ICMJ Paper #1

Chromaticism

Basically, in the jazz context -

Basically, in the Clifford Brown/Stan Getz context.

Glen Halls © All Rights Reserved.

No duplication or redistribution without express, direct permission from the author.

In common practice harmony the term 'chromaticism' typically connotates harmonization of either bass or soprano lines whose pitches are not native to the basic tonality. In practice the means of so-called chromatic harmony include applied dominants and diminished sevenths and their inversions, augmented sixth chords, and 'modally' mixed harmonies ( diatonic harmonies most often found in the minor version of the tonic key.) The last example, that of modal mixture' is closest to the true origin of conventional chromatic harmony. What is occurring is the momentary use of a different scale containing different notes than the tonic major or minor scale. (One might even say we are momentarily borrowing overtones

from a different fundamental- but that's for another time)

The other connotation of chromaticism is that of a 'passing tone' or 'embellishing tone.' This is a contrapuntal conception tied to meter and pulse as much to harmony. A chromatic passing tone is a means of connecting two 'chord tones' ( usually from different harmonies, but if we speak of 7th, 9th, or perhaps suspended chords, this is not necessarily the case) , and it usually is placed on the weak beat.

Now in the jazz context: The mainstream of jazz harmony is tonal. The framework for jazz improvisation is typically a relatively simple tonal structure, leaving the possibility of more adventurous harmonic reinterpretations to the improviser. ( Note, even in modern jazz compositions where the chord sequences may be very different, complex and interesting in their own right, possibly even unrelated to each other ( we sometimes call these tonal spaces or just sounds ) there is still the possibility of playing , creating dissonance , ON the chord. The jazz musician will intuitively detect which tones in and around a chord are the most stable and to find and explore the other, 'less stable' tones in the chord/scale as a means generating surface interest and expression. ( Note- as these harmonic areas defined in a jazz composition become more exotic, less related ( we might even term them all as "local tonics" or at least 'resting chords' or even pedals ) the options open for reinterpretation diminish. As the composition is more or less defined by the relative differences in the chords ( there is little chord to chord motion- just contrast ) it becomes counterproductive to imagine harmonic motion to these local tonics. It is far more characteristic to play "ON" the chord. This is why many players will find a chord/scale to match a given chordal area and stay within it. ( though using and trusting your ear is better) What is really occurring is the creation and resolution of melodic dissonance within a given diatonic context. ) Sorry for that digression, but it was necessary. So,

Chromaticism in the jazz context bears resemblance to the two classical contexts described above. The improviser may choose to play basically chordal structures which create functional motion towards the tonic, and if the tones used in these chordal structures ( or perhaps rapid scalar structures or patterns ) seem basically foreign to the basic diatonic character of the present chord, phrase, or tune ( in older songs) , then we might term this kind of chromaticism 'substitution'. Or, He or she may choose to play basically melodic figures which create dissonance or motion towards what are perceived as the 'most resting' tones of the chord, what are sometimes called 'chord tones' or 'lower partials', and if the tones used in these basically melodic situations are perceived as basically foreign to the basic diatonic character of the present chord, phrase, or tune, we may term this simply, 'chromaticism. 'And this chromaticism is basically equivalent to playing 'ON' the chord. I.e. on the chord, but to and around the lower partials or 'basic chord tones' of the chord. This approach does not conceive of generating or changing harmonic rhythm. There is only one chord and it is in effect for the entire duration of the bar,

phrase, or tune. ( You know, there really isn't much written about this kind of playing, of which Clifford Brown is the principle exponent. Curious, surprising- I guess it doesn't seem intellectual enough or something. ) (Further note: Chromaticism was not always a prerequisite of jazz improvisation- see Lester young , Louis Armstrong, Paul Desmond, but it is one of many resources available to the modern jazz improviser, and is especially useful to generate rhythmic interest either through harmonic rhythm or phrasing ( substitution and suspension), or by accent at the beat/ offbeat or pulse level.( chromaticism)( Note, a suspension is an unresolved substitution, or a substitution over a pedaled root of the original chord. )

