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Hydrological aspects of LakeVanda, Wright Valley, VictoriaLand, AntarcticaS. K. Cutfield aa Antarctic Division, DSIR , Christchurchb 36 Alsop Drive, Heatley, Townsville, Queensland ,4814 , AustraliaPublished online: 12 Sep 2012.

To cite this article: S. K. Cutfield (1974) Hydrological aspects of Lake Vanda, WrightValley, Victoria Land, Antarctica, New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics,17:3, 645-657, DOI: 10.1080/00288306.1973.10421587

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00288306.1973.10421587

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No.3 645

HYDROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF LAKE V ANDA, WRIGHT VALLEY, VICTORIA LAND, ANTARCTICA

S. K. CUTFIELD

Antarctic Division, DSIR, Christchurch*

(Received 16 December 1970; revised 17 January 1972)

ABSTRACT

Continuous measurement of Onyx River inflow, lake level, ice surface ablation, ice thickness and density, were recorded for almost a year at Lake Yanda (77° 35' S, 161 u 39' E), the largest of the perennially ice-covered lakes. The major changes in these variables occurred during the summer period, due to the presence of the sun and sustained easte~ly and westerly winds of up to 25 knots.

Correlation of Onyx River inflow of 1'01 X 107m3 and rise in lake level of 192 mm indicates possible subterranean seepage into Lake Yanda. Long, calm winter periods of up to 25 days resulted in an extremely low ice surface ablation of 54'9 mm. An annual ablation estimate of 140 mm indicates evaporation strongly dependent upon solar energy input.

Lake Yanda is situated in a sheltered depression between the Asgard and Olympus Ranges, in which a low total snow-precipitation of 85·6 mm was recorded from February to November 1969. Recordings are to be maintained over a 2-3 year period for a water budget determination.

INTRODUCTION

The lakes in the dry valleys system of Victoria Land, Antarctica, have been studied by several parties between 1964 and 1967-68, but only in summer. The 1968-69 N.Z.A.R.P. Expedition was the first over-wintering party. Five men, supported by the Antarctic Division, DSIR, stayed at Vanda Station in the Wright Valley to study the ice free region and the unusual properties of Lake Vanda.

Summer field parties have recorded the inflow water from the Onyx River (Calkin & Bull 1967; Bull 1965), changes in lake level (Calkin & Bull 1967; Ragotzie & Likens 1964), and estimates of surface ablation, without correlat-ing them.

The physical, chemical, and thermal properties of Lake Vanda have been discussed by many workers (Hoare 1966; Shirtcliffe & Calhaem 1968 ; Wilson 1967).

In the present study, simultaneous measurements of ice thickness and density, and ice-surface ablation were made weekly for a priod of almost a year. Water inflow from the Onyx River was recorded daily. The lake level was recorded every four days during the summer, and monthly during the winter.

*Present address: 36 Alsop Drive, Heatley, Townsville, Queensland 4814, Australia.

N.z. Journal 0/ Geology and Geophysics 17 (3): 6·15-57

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646 N.Z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS VOL. 17

Summer, which may be said to end with the disappearance of the sun in April, is characterised by sustained easterly and westerly winds of up to 25 knots. In winter, a minimum temperature of -56·9°C was recorded in July, and long calm spells of up to 25 days were characteristic. Blowing snow on the Plateau at the far western end of the valley was indicative ot approaching wind, with westerlies reaching a maximum gust of 78 knots in August.

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF WRIGHT VALLEY

Wright Valley is a glacial valley carved through the mountain range towards the present day McMurdo Sound from an outlet from the Polar Plateau to the west. Lake Yanda (Fig. 1) occupies a part of this valley. The lake is 6·4 km long, 1·6 km wide, and has a maximum depth of 65·6 m. The valley Hoor is mainly covered in moraine debris, with numerous lamprophyre and porphyry dykes along the south-east edge of Lake Yanda.

Flowing into the east end of Lake Yanda is the seasonal Onyx River (c. 29 km long), which carries meltwater from the terminal face of the Lower Wright Glacier.

Old Lake Levels

Other physiographic features of the Wright Valley are the strand lines on the lower slopes of Mt Hercules, to the north of Lake Yanda (see Vucetich & Topping 1972, fig. 2 and p. 669). They represent old lake levels. The highest prominent bench is 63.5 m above pres~nt lake level (which would mean the lake was once at least c. 128·9 m deep). Flags were inserted at 10 of the most prominent levels (Fig. 2). A radiocarbon date (NZ779) of 2350 -+ 50 years B.P. has been recorded for algae recovered from 45 mm below the surface under a boulder, 15'2 m above the 56'4 m strand line (77° 31' S, 161° 41' E). This implies that Lake Yanda receded from this level about 3000 years ago (Wilson 1967, p. 154).

