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Peace Operations Training Institute

THE CONDUCT OF HUMANITARIAN RELIEF OPERATIONS:

PRINCIPLES OF INTERVENTION AND MANAGEMENT

Course Author

Yvan Conoir, MBAPeace Operations Training Institute

Series EditorHarvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.


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2008 Peace Operations Training Institute

Peace Operations Training Institute1309 Jamestown Road, Suite 202Williamsburg, VA 23185 USAwww.peaceopstraining.org

First edition: 2002Cover: UN Photo #192475 by Logan Abassi

The material contained herein does not necessarily reflect the views of the Peace Operations TrainingInstitute, the Course Author(s), or any United Nations organs or affiliated organizations. Although everyeffort has been made to verify the contents of this course, the Peace Operations Training Institute andthe Course Author(s) disclaim any and all responsibility for facts and opinions contained in the text,which have been assimilated largely from open media and other independent sources. This coursewas written to be a pedagogical and teaching document, consistent with existing UN policy anddoctrine, but this course does not establish or promulgate doctrine. Only officially vetted and approvedUN documents may establish or promulgate UN policy or doctrine. Information with diametricallyopposing views is sometimes provided on given topics, in order to stimulate scholarly interest, and is inkeeping with the norms of pure and free academic pursuit.


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THE CONDUCT OF HUMANITARIAN RELIEF OPERATIONS:PRINCIPLES OF INTERVENTION AND MANAGEMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents iiiForeword viFormat of Study viiiMethod of Study ix

A GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE 1

LESSON 1: REASONS FOR HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION 3 1.1 A Brief History Of Humanitarian Intervention

1.2 The Development of Humanitarian Action in the 20th

CenturyLESSON 2: ACTORS IN HUMANITARIAN RELIEF 15

2.1 International Humanitarian Organizations2.2 Governments and Specialized Government Structures2.3 Beneficiary Populations2.4 Humanitarian and Non-governmental Organizations2.5 Military Forces2.6 Members of the Red Cross Movement2.7 The New Peacekeeping Partnership

LESSON 3: PRINCIPLES OF INTERVENTION 63 3.1 Respect for Sovereignty vs. The Right to Intervene3.2 Respect for At-Risk Populations3.3 Basic Principles of International Human Law

LESSON 4: MANAGEMENT OF HUMANITARIAN EMERGENCIES 79 4.1 Analysis of Phases of Intervention4.2 Population Security and Safety Rescue Teams4.3 Principles of Managing a Refugee Camp

LESSON 5: MANAGEMENT OF HEALTH QUESTIONS INHUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION 99

5.1 Health Problems in Humanitarian Situations5.2 Intervention in an Emergency Phase5.3 Assessment, Monitoring and Implementation5.4 Control of Communicable Diseases and Prevention of Epidemics5.5 Primary Health Care and Community Health Care5.6 Wounds and Traumas


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5.7 Mental Health5.8 Nutrition5.9 Health Care in a Post-Urgent Phase

LESSON 6: LOGISTICS: CONVOYS, STORAGE, DISTRIBUTION OF AID

AND THE MANAGEMENT OF SHELTERS 1156.1 Administration of Convoys6.2 Storage Management6.3 Administration of Distribution Operations6.4 Administration of Shelters

LESSON 7: ADMINISTRATION OF FOOD AID 1317.1 Principles of Allocation and Distribution7.2 Principles of Logistics and Distribution7.3 Special Programs

LESSON 8: WATER MANAGEMENT AND SANITATION 141 8.1 A Vital Question for the Survival of a Population8.2 Management of Water as a Rare Resource8.3 Principles of Collective Sanitation and Hygiene8.4 Protection of Supply Sources

LESSON 9: SUSTAINABLE SOLUTIONS TO HUMANITARIANCRISES 155

9.1 Freely-Consented Repatriation9.2 Resettlement in the Country of Asylum9.3 Relocation to a Third Country9.4 Demobilization and Reinsertion Programs9.5 Elections and Democratisation Operations9.6 Establishment of Civil Institutions

LESSON 10 : PRINCIPLES OF THE SPHERE PROJECT AND THE CODE OF CONDUCT 171

10.1 History and Origin of the "Sphere" Project10.2 Objectives of the Sphere Project10.3 The "Code of Conduct"

LESSON 11: CONCLUSIONS 179 11.1 The Growth of Needs and the Lessening of Support11.2 The New Chameleons


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APPENDIX 1 185Directory of Humanitarian-Related Internet Sites

APPENDIX 2 190

The Humanitarian Charter APPENDIX 3 194

Minimum Standards for Disaster Relief: Sphere Project

APPENDIX 4 202Code of Conduct for the International Movement of theRed Cross and Red Crescent and of NGOs for use inrescue operations in disaster situations

END-OF-COURSE EXAMINATION INSTRUCTIONS 207


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FOREWORD

This manual on contemporary Humanitarian Action is the result of personal

reflection and professional practice conducted over 15 years of working with the United Nations or international nongovernmental organizations. As one who engages professionally in humanitarian relief and as an Instructor of Management Principles forHumanitarian Projects at the University of Quebec in Montreal and HULL (UQAM), theauthor has attempted to present an overview and some perspectives concerning the majoraspects of modern-day humanitarian action, drawing on the methodological principlesused in the works of the Peace Operations Training Institute series. This manual is notintended to be an academic work and even less so a scientific one, but is rather a generalintroduction to basic humanitarian procedures.

This text was written for a general audience. It adopts an approach to the materialthat seeks to be both universally applicable and free of any political agenda. It makes noclaim to providing a comprehensive coverage of all subject areas making up the field ofhumanitarian assistance, but instead refers the student to other references, organizations,and web sites. Nor should it be considered a technical reference work; it does not attemptto replace the excellent documents that have been produced over the last 15 years by thevarious actors of the United Nations system and international non governmentorganizations.

A course on the subject of contemporary humanitarian action could easily be fiveto ten times the length of this one if it attempted to present an academic perspective of thehistorical background, the actor's environment, or the techniques of managing ahumanitarian operation. It could easily be equally as long if one wished to develop thelessons on operational procedures in great technical depth. For any reader interested insuch details, the major humanitarian agencies (UNHCR, UNICEF, OXFAM, RDR, SCFto mention only a few) have developed technical reference manuals for their personnelthat would satisfy any reader's curiosity.

