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OUNDLE SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY DEPARTMENT

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AS PSYCHOLOGY REVISION GUIDEOundle School Psychology

Department 2008

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ContentsContents Introduction How to use this presentation Cognitive Psychology Social Psychology Developmental Psychology Physiological Psychology Individual Differences Themes and Perspectives Index of studies Themes and Perspectives Index

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IntroductionIntroduction This presentation is intended to be

used as a revision aid. It does It does notnot contain all you contain all you

need to knowneed to know.. It contains minimum detail, and

maximum questions. Use it section by section as a

different way to view revision. Once you are familiar with the

layout, use it slide by slide to test yourself.

Good luck!

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How to use this How to use this presentation, part 1presentation, part 1At the bottom of every slide these four buttons will appear:

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This one will return you to

where you were before

you followed a hyperlink –

more on hyperlinks

later. This one will take you back to the ‘Contents’ slide.

This one takes you back to the previous slide.

This one will take you to the index

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How to use this How to use this presentation, part 2presentation, part 2

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Two further buttons are animated to appear:

This one will take you back to the beginning of the study you are reviewing.

This one appears to indicate that all the elements of that slide have appeared Click on the mouse to move on to the next slide.

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How to use this How to use this presentation - presentation - HyperlinksHyperlinks Any text which is underlined in white

is a hyperlink. Clicking on the text will take you to a different slide in the presentation. Clicking on the on the page you are transferred to will bring you back here.

Try it by clicking on this text now, and then clicking on the hyperlink return button on the page you are transferred to.

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OUNDLE SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY DEPARTMENT 7

COGNITIVE COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY“Reconstruction of automobile destruction” Loftus and Palmer (1974)

“Pictorial perception and culture.” Deregowski (1972)

“Does the autistic child have a theory of mind?” Baron-Cohen, Leslie and Frith (1985)

“Teaching Sign Language to a chimpanzee.” Gardner and Gardner (1969)

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What is cognitive What is cognitive psychology?psychology?

Cognitive skills include thinking, reasoning, communicating and perceiving, learning and memory.

As such, this area of psychology studies mental processes.

Cognitive psychology really took off following the development of computers.

At the same time, the mind does not just process and analyse information - it is creative (and illogical) at times.

Click here for a Core

2AA question

on cognitive cognitive

psychologypsychology

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““Reconstruction of Reconstruction of automobile destruction”.automobile destruction”.

Key question: How reliable is the testimony of eye-witnesses?

In this study, subjects were shown films of automobile accidents, and asked questions about what they saw. The study is concerned with how information received after an event influences the memory of that event.

Loftus and Palmer (1974)

What are the

weaknesses of

eye-witness testimony?

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What sort of study What sort of study was this?was this?

This was one of a series of

laboratory experiments.

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Who were the Who were the subjects?subjects?

45 students participated “in groups of various sizes” for experiment 1.

150 students participated in experiment 2.

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What were the aims What were the aims of this experiment?of this experiment?

Loftus and Palmer wished to investigate the effect of leading questions on: the accuracy of speed

estimates in a car crash, andthe perceived consequences

of a car crash.

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What were the What were the variables?variables?

Independent: The words

smashed,collided,bumped, hit, orcontacted

used in the question “About how fast were the cars going when they …………. each other?

Dependent:The subjects’ estimates of the speed the car was travelling.

Experiment 1Experiment 1

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What was the What was the procedure?procedure?(Experiment 1)(Experiment 1)

Subjects were shown films of traffic accidents.

They were then asked to give an account of what they had seen.

They were asked the critical question (hidden randomly amongst others) “About how fast were the cars going . . .”

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What were the What were the results?results?(Experiment 1)(Experiment 1)

The more violent the word used to describe the collision, the greater the average estimate of speed. (smashed = 41 mph; contacted = 32 mph).

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Independent: The word used in

the question “how fast were the cars going when theyhit, orsmashed into each other?”(Plus a control

group who were not asked about the speed).

Dependent: The subjects’

responses (1 week later) to the question “Did you see any broken glass?”

Experiment 2Experiment 2

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What was the What was the procedure?procedure?(Experiment 2)(Experiment 2)

Three groups of 50 students were shown a film of a multiple car crash.

After the showing, they were asked the critical question relating to speed, or not asked about the speed of the cars (as a control).

One week later they were asked (without seeing the film again) “Did you see any broken glass?”

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What were the What were the results?results?(Experiment 2)(Experiment 2)

More subjects reported seeing broken glass when the word smashed was used than when the word hit was used.

In both conditions, however, most subjects correctly reported not seeing any glass (in other words, they did not respond to the leading question).

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What did the What did the authors conclude?authors conclude? The authors suggested that the

original memory of an event can be altered by information received after the event.

They identified two types of information which go into a person’s memory – the first is info gained from perceiving the event, the second is other information received after the event.

This is what they called reconstructed memory.

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What is our What is our evaluation of this evaluation of this study?study?

This study has implications for the way witnesses give evidence.

Highlights the dangers of leading questions.

The study was well controlled. Ecological validity: Watching films of

accidents is not the same as seeing a real accident eg: when walking to school.no fear, or other distractions;Subjects expect something to happen.

What other evaluation points can be made?

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Click Click here to go to to go to past Core 1 past Core 1 questions on questions on Loftus and PalmerLoftus and Palmer

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Pictorial perception and Pictorial perception and culture. culture.

Deregowski (1972)Deregowski (1972)

Key question: Do people from different cultures see the world in different ways?

This study examines whether people from different cultures see and interpret 2-D pictures of 3-D images the same way.

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This was a review paper, discussing the work of the author and others (particularly Hudson) in carrying out cross-cultural comparisons between the interpretation of 3-D pictures by members of western cultures and various African cultures.

Define ethnocentrism

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South African workers. Zambian school-children.

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The independent variables could be considered as the subject’s nationality, or whether they had been classified as either a 2-D or a 3-D perceiver.

The dependent variable would be their performance in the tasks.

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What was the aim of What was the aim of this study?this study? This study aimed to present a

summary of the findings of cross-cultural research into pictorial perception.

Remember that this is a review paper.

Deregowski first discusses anecdotal evidence from missionaries such as Mrs. Fraser

What does

anecdotalanecdotal mean?

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What was the What was the procedure?procedure? There were several types of

experiments.Split vs Perspective drawingsThe use of pictorial depth cues

such as: familiar size, overlap and perspective;

The building of 2-D or 3-D models;

The ambiguous trident experiment.

What is a splitsplit

drawing?

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An example of An example of Hudson’s picturesHudson’s pictures

. . . and which twotwo are missing?

Can you identify the

twotwo depth cues in this picture .

. .

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What were the What were the results?results?

African children and adults preferred split drawings.

Hudson found that many African subjects could not perceive 3-D in 2-D images.

2-D perceivers built 2-D models. 2-D perceivers were not

deceived by the ambiguous trident.

What were the models

they had to build?

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The ambiguous The ambiguous trident experiment.trident experiment. School children were shown a

normal drawing of a trident, and the version shown on the left.

They were asked to copy the image, and the time taken to copy it recorded.

2-D perceivers drew the ambiguous trident more quickly, as they were not confused by the perceptual trick in the ambiguous trident.

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What did the What did the authors conclude?authors conclude?

Pictures are not a universal medium of communication – “lingua franca”, and our interpretation of pictures is a feature of our culture and upbringing.

Deregowski suggested that split drawings may represent an ‘early stage’ in artistic development.

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What is our What is our evaluation of this evaluation of this study?study? The cross-cultural approach to

psychology is valuable, as it prevents ethnocentric bias.

This study supports the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate.

Pictures lacked cues such as texture gradients, and were presented on paper, itself culturally alien to the S. Africans.

There is a suggestion that the Western view of perception is ‘better’.

What are the

problems associated with cross-

cultural studies?

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Click Click here to go to to go to past Core 1 past Core 1 questions on questions on DeregowskiDeregowski

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Does the autistic child have a theory of mind?

Baron-Cohen, Leslie and Frith (1985)

Key question: Do autistic children think differently to other children?

