hydrochemistry and quality assessment of groundwater in part of noida metropolitan city, uttar...

0016-7622/2011-78-6-523/$ 1.00 © GEOL. SOC. INDIA

JOURNAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIAVol.78, December 2011, pp.523-540

Hydrochemistry and Quality Assessment of Groundwater inPart of NOIDA Metropolitan City, Uttar Pradesh

ABHAY KUMAR SINGH, B. K. TEWARY and A. SINHA

Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research)Barwa Road, Dhanbad - 826 001

Email: [email protected]

Abstract: An attempt has been made to study the groundwater geochemistry in part of the NOIDA metropolitan city andassessing the hydrogeochemical processes controlling the water composition and its suitability for drinking and irrigationuses. The analytical results show that Na and Ca are the major cations and HCO3 and Cl are the major anions in thiswater. The higher ratios of Na+K/TZ+ (0.2-0.7), Ca+Mg/HCO3 (0.8-6.1); good correlation between Ca-Mg (0.75), Ca-Na (0.77), Mg-Na (0.96); low ratio of Ca+Mg/Na+K (1.6), Ca/Na (1.03), Mg/Na (0.64), HCO3/Na (1.05) along withnegative correlation of HCO3 with Ca and Mg signify silicate weathering with limited contribution from carbonatedissolution. The hydro-geochemical study of the area reveals that many parameters are exceeding the desirable limitsand quality of the potable water has deteriorated to a large extent at many sites. High concentrations of TDS, Na, Cl,SO4, Fe, Mn, Pb and Ni indicate anthropogenic impact on groundwater quality and demand regional water qualityinvestigation and integrated water management strategy. SAR, %Na, PI and Mg-hazard values show that water is ofgood to permissible quality and can be used for irrigation. However, higher salinity and boron concentration restrict itssuitability for irrigation uses at many sites.

Keywords: Groundwater quality, TDS, SAR, RSC, Hydrogeochemistry, BGIR, NOIDA.

issue in the Indian metropolitan cities including NationalCapital Region (NCR). The area of the NCR extends over30,242 km2 and covers parts of states of Haryana, UttarPradesh, Rajasthan and union territory of Delhi. The presentstudy area is a part of NCR and located in NOIDA, at theouter fringe of Delhi. This paper deals with the hydro-geochemistry of groundwater, identification of potentialcontaminants and assessment of the suitability of water fordomestic and agricultural uses.

STUDY AREA

NOIDA (New Okhala Industrial Development Authority)is a part of the National Capital Region (NCR) of Delhi inthe river basin of Yamuna. It is located in the Gautam BudhNagar district of Uttar Pradesh, 14 km southeast of Delhi(Fig.1). NOIDA emerges as a well planned, integrated andmodern industrial city which is well connected to Delhi andother parts of North India. It is bounded in the north byNH-24 by-pass, in the east by the River Hindon, in the westby the river Yamuna, and in the south by the confluence ofthe rivers Yamuna and Hindon. The sewerage collection of

INTRODUCTION

Groundwater in India is at risk of contamination due torapid and unplanned urbanization, industrialization andindiscriminate disposal of domestic, industrial, agriculturaland mining wastes (Subramanian 2000; Kumaresan andRiyazddin 2006; Mohan et al. 2000; Kumar et al. 2006;Ramesh et al. 1995; Singh et al. 2005; Singh et al. 2007).Public ignorance of environment and related considerations,lack of provisional basic social services, indiscriminatedisposal of increasing anthropogenic wastes, unplannedapplication of agrochemicals, and discharges of improperlytreated sewage/industrial effluents; result in excessaccumulation of pollutants on the land surface andcontamination of water resources. Subsurface leaching ofcontaminants from landfills as well as seepage from canals,rivers and drains cause severe degradation of thegroundwater quality in urban areas. Adsorption/dispersionprocesses in the soil zone, degrees of evaporation/rechargeand lateral inter-mixing of groundwaters determine the levelof contaminations in groundwater.

In recent years, scarcity of clean and potable drinkingwater has emerged as the most serious developmental

JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.78, DEC. 2011

524 ABHAY KUMAR SINGH AND OTHERS

the city is mainly through existing open drains. Thedeveloped sectors of the city have an extensive sewer systemand the city generates about 70 MLD of wastewater. Out ofthis, only about 9 MLD is being treated in an oxidation pond,the rest being discharged untreated to an agricultural canalrunning through the city and ultimately reaching the riverYamuna. The present investigation is confined in and aroundthe proposed Botanical Garden of Indian Republic (BGIR).The investigation area lies between 28032’N and 28036’Nlatitudes and 77018’ and 77022’E longitudes with a meanaltitude of 190 m above mean sea level. Large water reservoirof Okhala barrage along the Yamuna River exists on thewestern side. Land use pattern around the BGIR site asdelineated through satellite imagery is given in Fig.2.

CLIMATE, PHYSIOGRAPHY AND HYDROGEOLOGY

NOIDA situated north of Tropic of Cancer experiencesa fairly hot summer and cold winter. The Himalayas in thenorth and the desert in the west influence the climate of thearea. The months of May and June are very hot and dry,while December and January are very cold. The meanmonthly temperature varies from 7.3°C in January to 39.6°Cin May. However, the temperature in summer shoots up to46°C, and in winter drops below 3°C. The average annualrainfall is approximately 797 mm, most of which (80%) fallsduring the monsoon months of July and August. It is analluvial plain, which gently slopes towards south. There aredepressions in the ground at a few places, which function aswater channels form storm water drainage.

Scale (Km)

B G I R

Study Area

Yam

una River

Fig.1. Location of the study area showing sector plan in part of the NOIDA.


HYDROCHEMISTRY AND QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF GROUNDWATER IN PART OF NOIDA METROPOLITAN CITY, U.P. 525

NOIDA is occupied by newer alluvium consisting of clayand sand mixed with gravel of medium size. Newer alluviumis underlain by older alluvium consisting of predominantlyclay and kankar mixed with fine to medium sand. Resistivitydata reveal that the area has uniform subsurface geologicalcondition and the quality of groundwater is fresh only downto 25-35 meter below which it is saline in nature (Fig.3).Groundwater occurs in unconfined to semi-confinedcondition in medium to fine sands of newer alluvium, andfine to medium sands mixed with kankar of older alluvium.Depth to phreatic zone is usually around seven meters belowground level. The river Yamuna and associated Okhalareservoir play an important role in groundwater recharge ofthe area, besides rainfall. Flood plain aquifers havehydrological connections with the aquifer of the neighboringarea. This is evident from the change in the groundwaterlevel in the area during the post-monsoon seasons. Thegroundwater level in the area is 6.93 - 9.95 m below groundlevel during pre-monsoon and 4.51-6.38 m during post-monsoon seasons. The water table is relatively shallow inthe southern and southwestern parts of the BGIR and deepin the northern and northeastern parts (Figs. 4 a and b).