This work, then, is intended to provide an introductory foundation. It is alsointended as a discussion of the stakes and challenges for the humanitarian actor whohas come over the past few years to question governments, to disturb and enrich theworld of international relations; and who has above all brought aid and assistance to tensof millions of people in distress throughout the world. Humanitarians have also come toquestion the causes of conflicts that have forced so many populations onto the seas andhighways, populations that have been wounded and shaken to their souls by theaberrations of a world grown increasingly cruel and inhumane. It is important to notethat, as with many professions or vocations, reading a few chapters of a book can neverreplace practical experience acquired in the field. We wish, therefore, that our readerswill have the opportunity to share their altruism and their compassion for others; for thosereaders unable to do so, we hope to further their understanding of a phenomenon that isessential to a fuller understanding of the latter half of the twentieth century and of thetwenty-first now beginning.


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It must be noted that lesson 5 of this manual was written by Dr. RosamundLEWIS, a long-time staff member of EPICENTRE, the centre of epidemiologicalresearch for Mdecins Sans Frontires (MSF). Research on available internet sitesrelated to humanitarian action was directed by Mr. Edouard BOCCOZ, M.A. of theschool of National Public Administration at Montreal. They have my heartfelt thanks for

their respective contributions.

Yvan Conoir,January 2002


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FORMAT OF STUDY

This course is designed for independent study

at a pace determined by the student.

Course format and materials permit:

MODULAR STUDY EASE OF REVIEW INCREMENTAL LEARNING

STUDENTS RESPONSIBILITY

The student is responsible for:

Learning course material Completing the End-of-Course Examination Submitting the End-of-Course Examination

Please consult your enrolment conf irmation email or the end ofthis course for examination submission instructions.


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METHOD OF STUDY

The following are suggestions for how to proceed with this

course. Though the student may have alternate approachesthat are effective, the following hints have worked for many.

Before you begin actual studies, first browse through the overall coursematerial. Notice the lesson outlines, which give you an idea of what will beinvolved as you proceed.

The material should be logical and straightforward. Instead of memorizingindividual details, strive to understand concepts and overall perspectives inregard to the United Nations system.

Set up guidelines regarding how you want to schedule your time.

Study the lesson content and the learning objectives. At the beginning ofeach lesson, orient yourself to the main points. If you are able to, read thematerial twice to ensure maximum understanding and retention, and let timeelapse between readings.

When you finish a lesson, take the End-of-Lesson Quiz. For any error, goback to the lesson section and re-read it. Before you go on, be aware of thediscrepancy in your understanding that led to the error.

After you complete all of the lessons, take time to review the main points ofeach lesson. Then, while the material is fresh in your mind, take the End-of-Course Examination in one sitting.

Your exam will be scored, and if you achieve a passing grade of 75 percent orhigher, you will be awarded a Certificate of Completion. If you score below 75percent, you will be given one opportunity to take a second version of theEnd-of-Course Examination.

One note about spelling is in order. This course was written in English as it isused in the United Kingdom.


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General introduction to the course The Conduct of Humanitarian Relief Operations 2

We will also outline the practical foundations of humanitarian action throughbasic descriptions of operations to be conducted in the areas of housing, water, foodsupply and nutrition, as well as in health and clean-up projects. In addition, we willexamine the question of sustainable solutions that must guide and direct the efforts ofall actors in the international system if we are to find solutions to humanitarian questions.

Finally, we wish to give special attention to the establishment of uniformstandards of quality intended henceforth to govern operations of a humanitarian nature(SPHERE Project); as well as the Code of Conduct for humanitarian operations, whichaims to hold members of international agencies such as the movement of the Red Crossand the Red Crescent and others to a shared set of behaviours and minimum ethicalguidelines.


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Lesson 1/Reasons for Humanitarian Intervention 4

Objectives For Lesson 1: Reasons For Humanitarian Intervention

This lesson provides a broad overview of humanitarian intervention, traces someof the historic background, and discusses the factors that necessitated the expansion of

humanitarian action during the 20th

Century.

By the end of Lesson 1 the student should be able to meet the following objectives:

Provide a brief history of humanitarian intervention; Discuss how developments in the technology of warfare in the 20 th Century

necessitated changes to humanitarian interventions; List three phenomena that appeared in humanitarian action following The First

World War; Discuss the reasons for renewed growth in humanitarian action during the years

1970 to 2000.


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LESSON 1: REASONS FOR HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION

1.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF HUMANITARIAN ACTION

Can humanitarian intervention and humanitarian action be given a moment oforigin? Considered as the desire to lend assistance to one's fellow man, humanitarianaction is as old as humanity itself. To give personal help to others is an individualbehaviour that has dwelt in mankind from the beginning. These individual acts are ofteninscribed in sacred texts or in religious practices such as the zackat in Islam or theChristian concept of charity. Yet humanitarian action can be distinguished from suchacts in that it seeks to systematize the organization and mobilization of various humanand logistical resources in order to lend assistance to one or more specific populationgroups. In this sense, every civilization has groups who have devoted themselves on asmall scale to acts of compassion and relief of the suffering of others. This extension of

the principle of individual assistance has also been magnified to become the basis fororganized groups, constituting both their coming into existence and their reason forbeing, often under a religious guise.

Closer to home, the birth of this type of organization can be seen in the formationof religious and military orders during the mobilization in the 11 th and 14 th centuries andthe first Christian Crusades. This period thus sees the appearance in WesternChristiandom of groups such as the Templars, the Knights of the Holy Spulchre, and theIberian orders (the latter including the orders of Alcantara, Montesa, Avis, Saint Jacquesof Compostella and Caltrava). Once the Crusades came to a close, these orders remainedin the territories conquered from the Moors and continued for several centuries to operate

establishments devoted to hospital care. It should be noted that today, more than 900years after the end of the Crusades, an order such as the Sovereign Military andHospitaller Order of Saint Jean of Jerusalem, Rhodes and Malta (better known as theKnights of Malta) continues its hospital operations and other humanitarian activitiesaround the world.

In keeping with this altruistic spirit, the West (and the Church in particular) builtestablishments to receive the poor and indigent and to dispense health care and publicassistance. This system was the creation of St. Francis de Paul, but public hospitals havearisen under various monarchs as well. Eventually, early precursors to moderninterventions could be seen on several continents. In 1793, the French aristocrats who

were chased from Saint Domingue (present-day Haiti) in a slave revolt were taken in liketrue boat people by neighbouring Florida. In granting them aid by a vote of Congress,the United States initiated its first program of humanitarian assistance. It continued bylaunching a vast emergency rescue operation for those affected by the terrible Caracasearthquake of 1812. Whether it was the Greeks struggling against the Ottomans or theIrish dying of famine on their island, the world power to be that was the United Statesorganized the first international demonstrations of solidarity by a government to aidmembers of populations whose lives were in peril.