Lake Vanda Moat Water

The moat surrounding Lake Yanda was present during the summer, from early December to late February. At the Onyx River entrance, the moat extended to a maximum of 105 m from the shore. At other positions round the lake edge, the moat varied from 1'8 m to 18 m in width.

The lower temperatures from late February resulted in the moat gradually freezing over. By June the moat (opposite B.M.1) was frozen through to the lake bed, and 20 m in from the lake edge it was frozen to a depth of 1·9 m. The surface of the moat ice .remained very smooth and clear all year, compared to the permanent ice which is cloudy and has a relatively rough surface. Trapped algae gas bubbles were apparent in the moat ice as they were in the permanent ice.

Don Juan Pond

Don Juan Pond (lat. 77° 34' S, long. 161 ° 10' E), situated in a depression at the termination of the south fork in the Wright Valley, was visited on 12 October 1969. The air temperature recorded at Yanda was -12·9°c. The pond water was unfrozen. It was very salty, and contained 96'99%

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FIG. l-Lake Vanda, Wright Valley, Antarctica, showing the sites where the measure· ments discussed in the paper were taken. Vanda Station buildings are shown beside B.M.1.

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648 N.Z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS VOL. 17

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HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM LAKE EDGE

FIG. 2-Height of old levels of Lake Yanda above the lake level at 27 December 1968. Axes numbers are distances in feet.

CaCl2 .6H20 and small quantities of MgCl2 , NaCl, and KCI. Such a solution would freeze at c. -54°c, the freezing point of a saturated CaCl2 solution. The temperature recorded at Yanda Station was lower than - 54°c for 5 days (7-12 July), and reached a minimum of -56'9°c, so the pond may have been partially frozen or crystalline for this period.

The main pond (,->275 m X 91 m) was surrounded by large rocks, 1-3 m from the water edge, around which were small pools 0'3 -1'2 ill in diameter. These small pools contained a saturated solution of CaCI 2, and on the bed of each pool were white hexagonal crystals of antarcticite, CaCl2 .6H20. Most of these rocks were damp and liquid dripped from them into the pools. The CaCl 2 salt crust on the rocks absorb the moisture from the atmosphere, become saturated, and drip the solution into the pools.

LAKE VANDA WATER BUDGET

Lake level = rise due to volumetric inflow -lowering due to evaporation.

Inflow from Onyx River

The Onyx River flowed into Lake Yanda from 19 December 1968 to 8 February 1969 (a total of 51 days, Heine 1969), it was 0'3-1 m deep and up to 15'2 m wide. The volumetric flow reached a maximum of 5'2 m3 8-1,

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No.3 CUTFIELD ~ HYDROLOGY OF LAKE VANDA

TABLE I-Ablation measurements for the five localities marked on Fig. 1.

Station position Period of measurement

Lake Yanda (eastern end) 24 February-5 November Lake Yanda (western end) 24 February-31 October Lake Bull 11 February-5 Noveillb~~' Onyx River Bed 13 FebruarY-5 November Hollow Pond 13 February-5 November

Ice surface ablation (mm)

54'9 58·2 97'3 65'0 73'9

649

Ice surface ablation

24 February-31 October

(mm)

49'0 58·2 45'2 35·6 41'9

recorded under clear, sunny conditions. Minimum inflow was recorded under conditions of cloud, snowfall and ice formation over the river surface.

Total inflow was calculated to be 1'01 X 107m3• Assuming the surface area of Lake Yanda to be given by the product of 5 km and 1'5 km (Ragotzkie & Likens 1964), this inflow would correspond to a rise of 192 mm in lake level.

Surface Ablation

To measure the loss of ice at the surface, bamboo stakes, frozen in in February, were used, up until they thawed out in November. Measurements were made at the five localities shown in Fig. 1: the Lake Yanda measure-ments for the water budget analysis, the others for comparison. Lake Bull represented a smaller open ice surface than Lake Yanda, the Onyx River represented a narrow confined area, and the Hollow Pond represented a small isolated surface situated in a depression. Results are given in Table 1 (summary) and Fig. 3. The figure shows that, in the February~November period recorded, the pattern of ablation was seasonal: marked from February to the end of March and from September to November (summer), and less marked from April to August (winter).