Water supply in the NOIDA areas is mainly from thedistant surface sources like the Ganga River and Yamunareservoirs duly treated and from the ground water in theflood plains of the river Yamuna. There are about 25 - 30

government run deep tube wells (yielding 1600 to 1800 lpmof water) and 5 large diameter Ranney wells (yielding 5000to 6000 lpm of water) contributing 70-80% of the totaldrinking water supply of the area. Each tube well is runningon an average for 16-18 hours per day. A substantial quantityof ground water is also being withdrawn by private houses,hotels, hospitals etc. adding to officially estimatedwithdrawal of ground water. A minor quantity of water isalso withdrawn from hand operated tube wells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In order to adjudge the quality of groundwater, 14 watersamples in the post-monsoon (October) and 33 in the pre-monsoon (April-May) seasons, were collected from differenttube wells, Ranney wells (large diameter well) and handpumps during the year 2006-07 (Fig. 5). The water sampleswere collected in one-liter narrow-mouthed pre-washedpolyethylene bottles. For heavy metal analysis, 100 ml ofsamples were acidified with HNO3 and preserved separately.Temperature, electrical conductivity (EC) and pH valueswere measured in the field using a portable conductivityand pH meter. In the laboratory, the water samples werefiltered through 0.45 ìm Millipore membrane filters toseparate suspended particles. Acid titration method wasused to determine the concentration of bicarbonate (APHA

Landuse/Landcover Mapof Area in and around

Sector - 38, Noida, Utar Pradesh,India

N

EW

S

Agriculture Land

Built-up Area

Canal/Drain

Channel Island

Green Area

Open Area

Recreational Ground/Park

River Flood Plain

River/Stream

Road

Site Under Construction

LEGEND

1 0 1 2 KM

Scale

B G I R

Fig.2. The land use plan of the study area



1992). Major anions (F, Cl, SO4) were analysed on ionchromatograph (Dionex Dx-120) using anions AS12A/AG12 columns coupled to an anion self-regeneratingsuppressor (ASRS) in recycle mode. Major cations (Ca, Mg,Na, K) were also measured by ion chromatograph by usingcation column (CS12A/CS12G) and cation self-regeneratingsuppressor (CSRS) in recycle mode. The analytical precisionwas maintained by running a known standard after every 10samples. An overall precision, expressed as percent relativestandard deviation (RSD), was achieved below 10% for theentire samples. Concentrations of heavy metals in watersamples were determined by ICP-MS (Perkin Elmer). Theaccuracy of the analysis was checked by analyzing NIST1643b water reference standard. The precision obtained inmost cases was better than 5% RSD with comparableaccuracy.

The parameters like percentage sodium (%Na), residualsodium carbonate (RSC), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR),permeability index (PI) and magnesium hazard (MH) werecomputed by the following equations to assess the suitabilityof water for irrigation uses:

i %Na = Na+K/(Ca+Mg+Na+K) x 100ii RSC = (CO3 + HCO3) – (Ca + Mg)

iii SAR = Na/[(Ca+Mg)/2]0.5

iv PI = (Na + vHCO3)/(Ca+Mg+Na) x 100v MH = Mg/(Ca+Mg) x 100

(All ionic concentrations used for calculation areexpressed in epm)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Hydrochemistry

The results of the geochemical analysis of ground watersin the post and pre-monsoon seasons are given in Tables 1and 2 respectively. The water temperature in groundwatersamples measured during the field collection varied in therange of 23-290C during pre-monsoon and 18-220C in thepost-monsoon. The mean water temperature based on bothseason samples is 240C for the entire area. The pH of theanalysed samples is of the order of 7.10-7.61 (average 7.40)during the post-monsoon and 7.13-7.88 (average 7.59) inthe pre-monsoon months, indicating alkaline nature of thewater. The electrical conductivity (EC) values varied from662 μS cm-1 to 3250 μS cm-1 for post-monsoon and 589 to3930 μS cm-1 for pre-monsoon seasons. The EC contoursfor pre-monsoon season show that the electrical conductivityvalues of groundwater are relatively lower along the riverside in the southern and northwestern parts, and high valuesin the eastern and northeastern parts (Fig. 6). The spatialvariation in the EC values may reflect the wide variation inthe activities and processes prevailing in the region anddilution effects due to recharging of groundwater from theYamuna River and the Okhala Barrage reservoir. The totaldissolved solid (TDS) concentration varies between 504 and2678 mg l-1 (average 1380 mg l-1) during the post-monsoonand 507 and 2949 mg l-1 (average 1408 mg l-1) in the pre-monsoon seasons. A high value of TDS has been observedat site W-3, W-7, W-19, W-29 and W-32 during pre-monsoon

Fig.3. Expected lithologs of the area based on resistivity investigation.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

Surface soilFine sand with clay

Sandy clay

Clay with fine to medium cla

Fine clay

Sandy clay with kankar

Medium to fine sand

Fine sand

Fine sand with clay

Sticky clayD

epth

bel

ow g

rou

nd lev

el (in

met

ers)

Depth below

ground level

(m)

Lithology Expected

quality

Apparent

Resistivity

(Ohm m))

0 – 3 Surface Soil - 65

3 - 10 Fine sand with clay Potable 60

10 - 20 Sandy clay Potable 32

20 - 35 Clay with medium to

fine sand

Potable to

Marginally

saline

22

35 - 50 Fine clay with

kankar

Marginally

saline 18

50 - 70 Sandy clay with

kankar Saline 15

70 - 90 Medium to fine sand Saline 12

90 - 110 Fine sand Saline 14

110 - 130 Fine sand with clay

and kankar Saline 8

130 - 150 Sticky clay Saline 6

Clay with medium to fine

sand

Fine clay with kankar

Fine sand with clay and

kankar



and at W-1, W-29 and W-33 in post-monsoon seasons.Observed high values of TDS at these sites may be attributedto infiltration from the sewage canals, unprotected drainagesand industrial wastes.