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In Europe the movement of full-scale colonization, sustained by the efforts ofFrance and Great Britain (and others to a lesser extent) to conquer and administerimmense territories in Asia and Africa, led to a new, quasi-apostolic mission among thehumanitarians of the daynamely, religious missionaries, colonial administrators, andthe medical and social services they created. One of the most famous examples of this

period is the celebrated Dr. Albert Schweitzer, founder of the Lambarene hospital inGabon. The humanitarian action of the colonial period was governed by a discourseemphasizing the civilizing mission while masking the political and economic interestsof the colonizing powers.

More pragmatic and just as humanitarian were the areas of battlefield medicineand army medical care, which also constitutes a specialized and emergent branch ofhumanitarian action. Todays humanitarian workers may be far removed from thediscoveries of Henry Dunant at Solferino and the early roots of the Red Cross Movement,but medical support for armies clearly aims at reducing the suffering of soldiers as wellas protecting the troops of armed forces deployed in combat.

It must be recalled that on the nineteenth-century battleground of Solferino inItaly, Henry Dunant, citizen of Geneva, horrified after witnessing 40,000 men woundedand moaning in pain after a murderous battle between the French and the Italians,decided to fight for the establishment of a new idea: to impose on armed forces and thestates they represent a neutral space of intervention that would enable the wounded toreceive, with complete impartiality, the aid and medical care due them. Dunant's idea,expressed in his famous book Memories of Solferino (Souvenirs de Solferino) , gave birthto the principles that would come to guide the international movement of the Red Cross:impartial assistance, neutrality and independence.

The political and civil mobilization that followed the publication of Dunant'sbook, as well as the promotional efforts of the first Red Cross Committee, gave rise to apublic campaign in support of the principles of the Red Cross, leading shortly afterwardsto the first Geneva Convention of 1864 for The Amelioration of the Wounded in Time ofWar. On the basis of these principlesneutrality, humanity, impartialitythe Red Crossmovement (whose emblem is the Swiss flag with reversed colours) spread quickly amongeach of the first 20 signatory nations and beyond. Due to the development of itsorganizational methods, the Red Cross quickly became the first permanent humanitarianorganization in the modern world. Equipped with professional standards of intervention,it was based on voluntary participation. Its goal as it developed was to possess thetechnical capacity to mobilize sizeable human and logistic resources in order to assistvictims of conflicts, and by extension, victims of natural disasters and other suchcalamities.

The Balkan and Asian wars at the end of the nineteenth century confirmed theuniversality of the Red Cross movement, whose capacity for intervention was by thenwidely recognized. Its efforts during the First World War, including the visitation ofprison camps, the creation of the International Agency for Prisoners of War, therepatriation of 700,000 men, plus the assistance provided to civilian populations affected


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by the conflict, earned the humanitarian movement its first Nobel Prize in 1917. The endof the war also saw the division of the movement into two distinct parts: the InternationalCommittee of the Red Cross (I.C.R.C.), which manages the movements wartimeoperations; and the League of the Red Cross Societies, now the International Federationof Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, which devotes itself to peacetime operations

such as public health initiatives, training of aid workers, response to natural catastrophesand the like.

The First World War thus brought to a close a very rich episode in thedevelopment of the humanitarian cause across the globe. Its main achievements includethe following:

Confirmation of the first international conventions for the protection ofwounded prisoners and civilian populations in wartime; the banning of sometypes of weapons; and the birth of International Humanitarian Law (IHL)

The development of technical methods of assistance and mass logisticalsupport to protect and bring aid to these same groups in wartime

The creation of new research tools and work methods whose concepts are stillin use today, such as a research agency for locating prisoners, establishedprocedures for jail visits, development of wartime mobile surgical techniques,launching public health campaigns or prevention programs (againsttuberculosis, for instance)

The universalization of a humanitarian movement with a mission to remainneutral, impartial, and independent of established political and military

authorities

Despite the development of increasingly deadly weaponry and the ability of statesto make warfare even more horrific and inhumane than during WWI (which saw theappearance of gas and tanks, aerial warfare, etc.), Western governments never stoppedpreparing for the next war. Thus while the International Red Cross Societies continued toimprove their capacity for intervention, new instruments for humanitarian actiongradually began to appear.

1.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMANITARIAN ACTION IN THE 20 TH

CENTURY AND THE REASONS FOR ITS EXTRAORDINARY GROWTH

1.2.1 NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN HUMANITARIAN ACTION

The start of the post-war era in the 1920s, followed by questions surroundingrehabilitation and aid to populations devastated by the Second World War, marked theappearance of three phenomena that were important to the future development ofcontemporary humanitarian actors.


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decided to create a medical organization that could not only get to populations inneed, but that would also abandon the obligation of restraint in order to testifyopenly to the public and to any media outlet willing to hear them about what theywitnessed.

The first privatehumanitarian medicalorganization, Doctors WithoutBorders (DWB; in French

Mdecins Sans Frontires, orMSF), was thus born and withit the expression withoutborders. Under thisinternationalist designationemerged a whole newgeneration of humanitarian

organizations withinterventionist aims, whowere expressly committed togoing directly to victims andwho were prepared to defy thesacrosanct law of non-interference in the internal affairs of a State. They opened a new dialogue with publicopinion and the media, producing a radical revolution in the field of humanitarian actionthat would propel onto the world's television screens, radios and newspapers theneglected causes and distant conflicts to which nobody else, governments in particular,was paying any attention.

This wave of without borderism would enjoy phenomenal recognition andgrowing success: Pharmacists Without Borders, Veterinarians Without Borders, AviationWithout Borders, Lawyers Without Borders, Reporters Without Borders, EngineersWithout Borders, Psychologists Without Borders, even Clowns Without Borders! Thenew champions of without borders gradually came to fill every new sector andspecialized field of humanitarian intervention. With the help of the media, the new humanitarians found themselves supported by generations of young professionals whono longer believed in multilateral political action and who saw in without borderism aconstructive and realistic way of aiding people in situations of distress in Third Worldcountries or in the West.

To briefly summarize the game rules adopted by the new without borderists,they have several criteria in common:

A private and most often secular origin. The without borders organization seeksfunding largely among loyal public donors. The organization looks to minimizenational or multilateral public financing in order to best preserve its independenceand free judgment.

Zaire/Rwandan refugees. Medecins du Monde team attending Cholera Victims, Mugunga Camp. UNHCR/P.Deloche, 07.1994.


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A professional membership largely based on volunteerism and personalcommitment rather than a careerist orientation.

A sometimes radical refusal of the rules of non-interference and neutrality asdefined by the International Red Cross, in order to guarantee unlimited access to

victims. Access and support are provided without discrimination by race, colour,or religion, and increasingly take place with no negotiation with any politicalpower whatsoever. From this definition of intervention will later emerge theconcept of a right to intervention.

