Humanities Postgraduate seminarHumanities Postgraduate seminarWednesday 8 August 2007Wednesday 8 August 2007

Ways of knowing in the social sciencesWays of knowing in the social sciences

Bob PokrantBob PokrantSocial Science ProgramSocial Science Program

Media, Society and CultureMedia, Society and CultureB.Pokrant@curtin.edu.auB.Pokrant@curtin.edu.au

What is it to know something?What is it to know something?• To represent the world in some way-verbally, written To represent the world in some way-verbally, written

form, pictoriallyform, pictorially• Acquired through thinking, asking/observing/interacting Acquired through thinking, asking/observing/interacting

with others/thingswith others/things• Knowledge originates with social Knowledge originates with social

groups/persons/institutionsgroups/persons/institutions• These groups make claims about the worldThese groups make claims about the world• Tacit knowledge-common sense-taken-for-granted-tooth Tacit knowledge-common sense-taken-for-granted-tooth

brush-lay knowledgebrush-lay knowledge• Codified knowledge-discursive consciousness-expert Codified knowledge-discursive consciousness-expert

knowledgeknowledge• Knowledges competing with each other for recognition and Knowledges competing with each other for recognition and

acceptanceacceptance

• Academics compete with academics; with non-academics. Academics compete with academics; with non-academics. Climate change debateClimate change debate

• All knowledge is obtained in mediated All knowledge is obtained in mediated form-theory/touch/smell/first and second-hand experience-form-theory/touch/smell/first and second-hand experience-these are frames of understandingthese are frames of understanding

• Cognitive knowledge-claims about what is (episteme)Cognitive knowledge-claims about what is (episteme)

• Moral knowledge-claims about what should be done with Moral knowledge-claims about what should be done with what is (phronesis-value rationality)what is (phronesis-value rationality)

• Policy knowledge-claims about how to achieve policy Policy knowledge-claims about how to achieve policy objectives (techne-instrumental rationality)objectives (techne-instrumental rationality)

• Aesthetic knowledge-claims about what is Aesthetic knowledge-claims about what is beautiful/uplifting about what isbeautiful/uplifting about what is

• Three interconnected-claims of what is used to legitimate Three interconnected-claims of what is used to legitimate claims of what should be-’race’, gender etcclaims of what should be-’race’, gender etc

• Truth claims-accepted belief; true belief-modernist-post-Truth claims-accepted belief; true belief-modernist-post-modernist splitmodernist split

• Concept-reality: Do babies exist before they are given Concept-reality: Do babies exist before they are given names or called babies? names or called babies?

• Are brains social constructs?Are brains social constructs?

Why did the Twin Towers collapse on 11 September 2001?Why did the Twin Towers collapse on 11 September 2001?

• If a then b. If fast moving object strikes fixed object, the If a then b. If fast moving object strikes fixed object, the fixed object collapses.fixed object collapses.

• On September 11 2001, a fast moving object (plane) On September 11 2001, a fast moving object (plane) struck the fixed object (Twin Towers) and as a result, the struck the fixed object (Twin Towers) and as a result, the Towers collapsed.Towers collapsed.

• Does this explain why the towers collapsed? Yes and no. Does this explain why the towers collapsed? Yes and no. • The physical explanation is a necessary condition for the The physical explanation is a necessary condition for the

understanding of the event, but insufficient to explain it. understanding of the event, but insufficient to explain it. • One could say this is a mechanical explanation whereas One could say this is a mechanical explanation whereas

as social scientists we also need explanations at the level as social scientists we also need explanations at the level of social meaning. But all explanation is meaningful in of social meaning. But all explanation is meaningful in some sense.some sense.

• Levels of reality and explanation:Levels of reality and explanation:

– Planes hit the buildingsPlanes hit the buildings

– Skilful/poor piloting-trainingSkilful/poor piloting-training

– Poor design of the Poor design of the buildings-design/builders/architectsbuildings-design/builders/architects

– Poor surveillance-security personnelPoor surveillance-security personnel

– Terrorist attack-person(s) designated as Terrorist attack-person(s) designated as terrorists-who says?terrorists-who says?

