i. introduction to class · 2008-07-01 · tissues: most animal cells are organized into tissues....
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Chapter 20
UNIFYING CONCEPTS OF
ANIMAL STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
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I. Life is based on many structural levels
Levels of animal structure:
Atoms and molecules
Cells
Tissues
Organs
Organ systems
Organism: May consist of a single cell or a
complex multicellular organism.
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Levels of Structural Organization in an Animal
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TISSUES:
Most animal cells are organized into tissues.
Cooperative unit of very similar cells that perform
a specific function.
Tissue comes from Latin word meaning “weave”.
Cells of tissues may be held together by:
Fibers
Glue-like substance
Plasma membrane structures
Tissue structure is related to its function.
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TISSUES:
There are four main types of animal
tissue:
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nervous
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1. Epithelial Tissue
Cells are tightly fitted together in continuous
layers or sheets.
Cover outside of body (skin), line organs and
internal body cavities (Mucous membranes of
digestive, respiratory, and reproductive systems).
Tight packaging allows tissue to act as a barrier
to protect against mechanical injury, infection,
and fluid loss.
Two surfaces:
Free surface: Exposed to air or fluid.
Bottom surface: Attached to underlying tissues by a
basement membrane, a dense layer of protein and
polysaccharides.
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1. Epithelial Tissue
Can be classified based on two criteria:
A. Number of layers:
Simple: One layer.
Stratified: Several layers
B. Shape of cells:
Squamous: Flat cells.
Cuboidal: Cube shaped cells
Columnar: Column shaped cells
Example:
Simple squamous epithelium
Stratified columnar epithelium
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Epithelial Tissue Covers and Lines the Body and its Parts
A. Simple squamous
(Lung air sacs)
D. Statified squamous
(Lining esophagus)
B. Simple cuboidal
(Kidney tubes)
C. Statified columnar
(Lining intestine)
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1. Epithelial Tissue
Some epithelial tissues, such as mucous membranes,
absorb and secrete chemical solutions.
Mucous membranes:
Digestive tract epithelium (mucous membranes)
secretes mucus and digestive enzymes.
Respiratory tract epithelium secretes mucous that
helps trap dust particles before they reach the lungs.
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2. Connective Tissue
Relatively few cells surrounded by large amounts
of nonliving material (matrix).
Cells secrete the matrix, which can be solid,
liquid, or gelatinous.
Diverse functions. Mainly bind, support, and
connect other tissues.
Six types of connective tissue in humans:
1. Loose Connective Tissue: Most widespread connective
tissue in vertebrates. Loose matrix with fibers,
packing material. Attaches skin to muscles, binds and
holds tissues and organs in place.
2. Adipose (fat): Pads and insulates body. Energy
storage.
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Connective Tissue Binds and Provides Support
A. Loose Connective Tissue
B. Adipose Tissue
C. Blood
D. Fibrous Connective Tissue
E. Cartilage
F. Bone
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Types of connective tissue in humans (Continued):
C. Blood: Fluid matrix (plasma) has water, salts, and
proteins. Red and white blood cells.
D. Fibrous Connective Tissue: Matrix of densely packed
collagen fibers. Strong and nonelastic. Found in:
• Tendons: Attach muscles to bones.
• Ligaments: Attach bone to bone.
E. Cartilage: Rubbery matrix with collagen fibers.
Found on end of bones, nose, ears, and between
vertebra.
F. Bone: Supports the body of most vertebrates. Solid
matrix of collagen fibers and calcium, phosphate, and
magnesium salts. Bone is harder than cartilage, but not
brittle because of collagen.
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3. Muscle Tissue
Most abundant type of tissue in most animals.
Accounts for two-thirds (2/3) of human weight.
Specialized for contraction. Made up of long cells
that contract when stimulated by nerve impulses.
Muscle cells have many microfilaments made up
of actin and myosin.
Muscle contraction accounts for much of energy
consuming work in animals.