As a review ( I bring this up in virtually every paper) the resting tones of any drone or tonic are 1 and 5, with 3 in major and -3 in minor as slightly less emphatic resting tones. In some contexts, such as extended modal contexts ( same chord for a long period of time) OR - the same basic thing under a microscope- in a ballad context where a given chord is indeed sustained a long time ( 1 bar of C(7) in a standard might last as long as 4 bars C(7) in medium-up or uptempo tunes) , the 7 for major and tonic minor chords and the -7 for ïmodal minorÍ contexts might also be considered as resting tones.

Given these scale degree, the 'chromatic' tones or 1/2 step dissonances which would resolve to these tones are as follows:

Subdominants: ( I.e. lower fifths relative to the tonic ) F Ab Db

Dominants: ( I.e. higher fifths relative to the tonic) B D# F#

( and possibly the A# if the B or 7 is felt as resting )

To these we add, in the MINOR context the subdominant Fb and the dominant D

Now, in the most conventional context, these chromatic tones ( again, I use the term chromatic only because we assume a basic context without arpeggiated chord substitution or interpolation, without rapid

scale superimposition or substitution, etc. - it is really a context where the 'harmony' of the tune, bar , or phrase, really means 1, 3, and 5. ( and maybe 7) Think of a really conservative rendering of Bye Bye Blackbird; imagine Wardell Gray or Zoot Sims soloing on Bye Bye Blackbird.) will tend to be placed on weak beats and will tend to resolve directly to the resting tone anticipated. Subdominants will generally resolve down by 1/2 step and Dominants will generally resolve up by halfsteps.

OK I admit the augmented seconds are a bit weird but I was trying to avoid diatonic whole steps to prove this point. Ab resolves directly to G, Db resolves directly to C, F resolves directly to E. D# resolves directly to E, F# resolves directly to G, B resolves directly to C. It works- this could be J.S. Bach or a very uninspired Clifford Brown. Is it interesting?, not really, but it works, by that I mean, it prolongs the tonic and maintains flow. What we really have is this:

7 beats of tonic ( or whatever chord you happen to be trying to prolong) without too much effort. Now, to make chromaticism more interesting we note the two basic parameters in operation.

1) rhythm with respect to pulse.

2) direct resolution.

- really both sides of the same coin.

By placing the dissonance on the weak beat with respect to pulse we create self propelling or forward rhythmic momentum - it forces the time to ïroll overÍ so to speak, but WITHOUT ACCENT.

P = pulse r=rest m=move

In other words, it creates rhythmic interest through subdivision while maintaining the correct 'cycle' of pulse. As such, it is not detected as an accent.

To create an accent we must now do one of two things:

a) place the dissonance on the beat. or

b) resolve on the offbeat- this is accomplished either

1) by starting a conventional rm 8th note sequence one 1/2 beat late- making everything out of phase or

2) coming up with some kind of odd numbered note grouping- hopefully which preserves at least one direct resolution of dissonance ( weÍre trying to keep away from the perception of chord substitution or

chord suspension here) Typical patterns are three 8th notes or five 8th notes.

OK. Before going any deeper I wish to further clarify the idea of prolongation in the musical example above. We had the line:

Now, anytime you are in a context with meter and with barlines, you have another kind of accent- another -softer kind of pulse- actually several layers of pulse ( The soloist is free, indeed expected, to engage these other layers, as are drummers , bassists, and accompanists - one is always at liberty)

A. Within one bar of 4/4 time the first two beats may be considered the 'on' portion, the last two the 'off' portion, or if you will the Stable and unstable regions respectively. ( I'm avoiding the term rest and move here. I think it best if we leave that to the pitch domain, but the concepts are equivalent)