A rapid internationalisation of the national representatives of the large NGOs, amovement which extends to all continents and which gives growing weight toNGOs in international forums that debate contemporary humanitarian crises (fromthe UN Security Council to the European Parliament) as well as providing accessto new funding sources.

A tendency, following from their much-championed and defended liberty, toconsider testimony as an intrinsic part of their mandate. This transforms certainagencies into operating as much as defenders of just causes (the campaignsagainst anti-personnel mines and child soldiers, for example) as humanitarianfieldworkers.

A transparency in administration that demonstrates the profitability of fundsreceived while minimizing the expense of operations management.

1.2.2 REASONS FOR RENEWED GROWTH (1970 2000)

It is important to ask how this exceptional growth in contemporary humanitarianaction came about. This growth affected the institutions of the UN system assignificantly as it did the international NGOs. Several factors, some complementary andothers unrelated to each other, transformed contemporary humanitarian action into one ofthe strongest currents in international relations of the past 30 years. Without being anexhaustive list, here are several reasons:

A humanitarian consciousness . At the root of the revolt of the French doctorswho left the International Red Cross Committee (ICRC) to create the first team ofDoctors Without Border s in 1968, the humanitarian consciousness of the need

for action and the duty to lessen the suffering of populations in danger certainlyremains one of the most powerful driving forces. Many organizations, from the12 th century Knight Hospitallers to modern NGOs, were born out of a sensed needto respond to a particular tragedy, and out of the desire to bring help and adetermination to act in a different yet more effective way than through governmentaction. This consciousness remains strong and was at the origin of the explosionof humanitarian NGOs that have been observed in the past several years.


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The increase in number of conflicts: Since the end of the Cold War, the number ofconflicts on the planet has grown significantly, to the current level of 85 activeconflicts in the final days of the millennium. Ninety-five percent of these are ofinternal origin. Sadly, the longest and most deadly conflicts often remain theprovince of the world's poorest countries (Burma, Burundi, Chad, Congo, Sudan,

to name just a few). Changes in the

nature of conflicts :Modern-dayconflicts are nolonger onlyconflicts betweenarmies , but haveincreasinglybecome conflicts

where civilians arethe primaryvictimsinnumber, in severityof atrocitieswhoare then subject tothe most abhorrentmanipulations.This new reality,which concerns refugees as well as internally displaced persons, has significantlyenlarged the scope of humanitarian work. It has also encouraged other actors and

partners (jurists, police, human rights activists, etc.) to play a growing role in themonitoring and management of humanitarian crises.

The change in the nature of needs : The proliferation of crises and conflicts as wellas the toll taken on civilian societies has progressively extended the definition aswell as the nature of needs. This growth has also engendered a demand forincreasingly specialized humanitarian services such as psychosocial services,water management in urban centres, the management of shelters in Europe, orassistance from flying doctors as in Kenya, for instance.

Humanitarianism as a political response : Humanitarian action is never an end in

itself. Yet it is true that in many recent conflicts, where the effort or the ability toprovide a political response (necessarily long-term) to a conflict or crisis situationare lacking, a large number of Western governments have preferred to financehumanitarian operations rather than find a lasting political solution to theunderlying problems (as in the case of the conflict in Bosnia from 1992 to 1995).This phenomenon has been characterized as substituting humanitarianism forpolitics.

Zaire/Rwandanese refugees, Rwandanese UNHCR workerwith Ethiopian UN soldier. Ruzizi Bridge, Bu Kavu. UNHCR/H.Davies, 08.1994.


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To coordinate this new political dimension of humanitarian action, several stateshave officially established new administrative offices within the government tocarry out their policies in this domain

Financing humanitarianism: Despite the significant growth of private financing,

particular in moments of humanitarian crises, the growth of institutional financingfor humanitarian agencies has been an important stimulant for the multiplication ofnew humanitarian agencies as well as the multiplication of initiatives that theseagencies are in a position to finance. Thus has Europe, with the creation of theEuropean Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO), become in the span of only afew years the worlds leading lender of humanitarian funds.

Humanitarianism as a profession and an adventure : Humanitarianism's use of themedia has projected a very socially positive if not idealistic image of humanitarianwork. In societies where a growing number of people seek to combine adventureand work, and a commitment to international as well as social change,

humanitarianism has often provided a ready-made response. Internationalised humanitarianism: To meet the demand outlined in the above

points, humanitarian organizations have multiplied. Three underlying trends havecombined to contribute to the internationalisation of the phenomenon:

The creation of new structures: UN-sponsored (the UN Department ofHumanitarian Affairs and UN Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairssee Lesson 2 Section 12) as well as agencies at the European and/or national level(ECHO); and the appearance of new mandates: the Convention on the Rights ofthe Child (UNICEF); the prohibition and destruction of anti-personnel mines (The

Ottawa Convention); the protection of displaced persons; the fight against AIDS,child soldiers, etc.

The internationalisation of large humanitarian NGOs such as DWB, CARE,OXFAM, Doctors of the World, World Vision, and others that are expanding theinternational branches of their organization; and the involvement of new actorsparticipating in complementary humanitarian or civil operations such as the UNBlue Helmets, NATO, OSCE (the Organization for Security and Cooperation inEurope), ECHO, the International Civil Police, etc.

Internationalisation of financing: the increase in volume and the growth of

financing sectors, as well as the appearance of new lenders.


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LESSON 1: QUIZ

Q1: Henry Dunant is the original founder of the

a.) League of Nationsb.) The NANSEN organizationc.) CARE Internationald.) The International Red Cross

Q2: Doctors Without Borders is:a.) A creation of the International Committee of the Red Crossb.) A private medical non-governmental organizationc.) A university organization in charge of international health questionsd.) A creation of the Nobel Prize in medicine

Q3: Typical features of the "Without Borders" movement are: (multiple)a.) A voluntary commitment of professionals on the groundb.) Funding emanating from private and public sourcesc.) The freedom to bear witness to what each organization can see and shared.) A partner relationship with the armed forces of each country

Q4: The growth of humanitarian actors and situations is due to (multiple): a.) An increase in the number of conflictsb.) The birth of new humanitarian needsc.) Changes in the nature of conflictsd.) The public financing of humanitarian NGOs by governments

Q5: The International Humanitarian Law has existed since:a.) The first western crusades to the Holy Landb.) The arrival of Without Borders and the Rights of Interferencec.) The creation of the International Red Crossd.) The end of the Cold War and the arrival of new armed conflicts

Q6: The UN High Commissioner for Refugees is a creation of:a.) The League of Nationsb.) A consortium of humanitarian NGOsc.) The General Assembly of the United Nations

d.) The International Red CrossQ7: All these actors are partners with contemporary humanitarian action:

a.) UNICEF yes nob.) ECHO yes noc.) OXFAM yes nod.) NANSEN yes no


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Q8: In honour of its humanitarian action, The Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to:a.) CARE Internationalb.) UNICEFc.) The International Red Crossd.) None of the above organizations