Evaporation is high during summer because of: (1) strong katabatic winds descending from the Polar Plateau to the west (2290 m above sea level), adiabatically warming the air on the floor of the W.right Valley about 75°F (24°c); (2) strong incoming radiation; and (3) low relative humidity (approximately 15~20,%). At Lake Bull, during the summer period, the total 1 m ice cover melted and evaporation reduced the lake to two-thirds of its original size. Some marked ablation occurred in Onyx River at the beginning of May and in the middle of July due to sustained westerlies of 50 knots. More ablation occurred at the western end of Lake Yanda than at the eastern end, probably due to the stronger westerlies there. Long calm spells of up to 25 days during the winter period corresponded with little ablation.

Negative ablation occurred in Hollow Pond and Onyx River, (both in relatively sheltered positions), due to snow drifts firstly fusing on the ice sur-face and eventually fusing to the ice as ice. This happened only if snowfall was

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No.3 CUTFIELD HYDROLOGY OF LAKE V ANDA 651

followed by light wind (c.10 knots): stronger winds evaporated the snow before it could be fused. Potholes up to 10 m X 12 m in size and 0'5 m deep, which formed in summer around blown sand and grit deposits, filled up with ~now in winter, making the ice surface relatively smooth.

Loss of water by evaporation from the moat and from the melted pools that formed on the ice surface during the summer were not measured. Loss of the former would certainly be significant.

Lake Level Measurements

Three bench marks (B.M. 1, 7, 8) were set up to measure lake levels (Fig. 1). Measurements of moat levels were made at approximately weekly intervals from all three marks from December to March. In March, because similar profiles had been obtained from them all, and because of difficult conditions, it was decided to measure monthly from B.M. 1 only, for the winter. At that stage water levels had to be measured by drilling through the ice (accuracy 30'5 mm). A surveyors level and 14ft (4'27 m) staff were used for all measurements. Results are given in Fig. 4.

During the period of inflow of the Onyx River (19 December-8 February), the increases in lake level were: B.M.l 192 mm; B.M.8 177 mm B.M.7 189 mm. These values are very close to that predicted for the .rise in level at this time due to inflow alone: loss due to the ablation that must have been occurring at this time is unaccounted for, and water replenishment must have been taking place. Such a conclusion is supported by the fact that during the period. 4 March-2 October the lake level dropped only 27 mm, although loss due to evaporation of ice at the surface amounted to 30 mm.

The foHowing sources are possible: subterranean water formed by melting of permafrost (level on 27 January, 0'46 m; on 8 February 0'08 m) ; water frcrn the lower reaches of Mt Hercules, where damp ground (but no. surface water) was observed; water from areas adjacent to the Onyx River during periods of maximum volumetric flow.

Heine (1969) attributes the small lowering of lake level in December to the initial filling of the intercrystalline voids of the surface ice which is still grounded on the lake bed. Only when all the lake ice is floating will changes of the water level recorded from the moat become indicative of total Onyx River inflow.

PRECIPITATION AND SNOW COVER

Precipitation from February to October 1969, as recorded at Vanda Station, is given in Table 2.

Snow evaporated under strong wind conditions, but accumulated and compacted under light wind conditions on the Onyx River (where there developed a O'15-m-Iayer of ice), and other depressions in the valley floor. A sustained westerly wind of 22 knots on 25 August resulted in an air temperature rise of 37'7°c (from 50'7°c to 13'OOc) over a 24 hour period. During the summer, sublimation of the snow cover was rapid.

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No.3 CUTFIELD - HYDROLOGY OF LAKE VANDA 653

TABLE 2-Monthly precipitation and snow cover recorded at Var,da Station, 1969.

Month Precipitation Uniform measurable snow cover (mm) (days)

-- _. __ .. _----

February trace March 12'7 12 April 6·4 13 May 28'5 13 June 22 ·2 5 July trace zero August 12.7 9 (19 days of trace or

September <half cover)

zero zero October 3'1

TOTAL 85·6

At times it was snowing at the east end of the Wright Valley to Bull Pass and Dais to the western end of Lake Yanda, although it was not at Vanda Station. Sometimes snow was falling at 1000 m-1330 m but not reaching the valley floor.

ICE THICKNESS AND DENSITY MEASUREMENTS

from December to February, ice thickness was measured with a graduated staff (length 3'81 m), which could be hooked under the lower ice edge. Once the moat froze over, this means of measurement could no: be used. Instead, a weighted piano wire, frozen into the ice surface, Y/as tried, but due to the friction of the ice, the wire could not be lowered or raised through it, although in sea ice the method had proven successful.