I'll leave 16ths and triplets- for the moment- they require subargument as they usually conform to the

model, but are really understood as 'quarter notes' , just like above. We'll come back to them, and jump ahead to the bar to bar level. As tempo increases, the possibility of convincingly engaging this pulse level also increases. The first bar may be considered as 'on' or 'down', the second bar as 'off' or 'up'

( note: for each pulse level engaged there will be a corresponding 'odd numbered' grouping or accent pattern. For example, if pulse is felt in half notes- there will be a natural quarter note on -off pattern. - We can create , largely through the pitch/dissonance aspect, a three quaternote accent pattern against this pulse level. )

What will follow shortly are musical examples for common contexts of chromatic tones. Before we see them, however, remember what was said earlier. We are trying to avoid that other type of chromaticism, that of chord substitution and chord suspension. Quickly, given a pulse division in half notes as below: (* which really means Pulse in whole notes)

It is completely appropriate and expected and satisfactory to place, not a dissonant note, but a dissonant chord on the up beat. This is what we call harmonic function, or cadence. Nothing stops us from playing C for two beats, then Db+6 ( or G7, but I'm trying to be chromatic here ) for two beats, then back to C, etc. ( Some might call this harmonic interpolation ) But when we speak simply of 'chromaticism' ( and not what I call substitution or suspension and many harmony textbooks call 'chromatic harmony') we are referring to dissonance and resolution of and within a single line, by notes foreign to the basic diatonic scale as discussed earlier. In other words, one avoids spelling out chords, or to put it another way, one tends to avoid sequential intervals of a minor third or more. So, at whatever level of pulse one engages, dissonant notes ( in this case chromatic semitones) ought to be resolved either a) directly , and with a duration appropriate to the present pulse level engaged. ( i.e. if pulse = whole note, thus with a 'two - halfnote' complete cycle, the chromatic note 'ought' to be a Db half note. )

OR

b) by some kind of 'escape tone' to use an appropriate term from classical harmony, in which the total duration ( by whatever -pair- of rhythmic values you come up with) ought to correspond to the pulse level engaged.

I need to come up with a better term here. For every level of pulse there will be corresponding r m ( rest-move) cycle , with 2 pitches or events and 1/2 the duration of the pulse. For example, quarter note pulse corresponds to and eighth note rest - move subdivision, or two eighth notes- the first of which is resting, the second of which is moving. ( From a more general perspective they could be any pair of opposites or contrasts; high-low, loud-soft, tutti-solo, bassdrum-rimshot, whatever. However, the present topic is chromaticism so we'll use , appropriately, chord tone - chromatic passing or embellishing tone. ) If pulse ( or engaged pulse level) equals quarter then the ( here's the term) 'half-cycle rhythm' will be in eighth notes. (One more time..) If pulse ( or engaged pulse level) equals halfnote, then the half-cycle rhythm will be in quarters.

What follows now are musical examples of chromatic dissonances and their resolution, with and without escape tones, at varying levels of pulse. I want to reiterate both how important this is and how simple this is.... , and how REAL this is. ( Also to add that I personally tend not to play this way, preferring chordal reinterpretation and suspension) .. But this type of playing or at least awareness HAS TO BE internalized long before one even imagines he or she ought to be concerned with theory perse- with scales, with chords, with patterns- this HAS TO BE FIRST. You may have it already. If you've listened to a lot of mainstream 1940-50s jazz, you probably have it. If youÍve sung in church choirs or sung a lot of hymns, then you also probably have it. If you're background is popular music, then it is likely that you do not have it and need to spend some time on it.