Adults have a fixed number of muscle cells.
Weight lifting doesn’t increase number of muscle
cells, only their size.
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3. Muscle Tissue
There are three types of muscle tissue:
A. Skeletal (striated) muscle : Attached to bones by
tendons.
Responsible for voluntary movements.
B. Cardiac muscle: Forms contractile tissue of heart.
Not under voluntary control.
C. Smooth muscle: Found in walls of digestive tract,
bladder, arteries, uterus, and many internal organs.
Responsible for peristalsis and labor contractions.
Contract more slowly than skeletal muscle, but can
remain contracted longer.
Not under voluntary control.
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A. Skeletal muscle
B. Cardiac muscle
C. Smooth muscle
Three Types of Muscle
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4. Nervous Tissue
Senses stimuli and transmits signals from one
part of the animal to another.
Controls the activity of muscles and glands, and
allows the animal to respond to its environment.
Neuron: Nerve cell. Structural and functional
unit of nervous tissue. Consists of:
Cell body : Contains cell’s nucleus.
Dendrite: Extension that conveys signals towards the
cell body.
Axon: Extension that transmits signals away from the
cell body.
Supporting cells: Nourish, protect, and insulate
neurons.
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Nervous Tissue Forms a Communication Network
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Organs are made up of different tissues
Organ: Several tissues that act as a unit
and together perform one or more
biological functions.
Perform functions that component tissues can’t
carry out alone.
Example: The heart is an organ made up of:
• Muscle Tissue: Contraction
• Epithelial Tissue: Lines heart chambers to prevent
leakage and provide a smooth surface.
• Connective Tissue: Makes heart elastic and
strengthens its walls and valves.
• Nervous Tissue: Direct heart contractions.
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Organs are Made of Several Different Tissues
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Animals Regulate their Internal
Environment
Homeostasis: “Steady state”.
Internal environment of animal remains fairly
constant despite changes in the external
environment.
Control systems maintain internal conditions
within a range in which life’s metabolic
activities can occur.
Homeostasis is a dynamic state resulting from
changes in the outside environment and
internal control mechanisms that oppose such
changes.
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Homeostatic Mechanisms Counteract Changes
in External Conditions
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Animals Regulate their Internal
Environment
Homeostasis:
Maintained by negative feedback mechanisms.
A change in one condition (e.g.: low body
temperature), results is a response that
counteracts that change (e.g.: shivering, etc.).
Internal conditions regulated by negative
feedback:
• Body temperature (Normal range: 97 - 100oF)
• Salt concentration
• pH
• Blood levels of sugar, calcium, oxygen, etc.
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Negative Feedback as Homeostatic Mechanism
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Body Temperature is Regulated by Homeostasis
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Major Organ Systems in Mammals
Digestive system
Respiratory system
Circulatory system
Cardiovascular
Lymphatic and Immune system
Excretory system
Endocrine system
Reproductive system
Nervous system
Muscular system
Skeletal system
Integumentary
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1. Digestive System
Components: Mouth, salivary glands, throat,
esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder,
pancreas, rectum, and anus.
Functions:
Ingest and mechanically break down food.
Digest food: Stomach and small intestine mainly.
Absorb nutrients and water.
Eliminate waste.
Homeostatic Roles:
Supplies energy for life’s activities.
Supplies building blocks for macromolecules
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Human Digestive System
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2. Respiratory System
Components: Nose, throat, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, and lungs.
Functions:
Exchange gases with the environment:
Supplies blood with oxygen.
Disposes of carbon dioxide (waste product from cellular
respiration).
Homeostatic Roles:
Regulates blood pH.
Regulates blood oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.
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Human Respiratory System
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3. Cardiovascular System
Components: Blood, heart, arteries, veins, and
capillaries.
Functions:
Exchange gases with the respiratory system.
Supplies tissues with oxygen.
Removes carbon dioxide from tissues.