– Globalisation seen as threat by some Globalisation seen as threat by some communities/groupscommunities/groups

Kind of explanation/knowledgeKind of explanation/knowledge

• Cognitive-what are the facts of the case? What constitutes Cognitive-what are the facts of the case? What constitutes a relevant fact?a relevant fact?

• Objects of investigation (people) are self-conscious, Objects of investigation (people) are self-conscious, reflexive beings like ourselves. The double hermeneutic.reflexive beings like ourselves. The double hermeneutic.

• Critical realism: we do perceive a world that exists Critical realism: we do perceive a world that exists independently of our perceiving it, but not as it is in itself, independently of our perceiving it, but not as it is in itself, unperceived, but always and necessarily only as humanly unperceived, but always and necessarily only as humanly perceived.perceived.

• Science is only possible if it is about something that exists Science is only possible if it is about something that exists independently of our sensesindependently of our senses

• Surface appearance of things can be misleading about Surface appearance of things can be misleading about their true character: posits a stratified model of reality.their true character: posits a stratified model of reality.

• Scientific work is to investigate and identify relationships Scientific work is to investigate and identify relationships and non-relationships, respectively, between what we and non-relationships, respectively, between what we experience, what actually happens, and the underlying experience, what actually happens, and the underlying mechanisms that produce events in the worldmechanisms that produce events in the world

• Aim is to tap the deep reality of mechanisms, powers, flows Aim is to tap the deep reality of mechanisms, powers, flows etcetc

• Knowledge is always tentative and our beliefs about the Knowledge is always tentative and our beliefs about the world are subject to falsification: can be shown not to be so world are subject to falsification: can be shown not to be so (could be accident, another terrorist group etc)(could be accident, another terrorist group etc)

• Anti-naturalist ontologically: social life is maintained Anti-naturalist ontologically: social life is maintained through active agents.through active agents.

• theories actively created by researchers within theoretical theories actively created by researchers within theoretical traditions: physics, aeronauticstraditions: physics, aeronautics, , architecture, security architecture, security studies, anthropology etc.studies, anthropology etc.

• the knower tried to grasp imaginatively how others the knower tried to grasp imaginatively how others experienced their world, how they constructed it, and what experienced their world, how they constructed it, and what meaning it had for them.meaning it had for them.

Exercise 1:Exercise 1:Does the social world have a pre-existing order Does the social world have a pre-existing order which you as researchers seek to discover?which you as researchers seek to discover?Must you rid your minds of pre-conceptions of Must you rid your minds of pre-conceptions of the world in order to study it?the world in order to study it?

• Exercise 2:Exercise 2:

• How central are people’s own understandings to How central are people’s own understandings to your research?your research?

• Can you give an example of people’s intentions and Can you give an example of people’s intentions and what they mean.what they mean.

• Is your job done after describing their intentions Is your job done after describing their intentions and understandings?and understandings?

• Exercise 3:Exercise 3:

• Do you have a casual account as distinct from an Do you have a casual account as distinct from an interpretivist account of why your research subjects act the interpretivist account of why your research subjects act the way they do?way they do?

• What are its main components?What are its main components?

• Exercise 4:Exercise 4:

• Can you give an example from your research of meaning Can you give an example from your research of meaning

beyond that of your subjects/respondents/informantsbeyond that of your subjects/respondents/informants??

• Exercise 5:Exercise 5:• Why did the attack on the twin towers in New York Why did the attack on the twin towers in New York

in 2001 occur?in 2001 occur?• In answering, think about the following:In answering, think about the following:• What constitute the facts of the case? SignificanceWhat constitute the facts of the case? Significance• Is the question a single question requiring a single Is the question a single question requiring a single

answer?answer?• Are there why and how explanations?Are there why and how explanations?• In what ways do your explanations link back to In what ways do your explanations link back to

bedrock assumptions and concepts about the nature bedrock assumptions and concepts about the nature of how the world works (or your view of it)?of how the world works (or your view of it)?