If this is the case, our r m cycle has been reversed, an effect discussed right at the beginning of the paper. This is a good, expressive effect at any pulse level. I would call it an accent. In classical music we hear the term 'accented passing tone, accented appogiatura, accented neighbor, etc. 'Basically, that's the concept, except it works at all pulse levels, not just the literal pulse level as suggested in the time signature and possibly sounded by the drummer's ride cymbal. ( though I hope not all the time )

A quick review of terms. We now have used the term 'accent' in the context of rhythmic grouping, and in the context of the 'onbeat 'placement of dissonance. We should attempt to come up with terms to distinguish them. I think we shall call the former an 'accent pattern' and the latter an 'expressive accent'. Why not? ... that's what it is . If our currency is dissonance and its resolution then any departure from the most conservative, most conventional mode of resolution will be non-normative, irrational, surprising, .. . . expressive. Yes, expressive accent will do.

There is one more context with which we normally associate the b6 chromatic.

According to the arguments above, both examples engage the pulse at the half note, effecting a rest move cycle in quarters, the first example being 'normal' , the second accented. ( an expressive accent)

That's not entirely true. (Who said music was simple) Any time you place a dissonance on the beat ( beat meaning pulse ) you will be reinforcing or articulating pulse- the literal pulse. So it is both an expressive accent and some other kind of accent, a pulse accent.

Note, we have two notes in this one. You may argue a couple of things- which is more important- the subdominant Ab or the dominant F#? Perceptually, subdominants are always stronger. Give the Ab the nod. Secondly, we said that chromatic dissonances ought to be resolved directly, which the Ab is not. This is the 'escape' context articulated earlier. The Ab is still resolved directly according the pulse level engaged. But, we are at a fuzzy boundary or sorts. Could not Ab to F# suggest a chord? Indeed it does- invert the diminished 3rd and you have the augmented 6th interval of 'augmented 6th chord' fame. Is it a chord then? I don't think so. I would not describe that figure as an Ab+6/C suspension for one beat, though only because of the proximity of the tones, and possibly do to brevity. If the two tones were Ab and F natural, then yes, I would call it an Fmi/C suspension, and we would be out of the realm of 'chromaticism' as it pertains to the maintenance , essentially, of line , and into the realm of 'chromatic harmony' (according to your textbooks- a term we don't use as most jazz music is emphatically chromatic all the time ) or what we call 'suspension' or substitution ( depending whether or not the actual chord symbol root is sounded in the bass )

The b2.

I'm doing the b2 and b6 first because they are the strongest chromatic tones. Subdominants are subjectively stronger dissonances than dominants, and of these the subdominants resolving to drone, i.e. 1 and 5, are the strongest. 4 and b4 are slightly weaker because their resolution to 'resting tone 'or the chord tone '3' is not 'as resting' as 1 and 5. ( check it out, I have a transcription of Art Pepper on ïEverything Happens to Me' - any great ballad soloist will suffice- and he almost NEVER ends a phrase by b2 to 1- it's just too final- its over. He often resolves first 4-3, then b6 to 5 - its over but not completely over. He less often resolves 4-3- this resolution , if he indeed doesn't just as quickly get of the 3 and land on the 2 or 6, is most often used in short, choppy, fragmented phrases. There's something to this- measuring dissonances by the quality of the resolution. I'll get to it sometime. )

- the most conservative context places the dissonance on the weak beat, resolve directly to the C.

- if this is reversed, we get the expressive accent (described for b6) which a) cannot help but articulate the literal pulse, and b) in this example, owing to the number of repetitions, articulates a reversed phase 1/2 cycle rhythm in whole notes, suggesting a 'breezier' pulse at the two bar level.

Now a new example, a kind of 'double escape tone'

The utility of this configuration is that it also creates the 3 over 2 accent pattern. This pattern is very characteristic of Red Garland. From an academic standpoint the only catch is- is it now a chord, or is it still chromaticism. By imposing chromatic resolution to the B, I think we have now given extra weight to the Db B augmented sixth. I would tend to call this a suspension for 1 1/2 beats: Db+6/C to C . No big deal- in practice we move imperceptibly from one resource to the next , all the time.