Transports materials (nutrients, hormones, etc.) inside
body.
Defends against infection.
Homeostatic Roles:
Provides nutrients and removes waste materials from
tissues.
Regulates body temperature, water and ion balance.
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Human Cardiovascular System
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4. Lymphatic and Immune System
Components: Lymph, lymphatic vessels, bone
marrow, thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes.
Functions:
Defends against infection: bacteria, fungi, viruses, etc.
Destruction of cancer and foreign cells.
Synthesis of antibodies and other immune molecules.
Synthesis of white blood cells.
Homeostatic Role:
Returns fluid and proteins that have leaked from
blood capillaries into tissues.
Up to 4 liters of fluid every day.
Fluid returned near heart/venae cavae.
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Lymphatic and Immune Systems
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5. Excretory (Urinary) System
Components: Kidneys, bladder, urethra, and
associated ducts.
Functions:
Kidneys remove nitrogen containing waste from blood.
Urine with waste is temporarily stored in bladder.
Excretion of urine.
Homeostatic Role:
Regulates water levels in body.
Removes excess water
Helps conserve water
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Human Excretory System
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6. Endocrine System
Components: Pituitary, adrenal, thyroid, thymus,
pancreas, ovaries, testes, and other ductless
glands.
Functions:
Produce hormones that regulate:
Blood chemistry: Levels of sugars, minerals, etc.
Reproduction
Growth
Metabolism
Digestion
Homeostatic Role:
With nervous system, regulates metabolism and blood
chemistry.
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Human Endocrine System
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7. Reproductive System
Components:
Female: Ovaries, oviduct, uterus, vagina, and
associated structures
Male: Testes, seminal vesicles, prostate, urethra,
penis, and associated structures.
Functions:
Only organ system that is not essential for individual
survival.
Continuation of species.
Gamete formation (eggs and sperm cells).
Homeostatic Role:
Maintains secondary sexual characteristics.
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Male Reproductive System
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Female Reproductive System
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Gamete Formation Occurs in Testis
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8. Nervous System
Components: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sense
organs, and associated structures.
Functions:
Works with endocrine system to coordinate body
activities.
Integrates and processes information from sense
organs.
Sends signals (instructions) to muscles and glands.
Responds to internal stimuli.
Homeostatic Role:
Regulates most organ activities along with endocrine
system.
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Human Nervous System
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Nervous System Allows Us to Respond to Our Environment
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9. Muscular System
Components: Skeletal muscles.
Functions:
Skeletal muscle contraction allows for voluntary
movement:
Movement and locomotion.
Mechanical work: Lifting, pulling, pushing objects.
Communication: Body language and facial expression.
Homeostatic Role:
Allows animals to respond to and control their
environment.
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Muscular System: Skeletal Muscle Allows
Voluntary Movement
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10. Skeletal System
Components: Bones, ligaments, and cartilage.
Functions:
Along with muscular system:
Movement and locomotion.
Mechanical work: Lifting, pulling, pushing objects.
Body support.
Protection of delicate internal organs (brain, heart,
lungs, etc.)
Calcium storage
Homeostatic Role:
Helps maintain constant blood calcium levels.
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Skeletal System: Protection, Movement, & Support
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11. Integumentary System
Components: Hair, skin, and nails.
Functions:
Protects the body from:
Infection: Barrier to microbes.
Mechanical injury
Excessive heat or cold: Thermoregulation
Water loss
Communication:
Receives stimuli from environment
Gives out subtle signals (blushing, etc.).
Homeostatic Role:
Helps maintain constant body temperature.
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Integumentary System: Skin, Nails, & Hair
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Organ systems must be coordinated for
animal to survive
Organ systems interact with one another in
order to maintain fairly stable conditions
(homeostasis) that are required for life.
Example: Interactions between:
• Respiratory
• Circulatory
• Digestive
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Relationships Between Several Major Organ Systems