The anion chemistry of the analysed samples shows thatHCO3, Cl and SO4 are the dominant ions both in pre andpost monsoon seasons. The concentration of bicarbonatevaries in the range of 243 mg l-1 to 522 mg l-1 in the post-monsoon, and 195 to 628 mg l-1 during pre-monsoon periods.HCO3 contributes on an average 41% to the total anions inequivalent unit. Bicarbonates are derived mainly from theneutralization of CO2, originated either by adsorption fromthe atmosphere or from the decomposition of organic matter

in the recharge area. Reaction of carbonic acid with thecarbonate and/or silicate minerals may also releasebicarbonates in the solution. Chloride is present in lowerconcentrations in common rock types than any of the othermajor constituents of natural water. However, abnormalconcentration of chloride may result from anthropogenicsources including agricultural runoff, domestic and industrialwastes and leaching of saline residues in the soil (Appeloand Postma, 1993). The chloride concentration in theanalysed samples varies from 21 to 713 mg l-1 in post-monsoon, and 24 to 970 mg l-1 in pre-monsoon seasons. Onan average chloride is contributing 37% of the total anionicbalance. The spatial distribution of Cl concentration showsrelatively higher values at sites W-1, W-2, W-3, W-7, W-29,W-30, W-31 and W-32 (Fig. 7). The large lateral variationand observed high concentration of chloride in somesubsurface waters indicate local recharge and may beattributed to the contamination by untreated industrial anddomestic waste effluents from nearby areas.

The concentration of sulphate varies from 16 to 748 mgl-1 (average 276 mg l-1) in post-monsoon and between 11 to837 mg l-1 (average 261 mg l-1) in pre-monsoon seasons.Sulphate is contributing on an average 22% (2-45%) to thetotal anions. The contour pattern of SO4 resembles thatof Cl and shows higher concentration at sites W-3, W-7,

La

titu

de

Longitude

Pre-monsoon

28 32'0

77 18'0 77 22'

0

28 36'0

28 34'0

77 20'0

B G I R

Lati

tud

e

Longitude

Post-monsoon

28 32'0

77 18'0 77 22'

0

28 36'0

28 34'0

77 20'0

B G I R

a

b

Fig.4. Depth to water contours (meters below ground level) for(a) pre-monsoon and (b) post-monsoon season.

Fig.5. Water sampling sites for quality assessment

770 18’

280

36’

770 22’

280

32’

0 1 2 Km


528 ABHAY KUMAR SINGH AND OTHERSTa

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W-19, W-29, W-31, W-32 (Fig. 8). The concentration offluoride varies in the range of 0.17–2.30 in pre-monsoonand 0.40-1.50 during post-monsoon seasons. Relativelyhigher concentration of fluoride is noticed at sites W-17,W-19, W-20 and W-22. Such a higher concentration maybe attributed to the percolation of phosphatic fertilizersfrom the irrigational runoff from the nearby lands. Dischargeof domestic waters and the wastes from the surroundingindustries can also increase the fluoride values.

The cationic chemistry is dominated by sodium andcalcium. The concentration of sodium in the post-monsoon

Tab

le 2

. Che

mic

al a

naly

sis

data

of

grou

nd w

ater

in p

arts

of

NO

IDA

are

a du

ring

pos

t–m

onso

on s

easo

n

Sam

p.Sa

mpl

epH

EC

TD

SF

Cl

HC

O3

SO4

Ca

Mg

Na

KT

H%

Na

RS

CM

HSA

RPI

CIA

Cod

eS

ite

W-1

Sect

or-3

8A7.

1026

3022

571.

4059

129

774

824

710

425

711

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4435

.4-5

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41.0

3.45

41.7

0.31

W-3

Sect

or-3

8A7.

1125

8018

560.

7560

824

840

920

098

284

8.6

903

41.1

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144

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1247

.30.

27

W-7

Sect

or -

447.

5925

9018

590.

6061

224

342

219

893

282

8.9

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143

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1547

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28

W-8

Sect

or-4

47.

5489

377

20.

7510

339

431

137

3369

5.6

477

24.8

1.67

28.4

1.37

44.2

-0.0

8

W-1

3Se

ctor

-16

7.21

662

519

1.50

5727

418

7519

658.

526

536

.61.

8429

.11.

7560

.0-0

.89

W-1

5Se

ctor

-16

A7.

6171

166

60.

8532

398

3810

235

556.

039

824

.32.

5435

.81.

2149

.4-1

.85

W-1

6Se

ctor

-15A

7.56

664

665

0.70

2143

816

101

3648

5.7

397

22.0

3.19

36.8

1.05

47.6

-2.8

9

W-1

7Se

ctor

-15

7.33

760

630

0.90

6632

338

9626

728.

534

732

.71.

8230

.91.

6954

.4-0

.80

W-2

4Se

ctor

-19

7.38

1525

1382

0.75

158

522

271

146

7420

37.

766

740

.31.

8545

.53.

4253

.0-1

.02

W-2

8Se

ctor

-27

7.44

1281

1056

1.10

165

412

162

8642

183

6.3

387

51.2

2.86

44.6

4.05

67.3

-0.7

4

W-3

4Se

ctor

-27

7.40

1761

1049

0.44

279

407

1710

249

188

6.8

456

47.8

2.09

44.2

3.83

62.2

-0.0

6

W-3

5Se

ctor

-18

7.53

2380

1817

0.70

409

376

451

137

7136

67.

063

455

.9-0

.21

46.0

6.32

64.3

-0.4

0

W-2

9Se

ctor

-29

7.36

3250

2678

0.55

713

372

698

530

131

224

11.0

1865

21.2

-12.

629

.02.

2526

.00.

50

W-3

3Se

ctor

-19

7.40

2910

2085

0.40

543

252

542

208

115

414

10.8

993

48.0

-5.8

547

.75.

7253

.0-0

.20

Uni

ts:

Ioni

c co

ncen

trat

ions

in m

g l-1

, exc

ept p

H, E

C (

mS

cm-1

), S

AR

(m

eq l-1

), R

SC (

meq

l-1),

PI

(meq

l-1),

CIA

(m

eq l-1

) an

d M

H (

%).

MH

=M

agne

sium

Haz

ard,

RSC

=R

esid

ual s

odiu

mca

rbon

ate,

SA

R: S

odiu

m a

dsor

ptio

n ra

tio, P

I =

Per

mea

bilit

y in

dex,

CIA

: Chl

oro-

alka

line

indi

ces,

TH

: Tot

al H

ardn

ess

Lati

tud

eLongitude

Electrical Conductivty

28 32'0

77 18'0 77 22'

0

28 36'0

28 34'0

77 20'0

B G I R

Lati

tud

e

Longitude

Chloride

28 32'0

77 18'0 77 22'

0

28 36'0

28 34'0

77 20'0

B G I R

Fig. 6. Spatial distribution of electrical conductivity (μS cm-1).

Fig.7. Concentration contours (mg l-1) for chloride (Cl) in thegroundwater.



samples was reported in the range of 48 mg l-1 to 414 mg l-1

with an average value of 192 mg l-1. The concentration ofthe same ion in the pre-monsoon varies from a minimumvalue of 40 mg l-1 to a maximum of 496 mg l-1. On an average,sodium accounts for 40% (21-71%) of the total cations(TZ+). The contour plot for sodium concentration showsrelatively low concentration along the river stretches andnear the reservoirs in the south and western parts, and higherconcentration towards the north and northeastern sides(Fig.9). In cationic abundance, sodium is followed by

calcium (35%), magnesium (23%) and potassium (1.3%) inthe order of Na>Ca>Mg>K.