We'll spend a little time on this one. I mentioned some older players ( Coleman Hawkins being a notable exception- in fact a pioneer of chromatic playing ) such as Lester Young, who rarely use chromatic dissonance but prefer a more transparent line through the use of diatonic dissonance, by and large. For example, nothing prevents you from , in C major, playing D to C, A to G, and in minor F to Eb. These are diatonic whole steps- they suggest motion, but weaker motion, many would argue they don't require resolution at all. The Db is appropriately termed a chromatic passing tone - an intensification of linear dissonance. There are at least three pulse levels engaged in this little figure.

Note: How can I call the D a resting tone? It is still a pattern of: more resting to less resting to more resting , so at a more abstract level this is correct. Music is complex, the same gesture can refer to many things- many levels.

The 4. ( substitute in minor the b4 for all examples below)

Strictly speaking, the F or 4 is not a chromatic tone at all- we expect it in C major. Nevertheless, we'll look at it. We've all heard it. Novice improvisers who invariably hang on the F over a C chord, content that the F belongs to the C scale, and it sounds terrible- not only because the piano player is playing some C major chord with a E in it, - even without accompaniment one must understand the relationship of dissonance to beat and pulse.

You have probably detected a pattern here, or an opportunity. Any of these figures may be linked together. One can easily spin out one or two bars on a given chord simply by permutating various chromatic approaches to any of the chord tones. This is really what Clifford Brown and Red Garland were all about. ( IÍd say Wynton Kelly had the stronger harmonic approach than Red Garland)

The Dominants.

So let's start with #2. As mentioned earlier, dominants are not quite as strong perceptually as subdominants. This means they are less likely to be perceived as implying a chordal suspension. Dominant chromatics are more conservative than subdominants, also less expressive. Zoot Sims, no knock on Zoot, but in general his use of chromaticism leans in favour of dominants- It is really a swing-era type of sound. To put it another way, a dominant has the potential of 'interfering' with a chord tone a major 7th below while the subdominant has the potential of interfering with the same chord , but now a ninth 9th below. A minor 9th will be perceived as far more dissonant than the major 7th.

IÍm just hypothesizing here, but in a swing band context ( four brothers) where there may be figures in the trombones, comping in the guitar/piano, etc., walking lines in the bass- the chances are good that someone will be playing that E while you are playing either the D# or the F. So, if you want to be re-hired, you'll probably go for the D#s.

The #4.

If the first note is the F or E#, it is impossible to tell which way it should go. The on beat placement

would , I think- without knowing what follows, an F subdominant. If the line then moves up, suggesting an E# F# G resolution, we always have a 'deceptive' effect ( See Halls Modal Cadences). It gives the line a 'lift'.

The 7.

The 7, like the 4, is for most standard songs not a chromatic tone- simply a dissonant diatonic semitone.

However, in contexts where the 7 or B in our case, is not considered a chord tone, ( Bye Bye Blackbird- OK standard is F, but if it were in C, I donÍt think we'd call the b a chord tone- not unless we played it as a ballad) then it will play (behave) as a chromatic tone.

Two final points.

1. It is not a requirement that chromatic dissonances be resolved at all. The best example that comes to mind is Miles Davis, who frequently holds and leaves unresolved a dissonant chromatic tone. This doesn't mean that the rest of us get to do this, however. One's ability to utilize either unresolved chromatic single tones, or by extension unresolved harmonies (suspensions) is dependent on an extremely developed ear and an extremely familiar rhythm section. One of the reasons that Miles leaves dissonances unresolved is to engage the rhythm section and to open up the phrasing- make it less boxy and bar to bar. This only works a) if the rest of the band 'gets it' and b) the equivalent of the 'normal' chord or normal scale is understood by all. Suspensions and melodic dissonances are only effective in accordance with a tacit understanding of what the resolved state ought to be.

2. Triplets and 16ths.

The use of chromatic tones in triplet or 16th figures is typically the equivalent of a quarter note. For example, the figure.

The triplet figuration resolves directly while the 16thnote figuration requires one escape tone. This is a quick and dirty means of dressing up a simple chromatic line.