ANSWERS:

Q1: D Q2: B Q3: A, B, C Q4 : A, B, C

Q5: C Q6: C Q7: A. Yes B. Yes C. Yes D. No

Q8: C


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THE CONDUCT OFHUMANITARIAN RELIEF

OPERATIONS

LESSON 2

ACTORS IN HUMANITARIAN RELIEF

2.12.2

2.3

2.42.52.62.7

INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN ORGANIZATIONSGOVERNMENTS AND SPECIALIZED GOVERNMENTSTRUCTURESBENEFICIARY POPULATIONS: REFUGEES, DISPLACEDPERSONS, WAR VICTIMS, CHILD SOLDIERS, VULNERABLEGROUPS, AT-RISK PERSONSHUMANITARIAN NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONSMILITARY FORCESMEMBERS OF THE RED CROSS MOVEMENTTHE NEW PEACEKEEPING PARTNERSHIP


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Lesson 2/Actors in Humanitarian Relief 16

Objectives For Lesson 2: Actors in Humanitarian Relief

This lesson will acquaint the student with the existing government and non-governmental organizations involved in humanitarian relief. The larger organizations will

be discussed, some of the conventions and protocols that protect refugees and others willbe mentioned, and the important mutually supportive functions provided by military andnon-military organizations will be explored.

By the end of Lesson 2 the student should be able to meet the following objectives:

List and briefly discuss some of the most prominent international organizationsinvolved in humanitarian relief;

List and briefly discuss the specialized government structures involved inhumanitarian relief;

Discuss some of the conventions and protocols that protect refugees, displaced

persons, war victims, child soldiers, vulnerable persons, and at-risk individuals; Discuss the special role of national and international non-governmental

organizations (NGOs); State the reasons why military organizations have proven to be effective providers

of humanitarian relief; Discuss the special role the International Committee of the Red Cross plays in

humanitarian relief; Discuss the New Peacekeeping Partnership, its background, participating

groups, and goals.


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LESSON 2: ACTORS IN HUMANITARIAN RELIEF

2.1 INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN ORGANIZATIONS

The majority of organizations devoted to humanitarian work were formed withinthe United Nations system. Many of these agencies, such as the UNHCR or UNRWA,were created to respond to crisis situations; while others have been entrusted by theGeneral Assembly of the United Nations with limited mandates that have for the mostpart been expanded to meet the increase in humanitarian situations over the course of the1970s, 80s and 90s.

The strength of these agencies is that they are endowed with clear mandates thatgive them authority and an unquestionable international legitimacy, even if thislegitimacy is often challenged by government policies. With the growth in number andcomplexity of humanitarian crises, as well as the increased number of issues that

humanitarians now address, international organizations have seen a profound evolutionand transformation of their objectives, mandates, and operational methods. Nevertheless,they are far from being able to have a mandate that encompasses all crisis situations, norcan they address the totality of needs in each crisis. Their budgets are often subject to thegoodwill of the states that finance their operations; in addition, these states often possessnot only the right to oversee the management of the organizations' policies, but also theright to invest financially in the crises that they deem most in their interest, to thedetriment of secondary or silent and non-mediatized crises.

Nevertheless, international humanitarian organizations, through the experience oftheir national and international professional staff, the universality of their presence, and

their position as neutral actors in every theatre of humanitarian operations, remain alongwith the NGOs one of the finest operational expressions of contemporary humanitarianaction. They have also learned important lessons over time in how to work more closelywith government and non-government actors in countries of the South, entrusting themwith greater responsibility for the management of local programs.

The challenge that remains partially unsolved, especially at the level of the UnitedNations, is the integration of various aid functions in the management of a particularcrisis. Methods of coordination and cooperation have been deeply strengthened over thepast fifteen years, yet without ensuring that effective coordination of financial and humanresources consistently leads to optimal effectiveness in humanitarian relief management.

This is a challenge that will increasingly be taken up in the future by an organization suchas the Office of Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), created by the UnitedNations in 1992.


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2.1.1 THE UNITED NATIONS HIGH COMMISSION FOR REFUGEES

GENERAL PRINCIPLESHeaded since 1 January 2001 by former Dutch prime minister Ruud Lubbers, the

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is the largest agency in the

United Nations conducting humanitarian work today. With over 4,000 internationalprofessionals working in 274 world offices spread throughout 120 countries, it is the mostoperational agency and works closest to humanitarian crises caused by displaced refugeepopulations or displaced persons.

The United Nations gave UNHCR the mandate to lead and coordinateinternational action for the protection of refugees the world over, and to researchsolutions to their problems. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner forRefugees was created in 1950 by Resolution 428 (V) of the United Nations GeneralAssembly; originally established on a temporary basis for a period of three years, theUNHCRs mandate has been renewed every five years ever since.

The UNHCRs primary mission is to guarantee the rights and well-being ofrefugees. To this end, it strives to ensure that everyone has the right to seek asylum inanother country and to return of their own accord to their country of origin. Whilehelping refugees to return home or permanently settle in another country, the UNHCR

also seeks to bring about a lasting solution totheir problem. The UNHCRs actions aregoverned by the Statute of the Office of theUN High Commissioner for Refugees, theUnited Nations Convention of 1951 Relativeto the Status of Refugees and by the Protocolof 1967. International law pertaining torefugees constitutes the essential normativeframework for the humanitarian activities ofthe UNHCR. The Convention of 1951Relative to the Status of Refugee s and theadditional Protocol of 1967 define a refugeeas a person who owing to well-founded fearof being persecuted for reasons of race,religion, nationality, membership of aparticular social group or political opinion, isoutside the country of his nationality and isunable, or owing to such fear, is unwilling toavail himself of the protection of that country;or who, not having a nationality and beingoutside the country of his former habitualresidence as a result of such events, is unableor, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return toit." It should be noted that over the years,several resolutions made by the General

Thailand, Voluntary repatriation ofCambodian Refugees. UNHCR. K.Singhaseni, 11.1997


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Assembly and endorsed by the international community have requested that the UNHCRintervene on behalf of people who find themselves outside their original countries as aresult of persecutions, military conflict, generalized violence, foreign aggression or othercircumstances that would provoke their flight.

In connection with its main activities on behalf of refugees, the UNHCRsExecutive Committee and the United Nations General Assembly authorized the UNHCRto act on behalf of other groups such as repatriated settlers, internally displaced persons,as well as stateless persons whose nationality is in dispute.