The authors use two dolls – Sally and Anne – to test whether autistic children can attribute beliefs to others, and predict their behaviour.

The Theory of Mind – the ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others.

What are the characteristics

of autism?

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This was a laboratory experiment which used independent measures.

This was also a quasi-experiment, in that the children could not be randomly allocated to groups, or the independent variable occurred naturally.

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20 autistic children, average age 12 years old, verbal mental age 5.5;

14 Down’s syndrome children, average age 11 years old, verbal mental age 2.1;

27 normal children, average age 4 years six months, verbal mental age the same as actual age.

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Independent: The group to

which the child belonged:NormalAutisticDown’s

syndrome

Dependent: Success (or

failure) in the Sally-Anne test.

Did the children answer the beliefbelief question correctly?

Why was the

Down’s Down’s syndromsyndromee group

included?

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What was the What was the hypothesis?hypothesis?

Autistic children will lack a theory of mind (TOM).

This means that they are unable to attribute beliefs to others.

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What was the What was the procedure?procedure?1. The dolls . . .1. The dolls . . . Two dolls, Sally and Anne.

Sally has a basket, Anne a box.

Sally places her marble in her basket.

Sally leaves the ‘room’. Anne takes the marble and

places it in her box. Sally re-enters the room.

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What was the What was the procedure?procedure?2. The questions . . .2. The questions . . . 1. Naming question – which doll

is which? 2. Belief question – “Where

will Sally look for her marble?”

3. Reality question – “Where is the marble really?”

4. Memory question – “Where was the marble in the beginning?”

Why askeach ofthe four

questions?

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All children answered the naming, reality and memory questions correctly.

Belief question (% correct):Normal 85%Down’s syndrome 86%Autistic 20%

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Autistic children do not appreciate the difference between their own and the doll’s knowledge.

This is a specific deficit in autistic children, not related to mental retardation.

What is meant by the term

“false false beliefbelief”?”?

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What is our What is our evaluation of this evaluation of this study?study? This is a clever way to study a

difficult cognitive problem. Autistic children do not engage in

pretend play – will they respond to the make-believe in this experiment?

Sally and Anne are dolls – do dolls have minds? This is an issue of ecological validity.

Some autistic children passed the test (and some normal children failed it).

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Click Click here to go to to go to past Core 1 past Core 1 questions on questions on Baron-Cohen, Leslie Baron-Cohen, Leslie and Frithand Frith

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Teaching sign language to a chimpanzee.

Gardner and Gardner (1969 )

Key question: Can we teach language to a chimp?

The authors studied a chimp called Washoe, and taught it American Sign Language by a variety of training methods.

These methods included behaviour shaping, and reinforcement.

How do we define languaglanguag

e?e?

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What sort of study What sort of study was this?was this? This was a type of case study. As there was an attempt to

change Washoe’s behaviour, it may be suggested that this was an experiment, with Washoe’s use of signs as the dependent variable. (Whether Washoe’s use of signs constitutes language is another matter . . .)

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Who was the Who was the subject?subject?

Washoe was a wild-caught female infant chimpanzee.

Her age was estimated at 14 months in June 1966.

This is a picture of Washoe (in retirement).

Washoe died in 2007

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There were no variables manipulated in this study.

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To what extent can a non-human species use language?

This is a study in comparative psychology.

This is the only study involving animals we look at – you must consider the validity, and the ethics, of using animal subjects.

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What was the What was the procedure?procedure?

Washoe was brought up in the Gardners’ home.

She spent all her waking hours in the company of human helpers, who were not allowed to talk, but had to use ASL at all times, in her presence.

By imitation, reinforcement and shaping, she was introduced to a range of gestures in the ASL vocabulary.

The extent to which she used the signs was recorded.

What is operantoperant

conditioning?

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Washoe acquired 34 signs, 28 of which were used on at least 20 days.

She could transfer signs eg: “key” sign transferred to all varieties of keys and locks.

There is some suggestion of rudimentary combinations.

The rate of acquisition of new signs increased:four new signs in the first 7 months;nine during the next 7 months; and21 during the next 7 months.

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ASL provided a possible way to engage in two-way communication between man and chimp.

They were hopeful that these results were just the start of Washoe’s linguistic capabilities.

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What is our What is our evaluation of this evaluation of this study?study? Washoe showed many signs of

language, but some were absent. Ethics:

Animal rights/captivity etc.Capture of wild chimps.

This does not replicate how humans acquire language, for eg:no increase in length of sentences;no turn-taking;few spontaneous communications.

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Click Click here to go to to go to past Core 1 past Core 1 questions on questions on Gardner and Gardner and GardnerGardner

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Some words or Some words or phrases you should phrases you should know . . . know . . . Autism Theory of Mind Quasi (or

natural) experiment

Leading questions

Reconstructive memory

Ethnocentrism Review article

Cross-cultural research

Depth cue Familiar size Overlap Perspective Semantic Reinforcement Inter-observer

reliability

Do you

know them all?

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The end of this section

You may use this slide to start any of the other five sections on this presentation (click on the pointing finger)Developmental

PsychologyIndividual Differences

Social Psychology

Themes and Perspectives

Physiological Psychology

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SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

“A study of prisoners and guards in a simulated prison.” Haney, Banks and Zimbardo (1973).

“Good Samaritanism: An underground phenomenon?” Piliavin, Rodin and Piliavin (1969).

“A behavioural study of obedience.”

Milgram (1963)“Experiments in intergroup discrimination.” Tajfel (1970)

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What is social psychology?

This looks at the behaviour of individuals in a social environment.

Our behaviour is directly or indirectly affected by the presence of others (or we affect the behaviour of others).

It includes such areas as:conformityobedienceprejudice

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“A study of prisoners and guards in a simulated

prison.”Haney, Banks and Zimbardo (1973).

Key question: How will people behave in a pretend prison?

A famous simulation in which the authors created a mock prison in the basement of a Stanford University building.

This study is concerned with social roles, and how we alter our behaviour due to the situation we are in.

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What sort of study was this?

This is an experiment in a simulated environment.

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Who were the subjects? 75 students replied to a

newspaper advertisement. 24 subjects then selected after

psychological screening. 2 subjects kept as reserves, 22

used in actual study. All male. Predominantly white, middle

class (one oriental student).

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What were the variables?

Independent:

Random allocation into two groups: either ‘prisoner’ or ‘guard’.

Dependent: How the

subjects behaved.

Measured by using video, audiotape and direct observation

Qualitative data

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What was the hypothesis? Zimbardo wanted to disprove

the dispositional hypothesis. He believed that the situation

people find themselves in has a much greater effect on their behaviour than their own disposition (or character). This is part of the nature vs. nurture debate.

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What was the procedure? Random assignment to role. Arrest of prisoners by local

police. Imprisonment in mock cells

created in basement of building. Subjects clearly identified by

clothing (uniform etc.) All routines and treatment very

close to real prison.

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What were the results? Both groups very quickly

conformed to the roles they had been assigned.

Extreme depression and stress on part of prisoners.

Guards exhibited pathology of power.

Study only lasted 6 days (out of a projected two weeks).

What evidenceevidence do we have

for this?

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What did the authors conclude? They started to believe in their

roles – they internalised the situation.

Prisoners experienced deindividuation and showed learned helplessness.

Zimbardo demonstrated that nurture (or situational factors) were most important in determining these behaviours.

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What is our evaluation of this study? Zimbardo acted as warden –

was he objective – or even a subject in his own study?

Ethics: caused unacceptable levels of stress to participants – but could this have been predicted?

This is a landmark study – does the end justify the means?

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Click Click here to go to to go to past Core 1past Core 1 questions on questions on Haney, Banks and Haney, Banks and ZimbardoZimbardo

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“Good Samaritanism: An underground

phenomenon?” Piliavin, Rodin and Piliavin (1969).

Key question: Will people help a stranger in trouble?

Study initiated by the killing of Kitty Genovese in New York, 1963.

This study investigates:Bystander apathy.Diffusion of responsibility.Altruism.