To understand the spatial control of major ionconcentrations, the relationship between TDS and majorcations and anions are depicted in Fig.10. In general, ionconcentration tends to increase with increasing TDS exceptfor K and to some extent HCO3. It can be seen that thehighest correlation has been found between Cl and TDS(0.98), the correlation coefficients for other constituents suchas Mg (0.96), Na (0.96), SO4 (0.94), Ca (0.84) and K (0.34)with TDS reduce progressively (Table 3). This indicatesproportionately lesser contribution of these constituentstowards polluting the groundwater. Bicarbonate is negativelycorrelated with TDS at higher ionic concentration, indicatingdecreasing lithogenic and increasing anthropogeniccontribution at higher concentration.

Heavy Metal Concentration

Table 4 shows concentration of 13 heavy metals analysedin the 30 groundwater samples collected during pre-monsoonseason. It is evident from the table that concentrations ofZn, Cu, Cr, Cd, As, Se, and Co are found below the desirablelimits for drinking water with a few exceptions. However,concentrations of Fe, Mn, Pb, Al, Ni, and B at many sitesare found above the desirable limit of drinking waterspecified by WHO (1993) and Indian standard (BIS 1991).In the water samples studied, the amount of iron (Fe) rangesfrom 329 μg l-1 to 944 μg l-1. The concentration of Fe exceedsthe desirable limit of 300 μg l-1 at all sites, however it isbelow the maximum permissible limit of 1000 μg l-1. Ironin normal groundwater is mostly in the form of inorganiccomplexes derived from laterites and other types of soils.Excess of Fe would be mostly accumulated and dischargedthrough the industrial effluents. Manganese (Mn) is similarto iron in its chemical behavior and frequently found inassociation with Fe. The results of this study reveal thatthe concentration of Mn exceeded the permissible limit of

Lati

tud

e

Longitude

Sulphate

28 32'0

77 18'0 77 22'

0

28 36'0

28 34'

77 20'0

B G I R

La

titu

de

Longitude

Sodium

28 32'0

77 18'0 77 22

0

28 36'0

28 34'0

77 20'0

B G I R

Fig.8. Concentration contours (mg l-1) for sulphate (SO4) in thegroundwater

Table 3. Correlation matrix of dissolved ions (n = 47)

pH EC TDS F Cl HCO3 SO4 Ca Mg Na

EC -0.46 -

TDS -0.53 0.98 -

F 0.15 -0.25 -0.30 -

Cl -0.51 0.97 0.98 -0.34 -

HCO3 0.05 -0.29 -0.32 0.00 -0.45 -

SO4 -0.53 0.88 0.94 -0.24 0.95 -0.59 -

Ca -0.43 0.80 0.84 -0.30 0.77 -0.07 0.74 -

Mg -0.34 0.96 0.96 -0.16 0.95 -0.44 0.92 0.75 -

Na -0.38 0.98 0.96 -0.20 0.92 -0.23 0.84 0.77 0.96 -

K -0.58 0.36 0.34 -0.33 0.29 0.33 0.17 0.35 0.16 0.30

Fig.9. Concentration contours (mg l-1) for sodium (Na) in thegroundwater



Fig.10. Relationship between TDS and major cations (Ca, Mg, Na and K) and anions (HCO3, Cl, SO4)



300 μg l-1 at ten sampling sites. Lead (Pb) in drinking wateris derived primarily from corrosion of materials containinglead and copper in the distribution systems, and from leadand copper plumbing materials. Anthropogenic sources oflead included mining, milling and smelting of lead and metalsassociated with Pb, such as Zn, Cu, As, and combustion offossil fuels and municipal wastes. Commercial products thatare major sources of lead pollution include lead-acid storagebatteries, electroplating, construction materials, ceramicsand dyes, radiation shielding, paints, glassware, roofing andgasolines. The amount of lead was detected in the range of39 to 531 μg l-1 and the concentration of Pb is exceedingthe Indian permissible limits of 50 μg l-1 in 90% of thesamples. The amount of highly toxic metals, cadmium (Cd)and arsenic (As) are found well within the prescribed limitsexcept at sites W11 and W22; and W2, W16 and W28respectively. Acute exposure of Cd and As can causenausea, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle cramps, salivation,sensory disturbances, liver injury, renal failure and kidneydisease. Long-term exposure to inorganic As may cause

darkening of the skin and the appearance of small warts onthe palms, soles and torso. Ingesting arsenic increases therisk of skin cancer and tumors of the bladder, kidney, liverand lung (Weiner 2000). Concentration of boron varies from999 μg l-1 to 1515 μg l-1, exceeding desirable limit of drinkingwater (1000 μg l-1) in 99% of the samples. The naturalsources of boron are saline water and evaporite depositswith non-natural sources being fertilizer, pesticides andwashing powder.

Thus, groundwater of the study area has concentrationsof some heavy metals present above the desirable levelsrecommended for the drinking water by the Bureau of IndianStandard (BIS 1991) and World Health Organisation (WHO1993). Presence of higher concentration of heavy metalswould expose the population to health hazards. Thegroundwater, which shows a higher amount of heavy metals,occurs in the proximity of natural drains, sewage canals andindustrial units. Most of these industrial units use thesemetals in the manufacturing processes and discharges theireffluents into the ground without proper treatment. This

Table 4 Heavy metal contents in ground water in parts of NOIDA Area (April 2006)