The UNHCR's principal mission is to try to prevent forced displacements byencouraging states and other institutions to create conditions favourable for the protectionof human rights and the peaceful settlement of disputes. In this spirit, the UNHCR worksto smooth the reintegration of refugees returning to their country of origin in order toavoid the recurrence of situations likely to provoke a new exodus.

PRINCIPLES OF INTERVENTIONThe UNHCR is an impartial UN organization that provides protection andassistance to refugees and others falling under its competence according to their needsand without regard for race, religion, political opinion, or sexual preference. In all itsactivities, the UNHCR pays special attention to the needs of children and is devoted topromoting womens rights. An organization created by the crisis of post-WWII refugees,the UNHCR works in partnership with governments, regional organizations, internationalorganizations, and non-governmental organizations in efforts to protect refugees and findsolutions to their problems. In its action in the field, the UNHCR firmly supports theprinciple of participation, whereby refugees and other beneficiaries of its activities mustbe consulted concerning decisions that have an impact on their lives.

Under the terms of its statute, the United Nations High Commissioner forRefugees is primarily charged with promoting international accords for the protection ofrefugees and of supervising their application. Under the terms of the Convention of 1951and the Protocols of 1967, the contracting states agree to cooperate with the UnitedNations High Commissioner for Refugees in the exercise of its functions, and inparticular, to facilitate the duty of supervising the application of the provisions of theconvention.

Partnerships between the UNHCR and NGOs were strengthened thanks to theprocess of Partnership in Action, or PARINAC. Established in 1994, this processdefines the structures and mechanisms of this new cooperation and determines the areasin which existing partners can be strengthened. The most important contribution broughtby the PARINAC process was to make the UNHCR more aware of potential resourcesoffered by local and national NGOs. As a result, in 1999 the UNHCR worked with 513NGO executive partners. In the new plan of action that was adopted, it was thusrecommended that emphasis be placed on training NGO coordinators as well as ondisseminating information on established principles for building local and nationalcapacities.


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the former Yugoslavia) as well as various groups in the community of independentstates.

2.1.2 OFFICE OF COORDINATION FOR HUMANITARIAN AFFAIRS(OCHA) AT THE UNITED NATIONS

The Office of Coordination for Humanitarian Affairs, or OCHA, was created inthe early 1990s to replace the Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA). The DHAstask had been to try to globally coordinate all the complex humanitarian operationsmandated by the UN Security Council. For many reasons, largely related to the desire onthe part of the large UN agencies to maintain a certain operational autonomy, neitherDHA nor OCHA have historically wielded sufficient political authority to be able toclaim a real and direct role in the coordination of humanitarian operations.

Nonetheless, for a number of governments the two institutions have played animportant role in carrying out the following functions:

Gathering information on a large number of humanitarian crises for the benefit ofall humanitarian actors in many theatres of operation.

Preparation of information for issuing specialized appeals to donor states in orderto provide them with a complete overview of the actions launched by the UnitedNations and the Red Cross in a given humanitarian crisis.

The chance to play a role in channelling international or private aid (financial ormaterial) sent for reducing a humanitarian crisis.

Training of professionals from national agencies and ministries from countries ofthe South in techniques for the prevention of natural disasters, the preparation ofadequate humanitarian contingency plans, and the development of simulationexercises.

Organization of seminars and specialized synthesis reports to absorb the lessonslearned from a specific humanitarian crisis.

Coordination of military or civilian elements made available to the UN foroperational support in humanitarian crises (for instance warehousing of goods onthe Brindisi base, charter flights made available to the UN, etc.)

2.1.3 WORLD FOOD PROGRAM (WFP)

MANDATEThe World Food Program is the UN organization that seeks, purchases, ships and

distributes all the food assistance provided by the United Nations during anyhumanitarian crisis. This is not its main function, since its broad mandate is a world


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where any man, woman or child can always have access to the food needed to lead adignified, active and healthy life. Without adequate food, the WFP maintains that therecannot be any lasting peace, democracy, or even development.

It is important to note that for a long time the development of the WFPs policy

has relied on institutional agreements (Memoranda of Understanding) concluded withlarge humanitarian actors like UNHCR, FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization),UNICEF, as well as with a growing number of non-governmental organizations such asICRC, CARE, CRS, ADRA. These memoranda ensure the execution of cooperativeprograms according to pre-established operational rules.

While these memoranda guarantee the WFP that it will have the support of themajor contemporary humanitarian actors, they also favour the latter with regard tomatters of contractual management or partnership in a given setting.

BENEFICIARIES OF WFP OPERATIONS

According to statistics for the year 1998, the WFP relied on operational offices in80 different countries with more than 5000 employees. That same year, the WFPdistributed more than 2.8 million tons of food for about 75 million people. Such food wasserved within the context of emergency operations, subsistence of populations inhumanitarian conditions, and also development projects. The resources made available tothe organization for such help amounted to $1.8 billion. They came from about 60participating countries, and took the form of financial gifts, food, or others. Anapproximate division of the recipients might provide a clear vision of the sectorialdistribution of the WFPs activities. Thus, the 75 million recipients of WFP assistanceincluded:

18.4 million individuals (25%) helped in the context of development projects. Inmost cases, these people were helped as part of a program called Food for Work.

This program aims at providing food as compensation for people who work ondevelopment projects like a road, a dam, improvement of the environment, ormost simply development projects for human resources: food distribution inschools to keep students in the classroom, health or nutrition programs inhospitals, community clinics, etc.

16.3 million (22%) refugees, internally displaced persons, or repatriated persons.After having lost everything because of a civil or international war, and thusforced to begin their lives anew, these people are especially vulnerable before their

situation finds a lasting solution. 40.1 million (53%) people who have been the victims of natural catastrophes like

earthquakes, hurricanes, floods or droughts.

It is important to note that the important effort undertaken by the WFP does notrepresent the totality of food assistance made available to displaced populations or topopulations afflicted by disasters. Also involved with such efforts are national


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governments and national or international non-governmental agencies, who are especiallyactive during the phase of mobilization that immediately follows a catastrophe and thatprecede the WFPs ability to mobilize the resources needed for the management of animportant crisis. Significantly, the two largest donors and participating members of theWFP are the United States (51% of the 1998 budget) and the European Union (11% in

1998, but not including bilateral gifts from EU members).METHODOLOGY FOR WFP ACTION

The three categories of aid outlined above allow us to identify three operationalmodels for the WFP. These are:

Food for Life, whose goal is to rescue as quickly as possible the people affectedby a humanitarian catastrophe. The budgets earmarked for these operationsincreased by a factor of 500 during the 1990s. In 1990, two out of three tons offood were committed to putting recipients on the path to self-sufficiency, with theremainder allotted for emergency relief. Today, the proportion has been reversed,

and more than four-fifths of such food is committed for emergency conditions. Food for Growth, whose function is to give priority assistance to persons most

vulnerable due to an especially critical moment in their livesbabies, motherswho feed these babies, school age children, and older people. The lack ofadequate nutrition prevents children's learning and inhibits the life chances ofunborn children. Food assistance can also provide support for public healthprograms and literacy campaigns for women and girls, or bolster programs toimprove the nutritional quality of food available to households.