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This was a field experiment. Results were recorded via

observation.

What are the strengthsstrengths and

weaknessesweaknesses of this methodology?

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Who were the subjects?

Approximately 4450 travellers witnessed the incidents.

Racial mix was 45% Black and 55% White.

Average number of people in critical area was 8.5 per trial.

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Independent:

Type of Victim: ‘drunk’ or ‘cane’.

Race of Victim: black or white.

Dependent: Speed and

frequency of helping.

Race of helper. Measured by

observation Both

qualitative and quantitative data collected.

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What were the hypotheses?

People are more likely to help others of the same race as themselves.

The model in the ‘cane’ condition would be helped more readily than the ‘drunk’ model.

Why?

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What was the procedure? Study took place on New York

Subway. 4 students entered train – 2 female

observers, 1 male ‘model’ and 1 male acting the part of ‘drunk’ or ‘cane’ victim.

Victim staged collapse. Nature and speed of help, and race

of helper noted by observers. If not assistance offered, ‘model’ was

to intervene.

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What were the results? ‘Cane’ victim received help 62 out

of 65 trails. ‘Drunk’ victim received help 19

out of 38 trials. Males more likely to help than

females. Less ‘same-race’ helping than

predicted. There was no evidence of

diffusion of responsibility – in fact, the exact opposite – more people present produced faster helping.

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What did the authors conclude? The authors explained their

results using cost-reward analysis.

Observation of an emergency creates a state of emotional arousal – we act to reduce this.

Piliavin believed that helping behaviour is selfish rather than altruistic.

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What is our evaluation of this study?

This was a field experiment, therefore:Good ecological validity.But no control of subjects or extraneous

variables.Ethics – no informed consent, or

debriefing; also potential distress for passengers.

Less ‘drunk’ than ‘cane’ condition trials. In a train, subjects cannot avoid the

situation – helping may be more likely. Results can be interpreted as showing

altruism as much as selfishness.

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Click Click here to go to to go to past Core 1past Core 1 questions on questions on Piliavin, Rodin and Piliavin, Rodin and PiliavinPiliavin

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“A behavioural study of obedience.”

Milgram (1963)

Key question: Would you torture a stranger because you were told to do it?

This study looks at obedience to authority.

The background to this study were the levels of obedience shown during WWII – “we were only following orders.”

In what ways can obedience be goodgood

for society?

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This was an experiment in the sense that there was a dependent variable – there was no independent variable, however.

In some senses, this could be described as a controlled observational study.

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40 males. Aged between 20 and 50

years old. Mixed occupations. Obtained via a newspaper

article, and direct mail. Were paid $4.50 (about

$27 today).

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Independent:

None

Dependent: The maximum

shock administered before refusing to go any further (quantitative)

Behaviour of subjects (qualitative)

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What was the aim of this study?

To investigate how far people will go in obeying an authority figure.

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What was the procedure? Subjects were told the study was

about learning. Subjects (the ‘teacher’)

believed they were delivering increasingly painful electric shocks to a ‘learner’.

They were encouraged to continue (with verbal ‘prods’) by ‘the experimenter’ (in lab coat).

What were the

verbal ‘prods’

?

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What were the results? Levels of obedience displayed

were phenomenal. 26 out of 40 subjects

continued to end of scale. Some continued even though

visibly distressed.

How did Milgram explain

the levels of

obedience?

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What did the authors conclude?

This is a type of behaviour that anybody could show.

Americans (and the many nationalities that were studied subsequently by other psychologists) were just as likely to respond to authority in the same way as the German soldiers.

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What is our evaluation of this study? Ecological validity – were the

subjects responding to the demand characteristics of the experiment?

Ethics: great levels of distress;deception;Subjects not screened;ButBut –

levels of obedience could not have been predicted

The importance of this study

may outweigh any

ethical objections.

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Click Click here to go to to go to past Core 1past Core 1 questions on questions on MilgramMilgram

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“Experiments in intergroup

discrimination.” Tajfel (1970)

Key question: What does it take to create prejudice?

Previous ideas suggested that prejudice arose as a consequence of competition.

Tajfel believed that the process of categorisation was sufficient to induce prejudice.

Define prejudicprejudic

ee

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This was a laboratory experiment.

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64 boys 14-15 years of age. Attended the same state

school Bristol.

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Independent: The group the boys

were assigned to: 1st experiment:

over-estimators or under-estimators.

2nd experiment: preference for Klee or Kandinsky.

Dependent: How the

subjects awarded the points.

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What was the hypothesis of this study?

Discriminatory behaviour can be expected even if the individual is not involved in any conflict of interest.

Tajfel wanted to establish the minimum conditions required for intergroup discrimination - this became known as the minimal groups paradigm.

Define discriminati

on

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What was the procedure? Subjects believed they were

sorted into two groups by a selection test.

Selection was in fact entirely arbitrary.

Subjects were then asked to allocate points (translated later into pennies) to members of either group.

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What were the results?(Experiment 1).

The majority of boys gave more money to members of their own group.

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What were the results?(Experiment 2).

He measured three variables:maximum joint profit - little

effect;largest reward to ingroup -

little effect;maximum difference – This

was the most important factor in how the boys made their choices.

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What did the author conclude?

That discriminatory behaviour could be induced by the simple act of making people believe they were in a different group to others - no matter how irrelevant the categorisation, or the fact that the selection was in fact arbitrary.

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What is our evaluation of this study? Interpretation of results -

behaviour may actually represent fairness as much as discrimination

Only boys used. This was a very artificial

situation - demand characteristics may have affected the results

Why is this a

problem?

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Click Click here to go to to go to past Core 1past Core 1 questions on questions on TajfelTajfel

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Test yourself . . .What do these mean? Pathology of

power Dispositional

hypothesis Conformity Obedience Deindividuatio

n Learned

helplessness

Bystander apathy

Diffusion of responsibility

Altruism Cost-reward

model Prejudice Discrimination Minimal groups

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The end of this section

You may use this slide to start any of the other five presentations on this disk (click on the pointing finger)



Developmental Psychology

Cognitive Psychology

Individual Differences

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DEVELOPMENTALDEVELOPMENTALPSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY“Asking only one question in the conservation experiment.” Samuel and Bryant (1984)

“Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models.” Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961)

Social and family relationships of ex-institutional adolescents.” Hodges and Tizard (1989)

“Analysis of a phobia of a five year-old boy.” Freud (1909)

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What is What is developmental developmental psychology?psychology? It is concerned with changes

that occur over a person’s lifetime, not just childhood.

Some psychologists believe that development occurs in stages.

Others are more interested in whether development is influenced by biological factors (nature) or environmental circumstances (nurture).


2B B question on

developmendevelopmental tal


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Asking only one question in Asking only one question in the conservation the conservation

experiment.experiment. Samuel and Bryant (1984)Samuel and Bryant (1984)

• Key question: Do children think differently to adults?

• Piaget believed children went through stages of development. This study challenges how Piaget conducted his experiments on conservation on pre-operational-children.

What are Piaget’sFour stages?

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What sort of study What sort of study was this?was this? This is a laboratory

experiment. Because one of the independent

variables could not be altered (the age of the children) this could be described as a quasi-experiment.

The study was an independent measures design.

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252 children from Devon. Ages 5 to 8.5 years old. Divided into four groups of 63

by age:5, 6, 7 and 8 years of age.


2AA question

on children children

as subjectsas subjects

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What were the What were the independent independent variables?variables? Age of child. Materials –

plasticene/liquid/buttons. Conditions:

Standard – asked questions in the way that Piaget did (two questions, one before and one after transformation).

One-judgement – only asked one question after transformation.

Fixed array – just saw objects after they had been changed and not before.

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What was the What was the dependent variable?dependent variable?

The answer to the questions asked.

(How many errors the children made.)

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More children will be able to conserve when they have to make only one judgement (rather than two in the standard Piagetian task).

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What was the What was the procedure?procedure? Each child was tested four

times on each of the three materials (plasticene/buttons etc.) – thus 12 tests in all.

Children were allocated to one of three conditions:Standard;One-Judgement;Fixed array.