Sample B Al Cr Mn Fe Ni Co Cu Zn As Se Cd Pbcode

W-1 1161 287 8.7 207 555 15.0 0.65 69 189 14 4.5 0.68 56W-2 1004 2920 19.0 529 944 85.7 2.19 204 2683 119 7.2 5.28 144W-3 1087 330 9.3 90 605 12.2 0.62 50 206 18 6.6 0.59 39W-6 1143 388 10.8 111 858 BDL 0.74 61 251 23 6.7 BDL 42W-7 1335 231 10.4 100 629 20.1 0.82 65 450 15 5.5 2.32 119W-8 1103 243 9.6 1342 589 14.1 0.9 50 244 14 3.9 0.79 51W-9 1138 250 8.8 468 757 BDL 0.8 76 174 25 2.8 BDL 143W-10 1279 248 8.0 129 700 BDL 0.54 85 154 24 1.9 2.00 137W-11 1031 771 14.9 21 452 5.5 0.65 94 337 31 1.8 20.45 531W-12 1107 266 10.2 15 438 25.6 0.64 69 268 17 3.0 1.73 107W-13 1093 571 19.7 1014 517 28.4 0.76 64 214 19 1.9 3.32 141W-14 1078 176 7.3 147 329 8.9 0.39 42 652 18 2.3 2.28 102W-15 1014 403 16.0 620 509 22.6 0.78 54 222 45 1.8 2.12 162W-16 1204 408 18.8 449 826 7.4 0.91 88 219 47 1.8 2.52 99W-17 1054 250 10.7 389 452 20.3 0.7 55 237 46 2.2 1.44 89W-18 999 361 13.2 348 425 23.4 0.78 82 696 44 2.0 8.37 297W-19 1253 167 7.8 10 366 8.5 0.37 53 91 3 3.1 1.60 87W-20 1210 463 10.6 181 576 18.9 0.68 94 323 15 3.0 2.96 120W-21 1170 216 8.8 34 480 11.9 0.52 69 1054 12 2.2 1.36 84W-22 1290 745 11.5 236 520 25.8 0.79 113 285 22 3.7 24.17 515W-23 1053 177 9.4 166 450 10.7 0.75 54 183 9 2.0 1.98 89W-24 1515 181 8.0 26 447 14.2 0.57 102 438 11 2.2 2.11 136W-25 1368 356 14.2 102 676 3.7 0.86 65 383 49 3.6 5.19 154W-26 1155 392 8.4 336 476 21.6 0.71 53 428 44 3.2 2.27 150W-27 1020 320 11.0 41 492 35.5 0.95 85 315 28 2.7 2.13 128W-28 1288 470 9.2 45 574 0.3 0.72 83 1133 86 1.9 BDL 196W-30 1023 213 8.9 367 435 15.0 1.26 58 570 10 3.9 1.34 91W-31 1052 377 16.8 14 517 25.2 0.65 143 148 20 4.0 5.76 146W-32 1122 354 13.9 11 546 13.2 0.68 55 222 9 4.6 0.90 93W-33 1134 222 8.3 180 503 BDL 0.66 65 224 8 1.8 2.03 133

Units: Concentration in μg l-1BDL: Below Detection Limit



conscious or unconscious negligence of the industrialmanagement has probably contributed to the increase in theconcentration of the heavy metals. The polluted effluentdischarged by the industries enters the surface water andmigrates to subsurface aquifer either through joints, fracturesand soil layers or through chemical weathering. Highlyvariable pH of industrial effluents causes reactions with soilsand sands, and leads to the liberation of heavy metals intothe hydrological system, increasing the level of pollution inthe groundwater.

Weathering and Solute Acquisition Processes

Weathering and ion exchange processes besides inputsfrom the anthropogenic sources, are the major soluteacquisition mechanism controlling concentration of chemicalconstituents in the ground water. The relative proportion ofthe various dissolved ions in the water depends on theirabundance in the host rocks/aquifer and its solubility (Sarinet al. 1989, Singh and Hasnain 1999). The ion exchangebetween the groundwater and its host environment duringresidence or in movement processes can be understood bychloro-alkaline indices, also known as Schoeller index(Schoeller 1977) and expressed as:

CAI = Cl - (Na+K)/Cl

The choloroalkaline indices (CAI) can be either positiveor negative depending on whether exchange of Na and K isfrom water with Mg and Ca in rock/soil or vice versa. If Naand K are exchanged in water with Mg and Ca, the value ofthe ratio will be positive, indicating a base exchangephenomenon. The negative values of the ratio will indicatechloroalkaline disequilibrium and the reaction as a cation-anion exchange reaction. In the present case, the majorityof the groundwater samples (78%), shows negative Schoellerindex indicating cation-anion exchange reactions. About22% of the water samples have positive values indicating abase exchange reaction (Tables 1 and 2).

The sources of the dissolved constituents in ground watercan also be evaluated from the relative abundance ofindividual ions and inter-elemental correlation. The plot of(Ca+Mg) vs (HCO3+SO4) will be close to 1:1 line in caseof dissolution of calcite, dolomite and gypsum. Ion exchangetends to shift the plotted points towards right due to a largeexcess of (HCO3+SO4) and towards the left in case of reverseion exchange and dominance of (Ca+Mg) over (HCO3+SO4)(Cerling et al. 1989; Fisher and Mulican 1997). The plot of(Ca+Mg) vs (SO4+HCO3) for pre- and post-monsoonsamples shows that majority of the groundwater samplesfalls above the equiline indicating reverse ion exchange, butat the lower concentration the plotted points fall below

equiline signifying the dominance of ion exchange process(Fig. 11a).

The plot of (Ca+Mg) vs HCO3 marks the upper limit ofcontribution from carbonate weathering. The plot for thepresent study site shows that the plotted points fall wellabove the equiline and concentration of (Ca+Mg) varyindependently of HCO3 suggesting that a large fraction of(Ca+Mg) are derived from non-carbonate source and to bebalanced by some other anions like SO4 and Cl (Fig. 11b).The plot of (Cl+SO4) vs HCO3 also depicts the dominanceof (Cl+SO4) over HCO3 throughout the data range (Fig. 11c).Further, plot of (Ca+Mg) vs Total cations (TZ+) shows thatplotted points approach 1:1 equiline at lower concentration,but it deviated from the equilne at higher concentrationindicating increasing contribution of Na and K at higherconcentration (Fig. 11d). The higher ratio of Na+K/TZ+

(0.2-0.7), Ca+Mg/HCO3 (0.8-6.1), good correlation betweenCa-Mg (0.75), Ca-Na (0.77), Mg-Na (0.96), low ratio ofCa+Mg/Na+K (1.6), Ca/Na (1.03), Mg/Na (0.64), HCO3/Na (1.05) along with negative correlation of HCO3 withCa and Mg signify the limited contribution form carbonateweathering (Sarin et al. 1989; Singh et al. 2005, 2007). Thusgroundwater data of the study area suggest that weatheringof alumino-silicate minerals like plagioclase, mica,amphiboles, pyroxenes etc. are major lithogenic contributorfor Na, K, Ca, Mg, and HCO3 along with minor addition ofCa, Mg and HCO3 from dissolution of carbonates.

High concentration of SO4 in combination with highlevels of Ca and Mg in groundwater may be explained bythe weathering of reduced pyrites and gypsum dissolution.In general, high sulphate concentrations may be derivedeither by sulphide or SO4 weathering (Dalai et al. 2002;Stallard & Edmond 1987). Thus, gypsum dissolution andpyrite weathering may both have contributed to the SO4 loadof the ground water. The observed high concentration ofsulphate in combination with good correlation of SO4–Mg(0.92), SO4-Ca (0.74) and SO4-Na (0.84) suggest theirsimilar sources from the dissolution of rock forming mineralsin presence of sulphuric acid. The presence of gypsum inthe alluvium of the area probably provides protons forweathering of silicate and carbonate minerals. However inthe majority of the samples, concentration of SO4 exceedCa contents (average Ca/SO4 = 3.5) and its positivecorrelation with Na and Mg suggests presence of some extrasource of SO4.