Food for work. The most creative and original of the WFP models, it consists of

payment in kind for the labour contributions of men and women who work ondevelopment projects such as roads, dikes, excavations, reforestations or irrigationcanals.

2.1.4 UNITED NATIONS RELIEF AND WORKS AGENCY (UNRWA)

Following the Arab-Israeli conflict of 1948, UN resolution 302 (IV) created theUnited Nations Relief and Works Agency, or UNRWA, to bring relief and assistance totens of thousands of Palestinians displaced by the conflict. Working under a provisionalmandate, the UNRWA began its activities on 1 May 1950; however, in the absence of

any permanent political solution to the Palestinian refugee question, UNRWAs mandatehas been renewed each year since then.

According to the legal definition of UNRWA, a Palestinian refugee is consideredto be any person whose ordinary residence was Palestine between June, 1946 and May1948 and who was forced to leave home as a result of the Arab-Israeli hostilities of 1948;and who found refuge in Jordan, Lebanon, the Arab-Syrian Republic, the Gaza strip, orthe occupied West Bank of Jordan. The definition of someone assisted by UNRWA also


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covers all the descendants of those who became refugees in 1949. The number ofPalestinian refugees has thus significantly grown since this period: it has increased from914,000 in 1950 to more than 3,600,000 in 1999, and continues to rise following thenatural growth of the population as well as the absence of political accord on their statusand permanent residence.

PEOPLE REGISTERED BY UNRWA IN THE NEAR EAST

Receiving State Official Camps Registered Refugees Registered refugeesin camps

Jordan 10 1,541,405 277,555Lebanon 12 373,440 208,223Syria 10 378,382 110,427West Bank 19 576,160 155,365Gaza Strip 8 808,495 442,942

TOTAL 59 3,677,882 1,194,512

Thus, since its creation the UNRWA has fed, clothed, and provided shelter to tensof thousands of refugees, not to mention offering education and proper medical treatmentto thousands of young refugees. Like the UNHCR, UNRWA began with a temporarymandate and found its extension repeatedly renewed. The agency, which isheadquartered in Gaza, is a unique example of an international organization dedicated tothe protection and material assistance of a single and same group of refugees over aperiod that now equals four generations.

2.1.5 UNICEF

THE ORGANIZATIONUNICEF is a semi-autonomous organization that is an integral part of the United

Nations system. It has its own governing board, an Executive Committee of 36 membersthat sets policy, reviews programs and approves budgets. With headquarters in NewYork, UNICEF carries out its activities through some 200 offices installed in over 160countries. UNICEF works in direct collaboration with governments, NGOs and other UNinstitutions to identify the needs of children and to make use of the energy and talents ofindividuals, families, communities, and governments, in order to help countries respond

to their needs. Nearly 85 percent of UNICEF personnel work in the field, evaluatingneeds, reviewing projects and acting as liaison between government authorities anddevelopment partners in order to provide services, gather materials and stimulate localcapacities. UNICEF also makes use of a supply division in Copenhagen that furnishesmaterial and logistical support to programs, shipping essential medications and oral re-hydration salts, vaccines and vaccination material, as well as emergency relief supplies:blankets, tents, pumping systems and water storage.


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One characteristic unique to UNICEF in industrialized countries is the existenceof National Committees, now numbering 37. These committees are private organizationsthat work alongside UNICEF, advocating for childrens causes and engaging infundraising to finance program activities. Thanks to large networks of donors, thesecommittees collect monies for UNICEF largely from the sale of season's greetings cards

and other fundraising activities.OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLES

UNICEF bases its interventions on collaboration with governments, other UNagencies, and local and international NGOs. Due to its philosophy of cooperation as wellas its network of partnerships, UNICEF helps governments to create local projectsaddressing the needs of children in the community, using simple, low-cost andsustainable methods. One important sphere of these efforts consists of helping peopleand communities effect the changes necessary in order to improve their living conditions,notably through the acquisition of new skills and the acceptance of new ideas.

UNICEF focuses its actions on a certain number of key programs: Immunization: A series of vaccinations protects children against measles,

tuberculosis, tetanus, diptheria, whooping cough and polio, illnesses that arepreventable but often fatal for children in developing countries. Without thisprotection, 2.7 million children would die of measles; 1.2 million would succumbto tetanus, and one million to whooping cough. Nearly 800,000 children would behandicapped after having contracted polio. UNICEF, in partnership withgovernments, contributes so that all children receive this critical series ofimmunizations before the age of one year. The world community achieved asignificant victory in 1990 when it reached its objective of "universal

immunization of children," passing from 20% to 80% worldwide vaccinationcoverage in just six years. From now on, eight out ten children on average will beprotected against six deadly childhood diseases, which allows three million younglives to be saved every year.

Iodisation of salt: Iodine deficiency, which alone causes the majority ofpreventable cases of mental retardation in the world, constitutes a significantobstacle to development, yet one that is relatively easy to overcome. Nearly 1.6billion people around the world are exposed to this risk. Suffering its mostextreme consequences, nearly 55,000 children are born each year with seriousmental and physical handicaps because their mother suffered from an iodine

deficiency. The lack of iodine could be quickly eliminated if all countries were toproduce and sell only iodised salt.

Oral re-hydration therapy: Many people are affected by diarrhoea in developingcountries; as many as two million children die each year from dehydration causedby diarrhoea. A simple yet efficient measure for oral re-hydration could havesaved nearly all of those lives, such as the administration of a bag of salt for oral


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re-hydration diluted in soluble water or a solution prepared at home made of water,salt and sugar.

Vitamin A: Relatively weak quantities of vitamin A can effectively protectchildren. Each year, up to 500,000 children living in developing countries are

affected with permanent blindness and millions of others with hemeralopia due toa lack of Vitamin A. In addition, illnesses caused by diarrhoea, measles, andpneumonia are even more common and more serious in children suffering from aVitamin A deficiency, a factor that contributes each year to twenty-five percent ofall deaths of young children in developing countries. UNICEF helps countriesanticipate such health problems by disseminating information on the necessity ofconsuming fruits and vegetables rich in Vitamin A, and by distributing Vitamin Acapsules to children exposed to such risks.