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What were the What were the results?results? Children were significantly

more able to conserve in a one-judgement task.

Older children made significantly less errors than younger children.

Conservation of number produced less errors than either volume or mass.

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What did the What did the authors conclude?authors conclude? This study shows that the reason

some children make errors on the conservation task is due to demand characteristics - the way they are asked questions, rather than the task itself.

Piaget’s theory of stages of development was supported – older children make fewer errors in the conservation tasks.

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What is our What is our evaluation of this evaluation of this study?study? Good methods – a wide range

of controls, good sample size. Good analysis of data. This study highlights the

importance of procedures on results obtained – small changes can have a large effect.

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Transmission of aggression Transmission of aggression through imitation of through imitation of aggressive models.aggressive models.

Bandura, Ross and Ross Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961)(1961)

Key question: Do we imitate the behaviour of others?

Bandura was an influential social learning theorist.

Children were left in a room with an adult showing aggressive behaviour (or not) to a Bobo doll to see whether they would imitate this behaviour.

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Laboratory experiment. Results collected by

observation.

Revise the strengths and weaknesses of collecting data by

observation

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36 boys and 36 girls. 37 months to 69 months (3-6

years of age). 1 male adult and 1 female

adult to act as role models.


2AA question

on children in children in psychologipsychologi

cal cal researchresearch

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Independent:

Aggressive or non-aggressive model.

Male or female model.

Dependent: The degree

to which children imitated the model.

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What were the What were the hypotheses?hypotheses?

Children shown aggressive models will show significantly more aggression than those shown non-aggressive models.

Boys will show significantly more imitative aggression than girls.

Children will imitate the behaviour of same sex models to a greater degree.

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Before the Before the experimentexperiment As children vary – or show

individual differences - in the amount of aggression they show in everyday situations, it was important that the experimental groups were matched for aggression.

The children were observed in their nursery, and scored on four measures of aggression before the experiment began.

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Stage 1. Children left in room with model.

Stage 2. “Mild aggression arousal” in second room.

Stage 3. Child taken to third room, kept in for 20 minutes, number and nature of aggressive acts recorded through a one-way mirror.

How did

they do this?

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Images from Images from Bandura’s study.Bandura’s study.

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What were the What were the results?results? Children shown an aggressive model

displayed more aggressive behaviour. There was some evidence of same-sex

imitation. Boys tended to show more physical

aggression in response to a male model;

Girls showed more verbal aggression if the model was female.

Some children displayed non-imitative aggression – they weren’t just copying the adults.

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They show that aggressive behaviour can be learnt by imitation.

There is no clear conclusion about the influences of nature or nurture in the occurrence of aggressive behaviour.

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What is our What is our evaluation of this evaluation of this study?study? There are pitfalls with

observational techniques. Ecological validity – how

often do adults hit dolls? Ethics

parental consent not sought.Exposure to violence may be

frightening.Deliberately upsetting the children

during mild aggression arousal.

What other problems are there when we

use childrenchildren

as subjects?

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Social and family Social and family relationships of ex-relationships of ex-

institutional adolescents.institutional adolescents.Hodges and Tizard (1989)Hodges and Tizard (1989)

Key question: What are the effects of a disrupted early home life?

Many studies indicate the importance of a main care-giver to a child’s development. Institutional children may lack this experience.

This study examines the importance of this early attachment and a possible critical period during which attachment may occur.

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The authors used matched comparison groups for controls.

This was a longitudinal study.

In contrast - what is a

cross-sectional study?

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39 children – both boys and girls - aged 16.

There were originally 65 subjects at age 4, and 51 subjects at age 8 – this decrease is called subject attrition.

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What were the What were the variables?variables? This is a natural (or quasi)

experiment where the independent variables (the child’s environment) – either returning to live with their

natural parents (restored), being adopted, or being part of the comparison

group who had not been institutionalised.

Their social relationships could be seen as the dependent variable.

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What was the aim of What was the aim of this study?this study?

To investigate whether experiencing early institutionalisation with ever- changing care-givers until at least two years of age will lead to long-term problems in adolescence.

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What was the What was the procedure?procedure? An interview with the subject. An interview with their

mother. A self-report questionnaire

concerning social difficulties. A questionnaire completed by

subject’s schoolteacher about social relationships.

A psychiatric evaluation - the Rutter ‘B’ scale

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What were the What were the results?results? Adopted children were just as

attached to their parents as comparison groups – restored children were less attached.

Ex-Institutional children had more problems with siblings – especially the restored group.

Ex-Institutional children tended to show more indiscriminate affection to adults.

There was some evidence that the ex-institutional adolescents had more social problems with their peer group.

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Given the correct environment (eg: being adopted by a loving family) any early effects of deprivation can be overcome.

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What is our What is our evaluation of this evaluation of this study?study? Can we be sure that the comparison

groups had a stable family background? Problems with self-reporting and

questionnaires. Many of the other ratings were done by

adults. Ethics – asking personal questions. The success of many children in forming

attachments after institutional care questions Bowlby’s theory of attachment.

We must remember that many did, however, experience social problems outside of the family.

What are the pro’s and con’s of

questionnaires

?

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Analysis of a phobia of a Analysis of a phobia of a five year-old boy.five year-old boy.

Freud (1909)Freud (1909)

Key question: Why do children develop fears and phobias?

This is an account of how a young boy called Little Hans was psychoanalysed in order to explain his anxiety, and a phobia of horses.

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This was a case study.

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Hans was a five-year old son of a man who was a firm believer in Freud’s ideas.

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There were no variables in this study.

This is an account of the conversations between Freud and the boy’s father, and one meeting with Hans himself.

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What were the aims What were the aims of this study?of this study? Freud was seeking support for

his ideas about:Unconscious motivations for

behaviour.Psychosexual development.The Oedipus complex.The cause of phobias.Psychoanalysis – bringing

unconscious causes of behaviour ‘out into the open’.

What were Freud’s

stages of developmen

t?

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Little Hans’ father reported conversations with his son to Freud, and Freud’s interpretations and suggestions back to his son.

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What What interpretations did interpretations did Freud make?Freud make? Freud believed that the

Oedipus complex explained much of Hans’ behaviour with regard to his mother, and his obsession with his ‘widdler’.

He explained his fear of being bitten by horses as a fear of being castrated by his father.

What were some of the

other behaviours

Hans displayed,

and how did Freud explain

them?

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Little Hans stopped having his fantasies and phobias.

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What did the author What did the author conclude?conclude?

Freud believed that Hans wanted to identify with (or be like) his father, and that the Oedipus complex could be a way in which all boys learn to emulate a male role model.

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What is our What is our evaluation of this evaluation of this study?study? Case study – cannot generalise

to all people, but can be useful for its richness of information.

All data collected second-hand via father.

Neither father nor Freud objective in their analysis and interpretation.

No explanation as to how girls develop.

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Some words or Some words or phrases you should phrases you should know . . .know . . . Conservation Fixed array Social learning

theory Inter-rater

reliability Longitudinal

study Attachment

Subject attrition

Self-report Psychodynamic

s Case study Unconscious

mind Oedipus

complex

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The end of this section.

You may use this slide to start any of the other five sections of this presentation (click on the pointing finger)Cognitive Psychology


Social Psychology



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Quiz time!

Name all the psychologists on the next slide (they are all authors in one of the twenty core studies).

As a clue, there are some missing . . . The minimal groups man, the Mr. and Mrs of Samaritan fame, half of the

emotional pair, half of the three faces of Eve, half of a car crash, half of conservative children, half of black children and

half of sleepy brains. There is only one third of Bashing Bobo, murderers brains, prison guards and autistic children,

and no unattached adolescents at all.

First correct entry (five in top row; six in middle and seven in lowest row) emailed to

Mr Heath at [email protected] wins a prize!

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PHYSIOLOGICALPHYSIOLOGICALPSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY.