To assess bonding affinity of Na+K and Cl, the variationdiagram between Na+K vs Cl were plotted and given inFig.11e. The majority of the plotted points lie above theequi concentration line indicating additional source ofNa and K from weathering of silicate minerals. As Cl



would normally tend to prefer to be associated with alkalies(Na and K) rather than alkaline earth (Ca and Mg), it maybe inferred that Cl may have been consumed in the formationof alkali chlorides and some extra alkalis may also beassociated in forming alkali bicarbonates and alkalisulphates. The high Na and Cl contents detected in certainsamples suggest the dissolution of chloride salts. Thedissolution of halite in water releases equal concentration

of Na and Cl into the solution. There was high correlationbetween Cl and Na (0.92). A parallel enrichment in both theions indicates the dissolution of chloride salts or re-concentration processes by evaporation.

To evaluate the hydrochemistry of the waters, theequilibrium partial pressure of CO2 (PCO2)and the saturationindices for calcite (SIc) and dolomite (SId) were calculated.The saturation indices describe quantitatively the deviation

0 9000 18000 27000 36000 45000

Cl + SO (μeq/l)

0

4000

8000

12000

16000

20000

24000

HC

O

(μe

q/l)

HC

O =

Cl +

SO

0 7000 14000 21000 28000

Cl (μeq/l)

0

7000

14000

21000

28000

Na

+ K

(μ

eq

/l)

0 7000 14000 21000 28000 35000

HCO + SO (μeq/l)

0

7000

14000

21000

28000

35000C

a +

Mg

(μ

eq

/l)

3 4

4

3

3

4

0 7000 14000 21000 28000 35000

HCO (μeq/l)

0

7000

14000

21000

28000

35000

Ca

+ M

g (

μe

q/l)

3

0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000

Total Cation (μeq/l)

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

Ca

+ M

g (

μe

q/l)

c

a d

b e

PremonsoonPostmonsoon

Fig.11. Variation diagrams (a) (Ca + Mg) vs (HCO3 + SO4), (b) (Ca + Mg) vs (HCO3), (c) HCO3 vs (Cl + SO4), (d) (Ca + Mg) vs TotalCations (TZ+) and (e) (Na + K) Vs Cl



of water from equilibrium with respect to dissolved minerals.If the water is exactly saturated with the dissolved minerals,SI will be zero; positive values of SI indicate saturation andnegative ones denote under-saturation condition (Appeloand Postma, 1993; Singh and Hasnain 2002). The SIc vs SId

plot shows that all water samples were oversaturated withrespect to dolomite and calcite, suggesting that thesecarbonate mineral phases may have influenced the chemicalcomposition of water in the study area (Fig.12). This alsoindicates that the waters are likely to precipitate as carbonatephase, signifying the presence kankar (calcareous nodule)in the geological formation of the area. The average PCO2

value varied from -2.53 to -1.27 (average -1.95)atmospheres, much higher than the atmospheric PCO2 (-3.5).Such elevated values of PCO2 suggest that the groundwatersystem is open to soil CO2. Since the PCO2 values in soilzones are very high, there is possibility of degassing of CO2

during flow, which can increase the pH and subsequentlyresult in the oversaturation of calcite.

Geochemical Evolution and Hydrochemical Facies

The evolution of groundwater and chemical relationshipbetween dissolved ions may also be evaluated by plottingthe data on Piper (1944) trilinear diagram. The trilineardiagram reveals that the majority of the water samples fallin the areas of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 9 indicating chemicalcharacter of the water (Fig. 13). Water falling in the region1 is significantly dominated by the alkaline earths (Ca andMg) over the alkalis (Na and K). About 15% of the samplesfall in the region 2 indicating dominance of alkalies overalkaline earth. Most of the water samples having high ECand TDS values, fall in the field 4 of the central diamondshaped field indicating that strong acids (SO4+Cl) exceed

the weak acids (HCO3). Weak acids are dominant in about32% of the samples and fall in the field 3 of the trilinearplot. Majority of the samples (30%) having carbonatehardness as indicated by secondary alkalinity (Field 5) andabout 13% samples have non-carbonate alkali (primarysalinity) and fall in the field 7. However, numbers of thesamples (42%) indicate an intermediate (mixed) chemicalcharacter, in the middle portion of the diamond shaped field(Field 9). The facies mapping approach applied to the presentstudy shows that Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl-SO4 and Ca-Na-Cl-SO4-HCO3 are the dominant hydrochemical facies (Back, 1961).

Water Quality Assessments

The data obtained by chemical analyses were evaluatedin terms of its suitability for drinking and irrigation uses.

Suitability for Drinking and General Domestic Uses

To assess the suitability for drinking and public healthpurposes, the hydrochemical parameters of the groundwaterof the study area were compared with the specifications ofWHO (1993) and Bureau of Indian standards for drinkingwater (BIS 1991) as given in Table 5. Most of the watersamples of the study area are not suitable for direct uses fordrinking and domestic purposes. Carroll (1962) proposedfour classes of water based on TDS concentration asfresh (0-1000 mg l-1), brackish (1000-10000 mg l-1), saline(10000-100000 mg l-1) and brine water (100000 mg l-1).TDS values of the analysed water samples fall in thecategory of fresh and brackish water. Water with TDS

Fig.12. Piper’s trilinear diagram showing the relationship betweendissolved ions.

-2 -1 0 1 2 3SI Calcite

-4

-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

SI D

olo

mite

Ca

lcite

Ca

lcite

DolomiteDolomite

SaturationUndersaturation

Un

ders

atu

ration

Satu

ratio

n

PremonsoonPostmonsoon

Fig.13. Plot of saturation indices (SI) for Calcite (SIc) Vs Dolomite(SId).

Ca Cl

1

2 3

45

6

7

8

9

9

Pre-monsoon

Post-monsoon

p p p yp



less than 500 mg l-1 is considered good for drinkingpurposes and water with more than 1000 mg l-1 is consideredunsafe for use. In the present study area, 66% of samplesexceeded the permissible limit of 1000 mg l-1 (WHO,1993).