The endThe end

Making knowledge claimsMaking knowledge claims

• Empiricist/objectivismEmpiricist/objectivism

• interpretivism interpretivism

• phronesis phronesis

Empiricist/objectivist paradigmEmpiricist/objectivist paradigm

• social world exists in itself independently of our mindssocial world exists in itself independently of our minds

• To know that world properly is to have To know that world properly is to have cognitively/linguistically unmediated access to it cognitively/linguistically unmediated access to it (collecting facts)(collecting facts)

• True knowledge is a copy of mind-independent entitiesTrue knowledge is a copy of mind-independent entities

• rid their minds of pre-conceptions to allow the facts to rid their minds of pre-conceptions to allow the facts to registerregister

• The method of inquiry said to be common to social and The method of inquiry said to be common to social and natural sciencenatural science

Critique of E/O paradigmCritique of E/O paradigm

• Facts do not speak for themselves, they must be Facts do not speak for themselves, they must be given significancegiven significance

• Facts are theory-impregnatedFacts are theory-impregnated

• Researchers actively construct accounts of the Researchers actively construct accounts of the world within theoretical traditions.world within theoretical traditions.

Perspectivism and InterpretivismPerspectivism and Interpretivism

• Perspectivism:Perspectivism:Dominant epistemological paradigm todayDominant epistemological paradigm todayFacts are a product of conceptual schemesFacts are a product of conceptual schemes

• Interpretivism:Interpretivism:Knowledge consists of understanding the meaning of what Knowledge consists of understanding the meaning of what others do as expressed in their own termsothers do as expressed in their own terms

• objects of investigation (people) are self-conscious, reflexive objects of investigation (people) are self-conscious, reflexive beings like ourselves. The double hermeneutic.beings like ourselves. The double hermeneutic.

• the knower tried to grasp imaginatively how others the knower tried to grasp imaginatively how others experienced their world, how they constructed it, and what experienced their world, how they constructed it, and what meaning it had for them.meaning it had for them.

• person as active creator of reality rather than passive person as active creator of reality rather than passive bearer of it a la positivism and structuralism.bearer of it a la positivism and structuralism.

• This human-created world might correspond to some This human-created world might correspond to some real world, that is, constructivists can be realists. real world, that is, constructivists can be realists. Extreme constructivists are anti-naturalist/realistExtreme constructivists are anti-naturalist/realist

Interpretation and causeInterpretation and cause

• Knowing what people mean when they say or do Knowing what people mean when they say or do something is a necessary but not sufficient condition of something is a necessary but not sufficient condition of understanding social life.understanding social life.

• Social life has regularities not intended by members of Social life has regularities not intended by members of the societythe society

• unanticipated consequences of people’s actsunanticipated consequences of people’s acts• UnconsciousUnconscious• Unknown conditionsUnknown conditions• Knowing is interpreting and explainingKnowing is interpreting and explaining

• Social scientists must also go beyond seeing meaning Social scientists must also go beyond seeing meaning as simply the intention of the actor who acts. The acts as simply the intention of the actor who acts. The acts of terrorists may have their own personal meanings of terrorists may have their own personal meanings but they have wider meanings that the terrorists may but they have wider meanings that the terrorists may or may not be aware of.or may not be aware of.

• Interpretation here is placing the meaning of acts Interpretation here is placing the meaning of acts within wider contexts-9/11 means the birth of a new within wider contexts-9/11 means the birth of a new era of ontological insecurity; 9/11 means the era of ontological insecurity; 9/11 means the emergence of non-state actors as serious threats to emergence of non-state actors as serious threats to national order; 9/11 means that US policy in the national order; 9/11 means that US policy in the Middle East has failed; 9/11 means disaffected Muslim Middle East has failed; 9/11 means disaffected Muslim youths can seek new identities in a new religious youths can seek new identities in a new religious movement.movement.