“Cognitive, social and physiological determinants of emotional state.” Schachter and Singer (1962)

“The relation of eye movements during sleep to dream activity.” Dement and Kleitman (1957)

“Hemisphere deconnection and unity in consciousness.” Sperry (1968)

“Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography.” Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse (1997)

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What is What is physiologicalphysiologicalpsychology?psychology? It looks at how the structure and

function of our nervous system may affect our behaviour.

It has been said that it looks at people as if they were biological machines.

We are all aware that drugs, alcohol and hormones (such as adrenaline) do affect our behaviour.


2AA question on

physiologicphysiological al


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““Cognitive, social and Cognitive, social and physiological physiological

determinants of emotional determinants of emotional state.state. “ “

Schachter and Singer (1962) Schachter and Singer (1962) Key question: What are the

things that make us feel emotions?

The authors examined the interaction between physiological arousal (the presence of adrenaline) and cognitive factors (the subjects understanding of the situation) in the experience of emotion.

This is known as the two-factor theory.

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This was a laboratory experiment. The design used was

independent groups – different participants are used in each condition.

In contrast - what are repeated measures?

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184 University psychology students.

All male. 90% received academic

credits for taking part in the study.

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What were the What were the variables?variables? Independent: Physiological

arousal – adrenaline or saline.

Explanation of arousal –

informedmisinforme

dignorant.

Emotional cues – ‘euphoric’ or ‘angry’ stooge.

Dependent: Self reports of

emotions. Observation

through one-way mirror of interactions with stooge.

Measurement of pulse

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What were the What were the hypotheses?hypotheses? When an individual has no

immediate explanation for his state of physiological arousal, he will label the emotion in terms of his understanding of what is going on (the cognitions available to him).

If the individual has an explanation for his state of arousal, he will not label his emotions in the same way.

An individual will experience emotion only in the presence of physiological arousal.

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Subjects were told they were receiving an injection of Suproxin (an imaginary vitamin compound) but were in fact given injections of either epinephrine (adrenaline) or saline (as a placebo).

Subjects were then either:informed - told what symptoms to expect,

misinformed - told to expect made-up symptoms,

ignorant - not told what to expect at all. . . . continued on next slide . . .

What are the

effects of adrenalin

e?

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. . . the procedure . . . the procedure (continued)(continued) Subjects were then further

divided into two groups: those who were exposed to an actor or ‘stooge’ pretending to be silly and care-free (the ‘euphoric’ condition); or a stooge pretending to be ‘angry’.

Subjects were observed throughout, and asked to complete self-rating scales.


2AA question

on stoogesstooges

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What were the What were the results?results? Subjects in the informed group

were least affected by the behaviour of the stooges.

Subjects receiving the placebo injection consistently displayed a higher emotional level than the informed group.

Most results were insignificant, or only made so by careful selection of subject data.

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What did the What did the authors conclude?authors conclude? That those subjects who had a

valid cognitive label for their physical symptoms (the informed group) did not need to label their emotions using the behaviour of the stooge.

The response of the placebo group is explained by suggesting that the injection itself causes physiological arousal.

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The study was too complex, and has not been replicated.

No measure of mood was made before the experiment.

Injections by themselves will cause arousal.

Ethics:Injections are painful.Deception about nature of

injection (and symptoms in misinformed group)

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““The relation of eye The relation of eye movements during sleep to movements during sleep to

dream activity.”dream activity.”Dement and Kleitman (1957)Dement and Kleitman (1957)

Key question: What happens when we sleep?

Subjects had their EEG recorded whilst they slept. They were woken when they were experiencing REM sleep, and asked if they could remember their dreams.

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An observation under controlled laboratory conditions.

The authors say: “This paper represents the results of rigorous testing of the relation between eye movements and dreaming.”

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Seven adult males and two adult females.

Five were studied intensively, four were used to confirm results of first five.

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What does an EEG What does an EEG look like?look like?

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In one part of the study, subjects were woken 5 or 15 minutes into a period of REM sleep – the IV, and their estimates of dream length recorded – the DV.

Other parts of the study could be termed a controlled observation.

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What were the What were the hypotheses?hypotheses? REM sleep is associated with

dreaming, NREM sleep is not. There is a positive correlation

between the length of REM sleep and the subject’s estimate of dream length.

The pattern of eye movement is associated with dream content.

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What was the What was the procedure?procedure? Subject instructed to refrain

from alcohol or caffeine on day of experiment.

Reported to laboratory a little before usual bedtime.

EEG and EOG (which measures eye movement) recorded.

Subjects woken up at various times to test their dream recall.

Why?

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What were the What were the results?results? REM sleep is associated

predominantly with dreaming; NREM is associated with non-dreaming sleep.

There was a very good correlation between estimates of dream length and time of REM sleep.

There was a link between type of eye movements and dream content.

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They provide evidence of a strong link between the physiological recordings (objective measurements) made during dreaming, and the subjective and psychological experiences of the subjects.

What is the

difference between objectiveobjective

and

subjectivsubjectivee

measurements?

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What is our What is our evaluation of this evaluation of this study?study? Ability to recall dreams may be

affected by how deeply one is asleep.

Sleeping in a laboratory isn’t the same as sleeping in your own bed.

Very few subjects. Provides support for the objective

measurement of dreams.

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““Hemisphere Hemisphere deconnection and unity deconnection and unity

in consciousness.”in consciousness.” Sperry (1968)Sperry (1968)

Key question: If you split someone’s brain in half – do they become two people?

This study reports the findings on the behavioural and psychological effects of having the left and right hemispheres surgically disconnected.

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These are several case studies, or clinical studies.

This has sometimes been called a natural experiment – the experimental manipulation has been done “by nature”.

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Patients who had undergone a cerebral commisurotomy – they had their corpus callosum cut surgically to treat severe epileptic seizures which were not responding to drug therapy.

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This study was a mixture of quasi-experiments and case studies. The methodology is not easily divided into variables, or designs.

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What was the aim of What was the aim of this study?this study?

Sperry wanted to investigate the functioning of the two hemispheres of the brain, by presenting stimuli to each half separately in people whose hemispheres cannot communicate with each other.

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Split-brain subjects were exposed to a variety of visual stimuli of very brief duration (1/10th second) usually to one side of their visual field.

They were also asked to do tasks involving touch, but without being able to see their hands.

The next slide shows a view of the experimental set up.

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Sperry’s set up.Sperry’s set up.

The following slide tries to mimic brief visual stimuli . .

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Focus on the red Focus on the red dot . . dot . .

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Items seen in the left visual field will only be recognised if presented again to the left.

Only items seen in the right visual field can be named verbally or in writing.

If an object is felt by the left hand it can recognised by the left hand again, but not by the right hand, nor named by the subject.

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What did the What did the authors conclude?authors conclude? The two hemispheres of the

brain have different abilities and functions – particularly language, which usually resides in the left hemisphere.

One side of the brain does not know what the other side of the brain has seen or felt when the corpus callosum has been cut.

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What is our What is our evaluation of this evaluation of this study?study? We have no knowledge of

subjects’ mental abilities before operation.

Few subjects. Not everyone has same degree of

‘one-sided-ness’ (laterality). Did long term epilepsy, or the

recent brain surgery, affect their brain function?

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““Brain abnormalities in Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by murderers indicated by

positron emission positron emission tomography.”tomography.”

Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse (1997)Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse (1997) Key question: Is there a

difference between the brains of murderers and non-murderers?

This study used Positron Emission Tomography or P.E.T. scans to compare the activity of various areas of the brains of people who had committed murder and those who had not.

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This was a quasi-experiment. Subjects were not randomly

selected into groups. Their legal status (whether or not

they had murdered someone and were pleading not guilty by reason of insanity) was the only variable.

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Who were the Who were the subjects?subjects? Experimental group: 41

people declared Not Guilty by Reason of Insanity (NGRI).

Control group: 41 age- and sex- matched subjects – ‘normal’ people.

Raine also managed to match six subjects who had schizophrenia.

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What were the What were the variables?variables? Independent: ‘Normal’

controls or NGRI subjects.

Dependent: The level of

activity (glucose metabolism) in 14 selected areas of the brain.