Hardness of the water is the property attributed to thepresence of alkaline earths. Hardness defined as theconcentration of multivalent metallic cations in solution. Onthe basis of hardness, water can be classified in to soft (>75mg l-1), moderately hard (75-150 mg l-1), hard (150-300 mgl-1) and very hard (>300 mg l-1) categories. The total hardness(TH) of the analysed water samples vary from 257 to 1865mg l-1 (avg. 692 mg l-1) in the post-monsoon and 243 to1169 mg l-1 (avg. 609 mg l-1) in the pre-monsoon periods,indicating hard to very hard types of water. The data indicatethat 46% of the analysed samples have TH values higherthan 600 mg l-1, which is the maximum permissible limit(BIS 1991). Hardness has no known adverse effect on health,but it can prevent formation of lather with soap and increasesthe boiling point of the water. The high TH may causeencrustation on water supply distribution systems, water

heater, boilers and cooking utensils. There is some suggestiveevidence that long term consumption of extremely hard watermight lead to an increased incidence of urolithiasis andcardiovascular disorders (Durvey et al. 1991). The very hardwater requires softening for household or commercial use.The main advantages in limiting hardness levels (bysoftening water) are economical e.g. less soap requirementsin domestic and industrial cleaning, and less scale formationin pipes and boilers. Water treatment by reverse osmosisoften requires water softening pretreatment to prevent scaleformation on RO membranes.

Calcium and magnesium are essential nutrients for plantsand animals, as also essential for bone, nervous system andcell development. Ca and Mg are the main contributorstowards hardness. In general, the presence of Ca and Mg inwater are beneficial and no limits on Ca and Mg have beenprescribed for protection of human and aquatic health. Caand Mg in drinking water may provide nutritional benefitsfor the people. One possible adverse effect from ingestinghigh concentration of Ca for long periods of time may be anincreased risk of kidney stones. Concentrations of Ca and

Table 5 Range in values of chemical parameters in waters of the study area and WHO (1993) and IndianStandards (IS:10500) for drinking water

Parameter Concentration Range WHO (1993) BIS (1991) IS:10500

Pre-Monsoon Post-Monsoon Maximum HighestDesirable Permissible

Major ions (mg l-1, except EC in mS cm-1 and pH)

pH 7.13 – 7.88 7.10 – 7.61 7.0-9.5 6.5-8.5 No relaxationEC 589 – 3930 662 – 3250 - - -TDS 507 – 2949 504 – 2678 1200 500 2000Ca 55 – 269 72 – 530 - 75 200Mg 18 – 137 19 – 131 - 30 100Na 40 – 496 48 – 414 200 - -K 5.2 – 35 5.6 – 11.0 - - -HCO3 195 – 628 243 – 522 - 200 600SO4 11 – 837 16 – 748 250 200 400Cl 24 – 970 21 – 713 250 250 1000F 0.15 – 2.30 0.40 – 1.50 1.5 1.0 1.5TH 243 – 1169 265 – 1865 500 300 600

Heavy/Trace Metals (μg l-1)

B 999 – 1515 300 1000 5000Al 167 – 2920 200 30 200Cr 7.3 – 19.7 50 50 No relaxationMn 10 – 1342 500 100 300Fe 329 – 944 300 300 1000Ni BDL – 85.7 20 - -Co 04 – 2.2 - - -Cu 42 - 204 2000 50 1500Zn 91 – 2683 4000 5000 15000As 3 – 119 10 50 No relaxationSe 1.8 – 7.2 10 10 No relaxationCd BDL – 24.2 3.0 10 No relaxationPb 39 – 531 10 50 No relaxation



Mg are exceeding the Indian prescribed limits of 200 and100 mg l-1 in 19% and 17% samples respectively. The tastethreshold concentration of Na in water depends on theassociation of anion and the temperature. At roomtemperature the recommended limit for sodiumconcentration in drinking water is 200 mg l-1. Concentrationsof sodium are exceeding the prescribed limit of 200 mg l-1

in 55% of the analysed groundwater samples.The content of HCO3 and Cl have no known adverse

health effects, however it should not exceed the safe limitsof 300 mg l-1 and 250 mg l-1 respectively in drinking water.The analytical data show that HCO3 exceeds the safe limitsin about 72% and Cl in 47% of the samples. Higherconcentration of Cl in drinking water gives a salty test andhas a laxative effect in people not accustomed to it.Concentrations of SO4 and F also exceed the desirable limitsof 200 mg l-1 and 1.0 mg l-1 respectively in some 55% and31% of the water samples, restricting its direct use fordrinking purposes. High sulphate concentration may alsohave a laxative effect with excess of Mg in water. Waterswith about 200-400 mg l-1 of sulphate have bitter taste andthose with 1000 mg l-1 or more of SO4 may cause intestinaldisorder and respiratory problems (Maiti 1982; Subba 1993).Sulphate may also cause corrosion of metals in thedistribution system, particularly in water having lowalkalinity. Sulphate also causes odor and corrosion of sewerin anaerobic conditions, because it gets converted tohydrogen sulphide.

In general, violation of WHO drinking water standardsin respect of TDS, SO4, F, Na, Cl and TH have beenevident in over 25-40% of the samples. The heavy metalanalysis shows that in a few groundwater samplesconcentrations of some heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Pb, B andAl) were present well above the desirable levels for thedrinking water (BIS 1991). Concentrations of Cr, As, Seand Cd are found well within the threshold values with someexception.

Suitability for Irrigation Uses

The parameters like total salt concentration (EC), sodiumpercentage (Na%), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), totaldissolved solids (TDS), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR),permeability index (PI), magnesium hazard (MH) and boroncontents are important in assessing the suitability of waterfor irrigation (Ayers and Wascot 1985). These parameterswere determined and furnished in Tables 1 and 2 anddiscussed in following paragraphs:

Electrical conductivity (EC) and Sodium Percentage (Na%)

Electrical conductivity (EC) and sodium concentration

are very important parameters in classifying irrigation water.Water used for irrigation always contains measurablequantities of dissolved substances as salts. They includerelatively small but significant amount of dissolved solidsoriginating from the weathering of the rocks and soils, andfrom the dissolving lime, gypsum and other salt sources aswater flows over or percolate through them. The salts,besides affecting the growth of the plants directly, also affectsoil structure, permeability and aeration, which indirectlyaffect plant growth. The sodium percentage (Na%) in thewater samples of sub-surface water were calculated andgiven in Tables 1 and 2.

The sodium percentage (Na%) in the study area is in theranges of 21.2–55.9% (avg. 37.1%) in post-monsoon and22.7–71.5% (avg. 43.1%) in pre-monsoon water samples.High Na% causes deflocculation and impairment of thepermeability of soils (Karanth 1987). As per the Bureau ofIndian Standards (BIS 1991), maximum sodium of 60% isrecommended for irrigation water. Plot of analytical dataon Wilcox (1955) diagram relating electrical conductivityto sodium percent shows that Na% are within therecommended values, and in general water is of good topermissible quality, which may be used for irrigationpurposes. However, about 42% of the water samples havehigh EC values making it doubtful to unsuitable for irrigationuse (Fig. 14).

