program, Infodev (2010) http://www.infodev.org/en/TopicBackground.19.html (16 May 2010) 51 Megha Bahree, “Citizen Voices” Forbes Magazine, 8 December 2008, <http://www.forbes.com/free_forbes/2008/1208/083.html> (15 May 2010). 52 Joint UNESCO and ITU

Global Symposium on Promoting the Multilingual Internet, Measuring linguistic diversity on the Internet, Session 8, 2006. 53 Medhi, Sagar, and Toyama, “Text-Free User Interfaces for Illiterate and Semi-Illiterate Users”, 17 December 2005, < http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/people/indranim/text-freeui.pdf> (15 May 2010).

43

54 Pascal, Z. “Ghana’s Digital Dilemma”, 21 June 2002, <http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/features/artikel.php?ID=25024> (15 May 2010). 55 “Mauritius Completes First Phase of Lion Cable Project”, IT News Africa, 31 March 2010, <http://www.itnewsafrica.com/?p=6638> (15 May 2010). 56 Jha and Strous, editors (2007). ICT for Development and Prosperity, p. 102. 57 Anil Oberoi, “ICT Initiatives in Madhya Pradesh Forest Department”, <http://www.mpforest.org/pdf/MPFDICTINITIATIVES.pdf> (15 May 2010). 58 Jeffrey Sachs and Walter Reid, “Investment Towards Sustainable Development”, Science 15 May 2006, Vol 312, <http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/documents/ScienceMag_19-05-06.pdf> (15 May 2010) 59 Eva Muller and Steven Johnson, “Forest Law Compliance and Governance in Tropical Countries”, ITTO and FAO, 2010, <http://www.fao.org/forestry/20060-1-0.pdf> (15 May 2010) 60 UN REDD Program Official Website, < http://www.un-redd.org/AboutUNREDDProgramme/tabid/583/language/en-US/Default.aspx> (15 May 2010). 61 United Nations Development Programme, Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability. http://www.undp.org/mdg/goal7.shtml (2010)

62Rangaswamy, N. Keywords in Communication: Mesh-economy and business channels in an Indian urban slum. ICA 2009, pre-conference on India and Communication Studies (2009)

63 W3C, Mobile Web Initiative - Workshop Executive Summary. 2009.http://www.w3.org/2008/10/MW4D_WS/exec_summary.html

64 Kiva, "How Kiva Works.".http://www.kiva.org/about/ (2005-2010)

65 Kiva, "How Kiva Works."

66 UNHABITAT, Harmonious Cities. State of the World's Cities Report. (Earthscan, 2008/2009)

67 Harmonious Cities. State of the World's Cities Report 68 Sachs, Jeffrey & Reid, Walter. Investments Toward Sustainable Development. Science 312 (2006) 69 “Millennium Development Goals Indicators”, Official UN Site for MDG Indicators, < http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Default.aspx> (15 May 2010)

70 Jeffrey Sachs and Walter Reid, “Investment Towards Sustainable Development”, Science 15 May 2006, Vol 312, <http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/documents/ScienceMag_19-05-06.pdf> (15 May 2010)

71 “Ensuring Ecological Sustainability” Dutch Federal Ministry for Economic Development and Cooperation, < http://www.bmz.de/en/figures/millenniumsentwicklungsziele/mdg7.html> (15 May 2010).

72 Eva Muller and Steven Johnson, “Forest Governance and Climate Change Mitigation”, A Policy Brief : ITTO and FAO, 2009, < http://forestindustries.eu/sites/default/files/userfiles/1file/fao-itto-climate%20change%20mitigation.pdf> (15 May 2010)

44

73 “Forest Governance and Climate Change Mitigation”

74 “Forest Governance and Climate Change Mitigation”, p 2

75 Eva Muller and Steven Johnson, “Forest Law Compliance and Governance in Tropical Countries”, ITTO and FAO, 2010, <http://www.fao.org/forestry/20060-1-0.pdf> (15 May 2010) 76 Janelle Rogers et al., “Support on Water and Sanitation Sector Analysis and Program Support on Water and Sanitation Sector Analysis and Program,” USAID, 2009, ES-3

77 “Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation,” Joint Monitoring Report, 2008, 1. 78 “Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update,” 3 79 “Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update,” 56

80 “The Millennium Development Goals Report,” United Nations, 2009, 45

81 “Sanitation and Water Supply: Improving Services for the Poor,” International Development Association, unknown date, 3. 82 UNHABITAT, “State of the World’s Cities Report”, (Earthscan 2006/2007)

83 UNHABITAT, “State of the World’s Cities Report”

84 UNHABITAT, “State of the World’s Cities Report”: Harmonious Cities”, (Earthscan, 2008/2009)

85 UNHABITAT, “State of the World’s Cities Report”: Harmonious Cities”

86 UNHABITAT, “State of the World’s Cities Report”: Harmonious Cities”

87 UNHABITAT, “State of the World’s Cities Report”: Harmonious Cities”

88 “Sustainable Urbanization in the Information Age”, UNGAID, 2009, http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/gaid/unpan036083.pdf (15 May 2010).

89 World Wild Life Fund International (2009), Mega Stress for Mega Cities: A Climate Vulnerability Ranking of Major Coastal Cities in Asia

90 Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions, . (2006). 'right to the city' focus of debate at fifth world urban forum. Retrieved from http://www.cohre.org/view_page.php?page_id=392

91 IPCC, “Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report”, Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change” , < http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ipcc_fourth_assessment_report_synthesis_report.htm>.

92 “’Climate Smart’ World within Reach, Says World Bank”, Press Release No:2010/068/DEC, <http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,,contentMDK:22312494~pagePK:64257043~piPK:437376~theSitePK:4607,00.html> (15 May 2010) 93 Daniel Sarewitz, et. al, “Lifting the Taboo on Adaptation,” Nature 7 February 2007, < http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v445/n7128/full/445597a.html> (15 May 2010)

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94 UNISDR, “International Strategy for Disaster Reduction”, 2004, <http://www.unisdr.org/eng/about_isdr/bd-lwr-2004-eng.htm> (15 May 2010).

95 “About the Hyogo Framework for Action”, Prevention Web, <http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/framework/?pid:47&pil:1> (15 May 2010)