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What was the What was the hypothesis?hypothesis? NGRI subjects will have

localised dysfunction in brain areas previously linked to violence, namely the:prefrontal cortex;angular gyrus;amygdala;hippocampus;thalamus and thecorpus callosum.

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All subjects were given an injection of radioactively labelled glucose.

Given a mental (continuous performance) task for 32 minutes.

Given a PET scan.

Why glucoseglucose?

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What do PET scans What do PET scans look like?look like?

Areas of high activity show up as red, less activity as yellow to green, and little or no activity as blue

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Compared to controls, NGRI subjects showed:

Less activity in pre-frontal and parietal cortex, and in the corpus callosum.

Evidence of asymmetry of function in the amygdala, hippocampus and thalamus

More activity in the occipital lobe, and no difference in the temporal lobe.

What are these

structures?

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What did the What did the authors conclude?authors conclude? They suggested that these

structures could be implicated in violent or aggressive behaviour in a number of ways; eg:

Pre-frontal cortex = impulsivity and lack of self control.

Amygdala = emotional control. Corpus callosum = reduced

communication between hemispheres.

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They used a large sample and found significant differences in results.

There are many technical concerns in the interpretation of PET scans.

The task set was not relevant to violent behaviour.

The authors themselves stress that the results do not indicate that violence is only caused by biology, but has many contributory factors.

What does

significasignificantnt mean?

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Some words or Some words or phrases you should phrases you should know about know about . . .. . .

Adrenaline Placebo Two-factor theory Pre-frontal cortex Corpus callosum Lateralisation

EEG REM NREM PET scans

Can you describe them all?

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The end of this The end of this section.section.

You may use this slide to start any of the other five sections on this disk (click on the pointing finger)


Developmental PsychologyIndividual Differences

Social Psychology


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The Psychology The Psychology ofof INDIVIDUAL INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCESDIFFERENCES“On being sane in insane places.” Rosenhan (1973).

“A case of multiple personality”. Thigpen and Cleckley (1954).

“Black is beautiful; A re-examination of racial preference and identification.” Hraba and Grant (1970).

“A nation of morons.” Gould (1982)

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What is the What is the psychology of psychology of individual individual differences?differences? Most approaches to psychology look

at how humans behave in general, and try to find rules which apply to everyone.

This approach to psychology acknowledges that we are all individuals, and are therefore unique.

This is an idiographic approach. It is dominated by case studies (eg:

personality disorders), and our attempts to quantify differences between people (eg: IQ tests).

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““On being sane in insane On being sane in insane places.”places.”

Rosenhan (1973)Rosenhan (1973)

Key question: Can we confidently tell the difference between the sane and the insane?

In this study, ‘actors’ gained admission to a number of psychiatric hospitals to see whether their sanity would be detected.

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This was a field experiment.

What are the advantagesadvantages and disadvantagesdisadvantages of this

method?

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The subjects of this study were the hospital staff - the doctors and nurses whose behaviour was being tested and observed by the pseudopatients.

The pseudopatients themselves were NOT the subjects.

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Psychiatrists cannot reliably tell the difference between the sane and the insane.

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What was the What was the procedure in the procedure in the firstfirst study? study?

Pseudopatient complained of hearing voices (symptom of schizophrenia).

On gaining admission, all subjects stopped simulating any symptoms.

They then tried to seek release by persuading staff they were sane.

Kept a diary of events.

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What was the What was the procedure in the procedure in the secondsecond study? study? A teaching and a research hospital

were informed of the results of the first study.

They were told that one or more pseudopatients would try to gain admittance to their hospital.

Each staff member had to rate each new patient on a 10-point scale as to the likelihood of them being a pseudo patient.

No psuedopatients actually attempted to gain admission during the period.

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What were the What were the results?results? All but one released with a diagnosis

of ‘schizophrenia in remission’. Little contact with medical staff

(average less than 7 minutes/day). Powerlessness and

depersonalisation were experienced.

All normal behaviour became interpreted in the light of the schizophrenic “label”.

More likely to be identified as ‘sane’ by inmates than doctors!

In which other study have you

heard the phrase depersonalisatidepersonalisati

onon?

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What were the results What were the results of the second study?of the second study?

Out of 193 admissions during the period:41 were judged to be

psuedopatients by at least one staff member;

19 were suspected by one psychiatrist and one other staff member.

Remember that all 193 patients were real.

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“It is clear that we cannot distinguish the sane from the insane in psychiatric hospitals.”

Rosenhan illustrated some of the problems in psychiatric hospitals of the time.

He discussed the issue of labels, and how hard they are to remove.

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What is our What is our evaluation of this evaluation of this study?study? No controls. Diagnosis (“in remission”)

indicated that doctors had recognised some special features of these patients.

Ethics of deception, but means may justify the end.

Led to re-evaluation of the criteria for diagnosis of certain mental disorders.

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““A case of multiple A case of multiple personality”.personality”.

Thigpen and Cleckley (1954)Thigpen and Cleckley (1954)

Key question: Can more than one person co-exist in the same body?

This is a psychiatric study of a woman who was diagnosed with Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD), and the authors’ attempt to cure her.

Mrs Eve White was the dominant subject, with Miss Eve Black and Jane being additional personalities.

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This was a case study.

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A woman called Christine Sizemore, a 25 year-old married woman.

a.k.a. Mrs Eve WhiteMiss Eve BlackJane

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What was the case-What was the case-history? history? She was referred to the authors

because she had severe headaches and black-outs.

A letter was received by the authors which Mrs. Eve White. did not remember sending.

The ‘personality’ of Miss Eve Black. emerged over the next few sessions.

During the course of therapy a third personality Jane emerged.

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What techniques What techniques were used?were used?

Hypnosis to retrieve memories, and initially speak to Miss Eve Black.

Interviews to assess personalities.

EEG measurement. Testing:

IQRorschach (pronounced raw-

shock) tests (ink blots).

What is an EEGEEG –

and which other study

uses this techniqu

e?

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The three The three personalities.personalities.Mrs Eve White

• Quiet, retiring

• Anxious

• Failed marriage

• IQ 110

Miss Eve Black

• Mocking

• Hedonistic

• Denies marriage

• IQ 104

Jane

• Mature

• Balanced

• Capable and interesting.

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Multiple personality disorder was a distinct disorder, distinguishable from schizophrenia.

The two ‘Eves’ were so consistent in their behaviours that fakery was not likely.

Similar to other reported cases of MPD.

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What is our What is our evaluation of this evaluation of this study?study? MPD is an extremely rare

disorder, and some psychiatrists do not believe it exists.

Case study method can be challenged.

The ‘cure’ reported by Thigpen was not complete – the subject subsequently reported 22 more personalities until 1975.

Why?

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“Black is beautiful; A re-examination of racial preference

and identification.”

Hraba and Grant (1970). Key question: How can we

measure our sense of racial identity?

This is a repetition of an earlier studies carried out in 1939 and 1947.

The study sets out to examine the racial preferences of black children in an interracial setting.

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In that the childrens’ race was the independent variable, but could not be manipulated, this was a quasi-experiment.

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160 children:89 black children;71 white children.

4 to 8 years of age, from Lincoln, Nebraska.

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Independent:

Race of child.

Dependent:

Which doll the child chooses.

The race of the child’s best friends.

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Contact between white and black children will make the black children prefer objects which resemble whites.

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What was the What was the procedure?procedure? Children interviewed individually by

either black or white interviewer. Two white and two black dolls used. Children asked a series of 8

questions in three categories, eg:give me the doll that you want to

play with (racial preference);give me the doll that looks like a

white child (racial awareness);give me the doll that looks like

you (racial self-identification).

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What were the What were the results?results? Majority of black children at all

ages preferred black dolls, thought black dolls looked nice, and identified themselves with the black dolls.

These results are significantly different to the earlier study in 1947.

There was no relationship between doll preference and the race of the friends of the children.

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Black children in interracial settings are not white oriented.

The authors discuss the impact of the black pride movement.

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What is our What is our evaluation of this evaluation of this study?study? Forcing such a limited choice

does not permit measurement of the intensity of the attitude.

Accepting a black doll does not imply a rejection of the white doll.