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

Electrical Conductivity (EC) μS/cm

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Perc

en

t S

od

ium

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40Total Concentration (meq/l)

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issib

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utfu

l to

un

su

ita

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Permissible to doutful

Unsuitable

Doutful to unsuitable

Un

suta

ible

Pre-monsoon

Post monsoon

Fig.14. Plot of sodium percent Vs electrical conductivity (afterWilcox 1955)

Permissible to doubtful

Doubtful to unsuitable



Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC)

The quantity of bicarbonate and carbonate in excess ofalkaline earths (Ca+Mg) also influence the suitability ofwater for irrigation purposes. When the sum of carbonatesand bicarbonates is in excess of calcium and magnesium,there may be possibility of complete precipitation of Ca andMg (Karanth, 1987). As a result water in the soil becomesmore concentrated and the relative proportion of sodium inthe water is increased in the form of sodium carbonate. Toquantify the effects of carbonate and bicarbonate, residualsodium carbonate (RSC) has been computed. A high valueof RSC in water leads to an increase in the adsorption ofsodium on soil (Eaton, 1950). Irrigation waters having RSCvalues greater than 5 meq l-1 are considered harmful to thegrowth of plants, while water with RSC values above 2.5meq l-1 are not suitable for irrigation purpose. In the analysedwater samples, RSC values are found above 2.5 meq l-1 in28% samples of post-monsoon and 21% samples of pre-monsoon period. This indicates that water is suitable tomarginally suitable for irrigation uses (Tables 1 and 2).

Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)

The total concentration of soluble salts in irrigation watercan be expressed as low (EC = <250 μS cm-1), medium(250-750 μS cm-1), high (750-2250 μS cm-1) and very high(>2250 μS cm-1) and classified as C-1, C-2, C-3 and C-4salinity zone respectively (Richards, 1954). While a highsalt concentration (high EC) in water leads to formation ofsaline soil, a high sodium concentration leads to developmentof an alkaline soil. Salinization is one of the most prolificadverse environmental impacts associated with irrigation.Saline condition severely limits the choice of crop, adverselyaffect crop germination and yields and can make soilsdifficult to work. Excessive solutes in irrigation water are acommon problem in semiarid areas where water loss throughevaporation is maximum. Salinity problem encountered inirrigated agriculture are most likely to arise where drainageis poor. This allows the water table to rise close to the rootzone of plants, causing the accumulation of sodium salts inthe soil solution through capillary rise following surfaceevaporation of water.

The sodium or alkali hazard in the use of water forirrigation is determined by the absolute and relativeconcentration of cations and is expressed in terms of sodiumadsorption ratio (SAR). Irrigation waters are classified intofour categories on the basis of sodium adsorption ratio(SAR) as: S-1 (<10), S-2 (10-18), S-3 (18-26) and S-4 (>26).There is a significant relationship between SAR values ofirrigation water and the extent to which sodium is adsorbed

by the soils. If water used for irrigation is high in sodiumand low in calcium, the cation-exchange complex maybecome saturated with sodium. This can destroy the soilstructure due to dispersion of the clay particles. Thecalculated value of SAR in the study area ranges from 1.05-6.32 in post-monsoon and 1.0-8.6 in the pre-monsoon water.The plot of data on the US salinity diagram, in which theEC is taken as salinity hazard and SAR as alkalinity hazard,shows that most of the water samples fall in the categoryC3S1 and C4S2, indicating high to very high salinity andlow to medium alkali water. This water can be used only forplants with good salt tolerance (Fig. 15).

Highly saline water cannot be used on soils withrestricted drainage and requires special management forsalinity control. The soil must be permeable, drainage mustbe adequate, irrigation water must be applied in excess toprovide considerable leaching and salt tolerant crops/plantsshould be selected for such region. Low sodium (alkali)water can be used for irrigation on almost all soils with littledanger of the development of harmful levels of exchangeablesodium. Medium sodium water will present an appreciablesodium hazard in fine textured soils having high cationexchange capacity especially under low leaching conditions.This water can be used on coarse textured or organic soilswith good permeability (Karanth, 1987).

Permeability Index (PI) and Magnesium Hazard (MH)

Doneen (1964) classified irrigation waters in to threeclasses based on the permeability index (PI). The

0

2

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6

8

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32

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igh

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AL

KA

LI)

HA

ZA

RD

SALINITY HAZARD

C1 C2 C3 C4

Low Medium High V.High

Premonsoon

Postmonsoon

Electrical Conductivity (EC)

Fig.15. US salinity diagram for classification of irrigation waters(after Richards 1954).



permeability index has been computed and plotted onDoneen chart (Fig.16). The majority of the water samples(68%) fall in Class–I and 32% in Class-II in the Doneen’schart (Domenico and Schwartz 1990), implying that thewater is of good quality for irrigation purposes with 75% ormore of maximum permeability index.

Magnesium hazard (MH) values were also computedby Szabolcs and Darab (1964) equation. MH>50 areconsidered harmful and unsuitable for irrigation use. In theanalysed waters, 95% samples having magnesium hazard

(MH) below 50, indicating that water is suitable for irrigationpurposes.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Groundwater in the investigated area is alkaline and freshto brackish in nature. On critical examination of the data, itcan be seen that certain major ions and heavy metalconcentrations in groundwater exceed the desirable limitsfor drinking water at many places. Concentrations of TDS,Cl, Na, SO4, TH, Fe, Mn, Pb, Ni, Al, and B at many sites arebeyond the safe limits of drinking water indicatingcontamination by untreated industrial and domestic wasteeffluents. The different hydrogeochemical processes likedissolution, mixing, ion exchange processes along with theweathering of silicate and carbonate minerals control thechemistry of the groundwater. The calculated values of SAR,RSC and sodium percentage indicate the quality of waterfor irrigation uses as good to permissible category. However,a high salinity value restricts its suitability for agriculturalpurposes, and plants with good salt tolerance should beselected for such area. A detailed hydro-geochemicalinvestigation and integrated water management is suggestedfor sustainable development of the water resources of thearea for better plant growth as well as maintaining humanhealth.

Acknowledgements: The authors are thankful to theMinistry of Environment and Forest (MoEF), Governmentof India, for providing the financial assistance to carry outthe work. We extend our sincere thanks to Dr. V. Balramand Dr. M. Satyanarayan, Scientists of NGRI, Hyderabadfor heavy element analysis by ICP-MS and also to all themembers of Geo-environment Division of CIMFR for theirhelp and encouragement during the course of the study.

020406080100120Permeability Index (PI)

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

To

tal C

on

ce

ntr

atio

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eq

/l

CLASS - I

CLASS - IICLASS - III

25

% o

f M

axim

um

Pe

rme

ab

ility

75%

Maxim

um

Pe

rme

ab

ility

Premonsoon

Postmonsoon

Fig.16. Doneen (1964) classification of irrigation water based onthe permeability index.

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(Received: 30 March 2009; Revised form accepted: 3 March 2011)

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