Social science as phronesisSocial science as phronesis

• 3 intellectual virtues:3 intellectual virtues:– EpistemeEpisteme: Scientific knowledge. Universal, invariable, : Scientific knowledge. Universal, invariable,

context independent. Based on general analytical context independent. Based on general analytical rationality. The original concept is known today by rationality. The original concept is known today by the terms “epistemology” and “epistemic.” Social the terms “epistemology” and “epistemic.” Social science practiced as science practiced as episteme episteme is concerned with is concerned with uncovering universal truths or laws about society. uncovering universal truths or laws about society.

– TechneTechne: Craft/art. Pragmatic, variable, context : Craft/art. Pragmatic, variable, context dependent. Oriented toward production. Based on dependent. Oriented toward production. Based on practical instrumental rationality governed by a practical instrumental rationality governed by a conscious goal. conscious goal.

– Appears today in terms such as “technique,” Appears today in terms such as “technique,” “technical,” and “technology.” “technical,” and “technology.”

– Social science practiced as Social science practiced as techne techne is consulting aimed at is consulting aimed at better policies by means of instrumental rationality—a better policies by means of instrumental rationality—a type of social engineering—where “better” is defined in type of social engineering—where “better” is defined in terms of the values and goals of those who employ the terms of the values and goals of those who employ the consultants, sometimes in negotiation with the latter.consultants, sometimes in negotiation with the latter.

– PhronesisPhronesis: Ethics. Deliberation about values with : Ethics. Deliberation about values with reference to praxis. Pragmatic, variable, context reference to praxis. Pragmatic, variable, context dependent. Oriented toward action. Based on practical dependent. Oriented toward action. Based on practical value rationality. Social science practiced as value rationality. Social science practiced as phronesis phronesis is is concerned with deliberation about (including concerned with deliberation about (including questioning of) values and interests aimed at praxis.questioning of) values and interests aimed at praxis.

What claims does phronesis make?What claims does phronesis make?

– That it provides ethical guidance for science and That it provides ethical guidance for science and technologytechnology

– That the key questions of social inquiry should be: That the key questions of social inquiry should be: Where are we going?; who gains and who loses, and Where are we going?; who gains and who loses, and by which mechanisms of power?; is this development by which mechanisms of power?; is this development desirable? what, if anything, should we do about it? desirable? what, if anything, should we do about it?

– Rejects foundationalism and relativism and replaces Rejects foundationalism and relativism and replaces them with contextualism or situational ethics.them with contextualism or situational ethics.

– That scientists must work with those they studyThat scientists must work with those they study

– That objectivity is a process of taking a critical That objectivity is a process of taking a critical attitude to one’s own pre-conceptions, one’s own attitude to one’s own pre-conceptions, one’s own evidence, and one’s own research place within evidence, and one’s own research place within scholarly, civil society and other networksscholarly, civil society and other networks

ReadingsReadings

• Fay, B (1996): Contemporary philosophy of social science. Oxford: Fay, B (1996): Contemporary philosophy of social science. Oxford: Blackwell Publisher Blackwell Publisher

• Flyvbjerg, B (2001): Making Social Science Matter: Why Social Flyvbjerg, B (2001): Making Social Science Matter: Why Social Inquiry Fails and How It Can Succeed Again. Cambridge: Cambridge Inquiry Fails and How It Can Succeed Again. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.University Press.

• Mark Harris (ed) (2007): Ways Of Knowing: New Approaches in the Mark Harris (ed) (2007): Ways Of Knowing: New Approaches in the Anthropology of Knowledge and Learning. Oxford: Berghahn Anthropology of Knowledge and Learning. Oxford: Berghahn

• Jonathon W. Moses and Torbjørn Knutsen (2007): Ways Of KnowingJonathon W. Moses and Torbjørn Knutsen (2007): Ways Of KnowingCompeting Methodologies in Social and Political Research. London: Competing Methodologies in Social and Political Research. London: Palgrave MacmillanPalgrave Macmillan

• White. S K (2002): “Review of Making Social Science Matter: Why White. S K (2002): “Review of Making Social Science Matter: Why Social Inquiry Fails and How It Can Succeed Again,” American Social Inquiry Fails and How It Can Succeed Again,” American Political Science Review 96, no. 1: 179-80.Political Science Review 96, no. 1: 179-80.