This study does indicate a shift in attitude over 30 years, and highlights the influence of historical context on findings in social psychology.

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Click Click here to go to to go to past Core 1 past Core 1 questions on questions on Hraba and GrantHraba and Grant

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“A nation of morons.”

Gould (1982) Key question: What do IQ

tests measure? This article by Gould

describes one part of the early history of IQ testing, when Robert Yerkes tested 1.75 million recruits to the US army at the start of WWI.

This area of psychology is called psychometrics.

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1.75 million recruits and draftees to the U.S. Army at the start of WWI.

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There were no variables.

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Yerkes wanted to provide psychology with scientific credibility by generating ‘hard’ numbers.

He told the army that the tests could be used as a method of officer selection.

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Literate recruits were given the Army Alpha test – similar to modern day IQ tests.

Illiterate recruits and alpha test failures took the Beta test – a pictorial test.

Beta test failures were individually interviewed.

Tests were administered by army personnel on the recruitment bases.

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Yerkes claimed that the average mental age of:white adults was 13 years;‘Immigrants’ was between

11 and 12 years;‘Negroes’ was 10.4 years.He also suggested that the

more ‘northern’ European was intellectually superior to ‘Slavs’ and southern Europeans.

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That IQ can be objectively measured.

Intelligence is inherited. This study supports the

nature side of the nature-nurture debate.

As it is inherited, special education measures were a waste of time.


2BB question

on psychometrpsychometr

icsics

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What is our What is our evaluation of this evaluation of this study?study? Administration of tests was

inconsistent. Beta tests often not given to those

who needed them most (thus reducing scores).

Ignored issues to do with length of time subjects had spent in the US.

Tests were ethnocentric and biased towards Western culture.

Tests asked for knowledge, rather than aptitude or ability.

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Evaluation 2.Evaluation 2.

The results were used by racists in government to support stereotypes of Jewish, black and Polish peoples, and ultimately to restrict their entry into the U.S. during the run-up to WWII, with disastrous consequences.

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Click Click here to go to to go to past Core 1 past Core 1 questions on questions on GouldGould

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Some words or phrases Some words or phrases you should know . . .you should know . . .

Idiographic Pseudopatient Powerlessness Depersonalisatio

n Labelling MPD

Case study IQ Psychometrics Projective test Nature-nurture

debate Ethnocentrism

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The end of this section.

You may use this slide to start any of the other five sections on this presentation. (click on the pointing finger)

Social Psychology





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THEMES AND THEMES AND PERSPECTIVESPERSPECTIVES

In this section, this button now links to an index of Themes and Themes and PerspectivesPerspectives topics.

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What are themes What are themes and perspectives?and perspectives?

In this presentation, we will look at some ideas about the different areas of psychology, and some of the themes that connect them.

A second part of this presentation will examine the terms used in methodology, and the strengths and weaknesses of the various methods used to collect psychological data.

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Contents.Contents.

The classic approaches. Terms and concepts. Methodology. Index to this section.

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The classic The classic approaches.approaches.

Unlike some of the natural sciences, psychology doesn’t have one general theory or particular approach. The following six slides looks at some major divisions of psychological thought.

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The biological (or The biological (or physiological) physiological) approach.approach.

The primary focus of this is that humans are biological machines.

Our behaviour can be seen in terms of fulfilling biological need.

Our nerves and hormones determine our behaviour.

Eg: Sperry (Split-brains)

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The cognitive The cognitive approach.approach.

This explains human behaviour in terms of conscious mental processes.

Eg: Loftus and Palmer (Eye-witnesses)

What are

these processe

s?

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The developmental The developmental approach.approach.

It is concerned with the changes that occur over a person’s life-time, starting from conception and infancy through to old age.

Eg: Samuel and Bryant (conservation)

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Social approach.Social approach. This approach looks at human

behaviour in the context of our social environment.

Looks at how the individual behaves (as opposed to groups – that would be sociology).

We are both the producers of and the product of the relationships and groups to which we belong.

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Individual Individual Differences.Differences.

Psychology often makes generalisationsgeneralisations about people – this is called a nomothetic approach.

This approach, however, explores the differencesdifferences between people – this is called an idiographic approach.

It also explores the concept of abnormal behaviour


2BB question

on abnormal abnormal behaviourbehaviour

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Terms and Terms and concepts.concepts.

The following slides look at terms and concepts with which we need to be familiar.

Test yourself by starting the slide, and then trying to get the definition correct before clicking the mouse again.

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Demand Demand characteristics.characteristics. These are the cues that subjects

pick up during their participation in the study which may cause them to change their behaviour.

Can you think of

any example

s?

For example, they may try to please the experimenter, they may try to guess the aim of the experiment.

Laboratory experiments tend to have high demand characteristics.

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Determinism.Determinism. An individual’s behaviour is

determined by internal or external factors. Ultimately, they have no control over their actions.

This is in direct contrast to the idea of free-will, where an individual is able to choose their own behaviour regardless of past experience or present environment.

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Examples of Examples of determinism.determinism.

Biological determinism - hormones or nerve cells determine behaviour; eg: Raine et al suggests that parts of our brain determine whether or not we may murder someone.

Zimbardo would suggest that our social situation determines our behaviour.


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Dispositional Dispositional explanation.explanation.

A dispositional explanation would say a subject’s characteristics or personality were responsible for their behaviour. It implies that these characteristics are innate, or part of nature, not nurture.

This is in contrast to the situational explanation.

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Ecological validity.Ecological validity. How true to real-life was the

experimental situation? Could the results obtained be

generalised to other situations? If the answer to both these

questions is yes, then the study would be said to have ecological validity.

Field experiments, for eg: Piliavin (subway Samaritans) have high ecological validity.


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validityvalidity

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Ethics.Ethics. All psychological studies should

observe certain rules when dealing with human subjects.

Subjects not being harmed.Subjects giving consent.Subjects being informed as to the purpose of the study, or not being deceived about the true purpose.All data being treated as confidential.Subjects should be debriefed after the study is completed.


2BB question on ethicsethics

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Ethnocentrism.Ethnocentrism.

The belief that the views of a particular group, culture or race are superior to the views of other cultures or races.

Psychology is a science dominated by ideas derived from a Western culture.

Eg: GouldDeregowski


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ethnocentriethnocentrismsm

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Nature vs Nurture.Nature vs Nurture. These terms are applied to the

debate as to the origins of certain behaviours:

Nature: If behaviours are inherited, or common to all humans – part of our genetic make-up.

Nurture: A behaviour we acquire through experience, culture or learning.


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nurturenurture

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Reductionism.Reductionism.

Involves explaining a phenomenon by breaking it down into its basic building blocks.

Reduces complex factors into a set of simple principles.


2B B question on

reductionisreductionismm

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Example of Example of reductionism.reductionism.

Physiological reductionism will try to explain all behaviour in terms of nerve cells, or regions of the brain.

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Situational Situational explanation.explanation.

The situational explanation would suggest that the reasons for behaviour lie outside of the person – their culture, circumstances or social group are determining their behaviour. The converse is the dispositional explanation.


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Methodology.Methodology.

Psychologists collect data in many different ways. Their choice of methodology, and the way they organise their subjects, can have a great effect on the interpretation we place on their results.

The following slides explain the methods used, and their strengths and weaknesses.


2AA question

on methodsmethods

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Sampling.Sampling.

Random sample Quota sample Stratified sample Snowball sample Self-selecting sample Opportunity sample Volunteer sample Can you remember what these

mean?


2AA question

on samplingsampling

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Variables - Variables - independent and independent and dependentdependent In an experiment, we manipulate

the independent variable, to see what effect it will have on the dependent variable.

The independent variable is what we change, and we should try to avoid changing more than one thing at a time.

The dependent variable is the record or measurement you would write down in a results table.

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Confounding (or Confounding (or extraneous) extraneous) variables.variables. Some experiments cannot be

completely controlled. There may be more than the

independent variable exerting an effect on the dependent variable.

Think about the effect of a rainy day on an outdoor observation of people in a street.