Finally, winter ice-thickness measurements were made with.an "Icometer". This instrument consists of a rope, ending with a pair of h;nged arms. lowered through a kerosene-filled rubber hose which has been frozen into the ice (Fig. 5). One icometer was installed near B.M. 1 (Fig. 1).

Four measurements, radially 90° apart, were made each time The maximum variation in such a set of measurements was 90 mm, mostly it was 12'1 mm. The difference was due to the roughness of the ice at the surface.

Ice density was calculated by b/a where a = ice thickness and b = height of water in hole above the base of ice (Fig. 6). Results are given in Table 3 and Fig 7.

Ice growth is not expected to be uniform over the entire surface: at the centre of the western end of the lake, at a further kerosene column (installed for lake temperature measurements), the increase was estimated to be 0·61 m, whereas 1-44 m was recorded at the main Icometer station (Table 3).

Geology-II

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654 N.Z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS VOL. 17

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ICE

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to measure ice thickness

TABLE 3-Ice thickness and density measurements from the !cometer station (see Fig. 1).

Ice Thickness a Water Level b Ice Density b/a Date (m) (m) (g/cm')

3 March 1·73 1·62 0·94 11 April 1·76 1·64 0·93 21 April 1·77 1·64 0·93

1 May 1·80 1·64 0·91 7 May 1·78 1·63 0·92

15 May 1·84 1·63 0·88 23 May 1·89 1·63 0·86 18 July 2·46 2·11 0·86

2 October 3·11 2·83 0·91 30 October 3·18 2·87 0·92

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No.3 CUTFIELD - HYDROLOGY OF LAKE V ANDA 6SS

FIG. 6-Calculation of ice density (see text); a=ice thick-ness, b=height of water above base of ice.

Internal diameter of hole, 112rnm

-1 1-Graduated staff

Ice surface 70.

_~YYYYYYYXXXXXX

ICE a b

ICE

--==~~ ~iiiiiZlirifillilj~

Rates of ice thickenin,'S, calculated from Table 3, were 1-S mm/day (6 March-7 May); 8-9 mm/day (7 May-2 October); 2'0 mm/day (2-30 October). Apart from temperature, ice growth is affected by the thermal conductivity of the ice of which no direct measurements were recorded.

Ice density, p, decreased from 0-94 g/cm3 in March to a minimum of 0'86 g/cm3 in May, and increased after that to 0-92 g/cm3 in late October. Some of the densities recorded were below that of pure ice (0-92 g/cm:1

at OOc), probably due to the presence of lighter impurities. A sample of lower surface ice (collected 30 October) showed a high concentration of 'frozen in' algae gas bubbles, diffusion paths clearly outlined, and upper and lower portions corresponding to old and recently formed ice.

CONCLUSIONS

From the 11 months of hydrological data available, the ice-and snow-free nature of the Wright Valley was demonstrated by the low snow precipitation (85'6 mm). During periods of southerly wind, snow was transported into the Wright Valley through gaps in the Asgard Range. An annual ablation of 140 mm would result in a complete turnover of the ice surface approximately every 25 years.

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No. 3 CUfFiELD - HYDROLOGY OF LAKE VANDA 657

Further ice thickness and Onyx River inflow measurements are necc,sary for a water budget analysis, but correlation between inflow measurements and changes in lake level indicate possible subterranean seepage into Lake Vanda. The old lake levels indicate lake Vanda was 128'9 m deep some ?)O[)O years ago, and accurate dating of these levels will provide information about the climatic history of the Dry Valley system.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This rese,lfch work was performed under the auspices of the New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and for the support of the Antarctic Divisio:1, DSIR, and logistic support of the U.S. Navy and U.S.A.R.P. personnel, I am very grateful. My sincere gratitude is also due to the members of the 1969 Vanda Station party, W. R. Lucy, R. M. Craig, A. J. Riordan, and W. 1. Johns, for their assistance and co-operation.

BULL, C.

CALKIN,

REFERENCES

B. 1<;6'): Climatological observations in ice free areas of southern Victoria Land, Antarctica. Amant;c Resea1'Ch Series Volume 9, The American Geo/1j,Jical Union: In-yd.

P. E.; BULL, C. B. 1967: Lake Vida, Victoria Valley, Antarctica. Journal of Glaciology 6 (48): 833-6.

HEINE, i\. J. 19<19: Changes in water level at Lake Vanda, Antarctica. N.Z. Journal of J\1Mine and Freshwater Research 3 (4): 591-4.

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