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‘‘Operationalising’ Operationalising’ variables.variables. This means the way the variables are

actually put into practice. Eg: Bandura wanted to investigate whether

children would imitate violent behaviour. This was operationalised by him observing

children left alone with a Bobo doll who had previously seen an adult behave violently towards it.

How did Schachter and Singer

operationali

se their variables?

They wanted to create an angry and a happy social situation. Subjects were exposed to an actor pretending to be angry or silly. How then did they operationalise the subjects’ cognition of what was happening to them?

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Laboratory Laboratory experiments:experiments:DescriptionDescription The independent variable is

manipulated to observe the effect on the dependent variable.

The setting does not have to be an actual laboratory.

The experimenter has better control over extraneous variables.

Eg: Loftus and Palmer (eye-witness testimony)

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Laboratory Laboratory Experiments:Experiments:For and AgainstFor and Against For Can be easily

replicated. Better control

over variables. Generates

quantitative data. Don’t have to

wait for behaviour to occur naturally.

Against Low ecological

validity. Often problems

with deception. Demand

characteristics. Need

representative samples.


2A A question

on quantitativquantitativ

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Field experiments:Field experiments:DescriptionDescription

Experiments carried out in natural surroundings.

Participants behave in an everyday context.

The experimenter still manipulates the IV.

Eg: Piliavin (Good Samaritanism)

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Field Experiments:Field Experiments:For and AgainstFor and Against

For Better

ecological validity than laboratory experiment.

No demand characteristics.

Against Lack of control

of extraneous variables.

Lack of informed consent.

Difficult to replicate.

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How are ‘Natural’ or How are ‘Natural’ or ‘Quasi’ Experiments ‘Quasi’ Experiments different?different? In natural experiments, the

experimenter does not have control over the IV (eg: Baron-Cohen and autism).

Subjects cannot be randomly allocated to experimental condition.

Can be used to study effects where it would be unethical to manipulate IV.

Have to wait for situation to occur naturally.

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Observations:Observations:DescriptionDescription

Can be naturalistic (subjects in their

own environment) or controlled (under conditions

contrived by the researcher.) Eg;

Bandura et al (Imitation of aggression)


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on observatioobservatio

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Observations:Observations:For and AgainstFor and Against

For High ecological

validity. Few demand

characteristics.

Against Inter-observer

reliability. Unethical to

observe people without consent.

Lack of control of extraneous variables.

What is inter-

observer reliability?

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Questionnaires:Questionnaires:DescriptionDescription

A quick way to obtain information from people.

May ask about specific behaviours, attitudes, or measurements of some characteristic eg: psychometric tests (Gould; IQ testing).

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Questionnaires:Questionnaires:For and AgainstFor and Against

For Quick –many

respondents can be assessed.

Less biased than interviews – answers are structured.

Against Scope for

answers is limited.

Respondents may not tell the truth.

Wording of question may cause ambiguity.

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Correlational Correlational studies:studies:DescriptionDescription Correlations are not a method of

study nor an experimental design, but are a statistical procedure which allows us to examine the relationship between two independent variables.

There is no dependent variable, because correlation does not imply cause and effect.

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Correlational Correlational studies:studies:For and AgainstFor and Against For Correlations

can form the basis of future research

Can be used when it would be impractical or unethical to conduct an experiment

Against They cannot

prove cause and effect.

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Case study:Case study:DescriptionDescription

Single individual or small group studied in detail.

Methods may include interviews, observations and tests.

Data usually qualitative. Eg: Freud (Little Hans)


2AA question on case case studiesstudies

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Case Study:Case Study:For and AgainstFor and Against

For Unique data

can be collected.

Data can be particularly rich in detail.

May find example which disproves ‘general’ rule.

Against Results may not

be representative.

Potential problems with experimenter bias and relationship with subject.

May rely on memory which is fallible.

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Cross-cultural Cross-cultural studies:studies:DescriptionDescription Looking at a psychological

variable (eg: childhood development) in two different cultures, to see whether any difference is determined by genetics (nature) or culture (nurture).

Eg: Deregowski (perception)

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Cross-cultural Cross-cultural studies:studies:For and AgainstFor and Against For Can demonstrate

universal development and trends.

Gives insights in different cultures and beliefs.

Rich data.

Against Interpretation of

results may be ethnocentric.

Very costly and time consuming.

Language problems.

Culture being studied may not be homogenous.

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Cross-sectional (or Cross-sectional (or snap-shot) study:snap-shot) study:DescriptionDescription Most research is carried out

on subjects at the same moment in time.

Comparisons are made between groups of subjects.

Most of the studies you have learnt about are cross-sectional.


2A A question

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Cross-Sectional Cross-Sectional Study:Study:For and AgainstFor and Against For Easier to

correct errors in procedure and replicate.

Can spot trends quickly.

Against Groups selected

can never be exactly the same.

Different experiences of one group may make comparisons difficult.

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Longitudinal study:Longitudinal study:DescriptionDescription

Studies the same people over a long period of time.

Subjects are compared to themselves at various points in time.

Particularly useful for studying the long-term changes due to development.

Eg: One group of children studied at 4, 8, 12 and 16 years of age.

Eg: Hodges and Tizard (ex-institutional adolescents)


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Longitudinal study:Longitudinal study:For and AgainstFor and Against

For Differences in

behaviour at various ages cannot be result of sample differences.

Can provide in- depth and rich data.

Against Time

consuming and costly.

More difficult to identify trends in data.

Subject attrition.What is

this?

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Independent Independent Measures:Measures:DescriptionDescription If there are two conditions, A

and B, each subject will only participate in one condition – either A or B.

Ideally subjects should be randomly allocated to groups – (for converse, see quasi experiments).

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Independent Independent Measures:Measures:For and AgainstFor and Against For No order

effects. Participants

less likely to guess aim of experiment.

Against Participant

variables not controlled – groups may not be perfectly matched.

Less economical on participants.

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Repeated measures:Repeated measures:DescriptionDescription

If there are two conditions, A and B, each subject will participate in bothboth conditions – A andand B.

Any differences in the results cannot be because the subjects in condition A are different to the subjects in condition B.

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Repeated Measures:Repeated Measures:For and AgainstFor and Against

For Differences in

participants between groups eliminated.

More economical on participants.

Against Order effects –

people may improve through practice – or get fed up.

Need different stimulus lists, etc.

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Themes and Themes and Perspectives Perspectives IndexIndex

Biological approach

Case Study

Cognitive approach

Confounding variable

Correlational study

Cross-cultural study

Cross-sectional study

Demand characteristics

Determinism

Dependent variable

Developmental approach

Dispositional

Ecological Validity

Ethics

Ethnocentrism

Extraneous variables

Field Experiment

Independent measures

Independent variable

Individual differences Laboratory experiment

Longitudinal study

Natural Experiment

Nature vs nurture

Observation

Operationalising

Quasi-experiment

Questionnaire

Reductionism

Repeated measures

Sampling

Situational

Snapshot study

Social approach

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The End! You may use this slide to start any

of the other five presentations on this disk (click on the pointing finger)

Social Psychology





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Finally . . .Finally . . . Psychology tries to answer the BIG

questions. As you revise the course, remember to ask yourself:What theory was the study based on,

or why was it carried out?What were the details of subjects,

methods and results?What are the key terms and concepts?What implications do the results have?What was there in the study that was

good, and what elements of the study mean we should question the results?

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Study Index Bandura, Ross and

Ross (1961) Baron-Cohen, Leslie

and Frith (1985) Dement and Kleitman

(1957) Deregowski (1972) Freud (1909) Gardner and Gardner

(1969) Gould (1982) Haney, Banks and

Zimbardo (1973). Hodges and Tizard

(1989) Hraba and Grant

(1970).

Loftus and Palmer (1974)

Milgram (1963) Piliavin, Rodin and

Piliavin (1969). Raine, Buchsbaum

and LaCasse (1997) Rosenhan (1973). Samuel and Bryant

(1984) Schachter and Singer

(1962) Sperry (1968) Tajfel (1970) Thigpen and Cleckley

(1954).

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