Safe maternity and breast-feeding: Each year 585,000 women, many of whom areadolescents, die of complications linked to pregnancy and childbirth; and millions

of other women suffer handicaps and lesions for the remainder of their lives.Women are exposed to risks when pregnancy occurs at too young or too advancedan age, at intervals too close to one another, or when they do not have access totreatment and when pregnancy is not practiced in adequately sanitary conditions.Faced with this reality, UNICEF has completed important work in trainingcommunity health workers and midwives in order to reduce this alarming rate, toencourage an adequate spacing of births and to instruct mothers on infanthealthcare. Once the child is born UNICEF extols the merits of breast-feeding,especially if the child can be fed exclusively from the breast during the first sixmonths of its life, a period during which it is least able to resist infections andwhen it has the greatest need for the warmth and nutrition that only breast-feeding

can provide. Within the framework of the initiative Hospitalsfriends tobabies, WHO, UNICEF and other partners advocate nursing exclusively from thebreast in hospitals as well as at home because of its numerous advantages.

AIDS: Throughout the world, public health is experiencing a major humanitariancrisis caused by Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). This diseasehas already destroyed much of the progress achieved in the area of health and wellbeing for children over the course of the past decade and has spread at an alarmingrate, especially among the young. We estimate that approximately 2.6 millionchildren are infected by the virus that causes AIDS, while many others, withoutthemselves being infected, feel the impact of the disease when their parents die

from it. It was estimated that between 1998 and 2000, nearly 5 million childrenlost one or two of their parents as a result of AIDS. Almost 10 million children areconsidered to be affected by the virus. One young African in two currently at theage of 15 will one day die of this disease. To fight against this plague, UNICEFthinks that education, preparation for adult life, and access to health andreproductive services are essential if we want to stop the progression of the diseaseand its consequences.


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EMERGENCY HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTIONSUNICEF responds to the needs of children and women affected by war, internal

conflicts and natural disasters by sending food, medicine and potable water whenemergency situations arise. During the last decade, UNICEF estimates that more thanone million children were orphaned or separated from their parents, 12 million children

were removed from their homes and approximately 10 million children sufferedpsychological trauma due to war and internal conflicts.

During wartime, UNICEF organizes deployments of emergency aid for childrenon both sides of a conflict. The agency has been very creative in formulating conceptsintended to protect children in conflict situations. For instance, UNICEF launched theidea of a peace zone specifically for the protection of children. In Salvador in 1984,UNICEF obtained three national Days of Peace in which children could be vaccinated;a strategy that was later used in several other countries. In other countries such asAfghanistan, Congo, Libya, Sudan and Uganda, the organization conducted similaroperations around the concept of Days of Peace and Corridors of Peace. To provide

assistance and material aid, UNICEF has Emergency Program Funds available that allowit to act quickly and generously to provide aid to countries in need, as well as tostrengthen regional capacities for emergency prevention and relief planning.

2.1.6 WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO)

WHO does not oversee large operations when dealing with complex humanitariancrises. However, its influence is important when it comes to organizing coordinationbetween specialized medical humanitarian agencies and the sanitation authorities of thehost country, particularly on issues such as the political management of prevention,epidemiological analysis or particular treatment protocol. WHO provides technicalexpertise to finance studies that precisely calculate the effects of various medicaltreatments and the impacts of the presence of large humanitarian groups on humanterritory, as well as the prophylactic or therapeutic measures that can be taken to keepthese possible effects in check.

The large humanitarian medical NGOs like Doctors Without Borders havecurrently set up specialized units (such as EPI-Centre for MSF-France) that are preparedto quickly perform their own epidemiological analyses of large humanitarian crises.They share their results with the WHO offices in order to coordinate health policies thatcan have important impacts on the national level.

2.1.7 UN DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM (UNDP)

The UN Development Program rarely has an operational role on the front lines incomplex humanitarian operations. It can fulfill this role when it comes to naturaldisasters by coordinating the different UN agencies, which, according to its mandate, isits role. As principal political representative to developing nations, the UNDP essentiallycoordinates with the national representatives on behalf of the UN. In the case where aUN agency isnt represented in a given nation, it can even fulfill that agency's role in its


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place (a case for nations that arent represented in the UNHCR) but without directlycarrying out large-scale tasks.

In the management of humanitarian crises, the role of the UNDP is clearer andmore pertinent when it comes to formulation of post-conflict reconstruction policy. Its

role in support of national development policy planning logically makes it a favouredrepresentative when it comes to reconstructing a country. Faced with the offer of foreignassistance, the UNDP, in conjunction with national ministries, is in the position to offercoordination and technical expertise.

The UNDP is also a partner of national governments, in conjunction with the IOMas well as other humanitarian agencies, in the context of demobilization, demilitarisation,and reintegration. It works in close collaboration with governments weakened by civilwar or an international conflict and has several functions, including:

Containment and disarmament of combatants Collection of heavy and light arms

Training and socio-economic reintegration of ex-combatants Reinforcement of good governing structures and democratisation of civil society

2.1.8 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR MIGRATION (IOM)

The International Organization for Migration was created in 1951 in post-WWIIEurope to facilitate the flow of migrants and refugees. For 50 years, the organization hasparticipated in the majority of the large humanitarian or migratory programs of thesecond half of the twentieth century. Since its creation, the organization has displacedsome eleven million people, 430,000 of them in 1999 alone (due to the Kosovo and EastTimor crises), most of whom were in a precarious humanitarian situation.

Each year, the IOMs humanitarian immigration program provides directassistance to people fleeing conflict zones, refugees repatriated or resettled in anothercountry, persons seeking asylum having to return home or move to another country,internally displaced persons, and operations for the reunification of families.

To do this, the IOM works closely with governments, the UNHCR and volunteeragencies. Not only does the IOM work strictly on all aspects of immigration of thoseaffected by natural or human catastrophes, but it also recently developed reintegrationprograms to help those in need once theyve returned to their homes. The IOM is thusengaged in demobilization, demilitarisation and reintegration programs in countries

where the first step towards reconstruction is to transform former rebels into futurepeaceful and productive citizens of a rebuilding society.

2.1.9 WORLD BANK AND INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (IMF)

It might seem surprising to talk about actors in international finance in the contextof a humanitarian crisis, but recent crises have underscored the role they can play in


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emergency financial adjustment programs. Their assistance benefits a government ofasylum in the following ways:

Emergency loans allow a host government to pursue humanitarian efforts onbehalf of refugees in its territory, such as financing a housing program for refugees

who have been living in the homes of citizens Monetary adjustment measures to help a host government meet these same needs

In a post-crisis context, the World Bank also plays an important role in extendingloans to the country of origin as well as to the host country to finance rapid reconstructionand rehabilitation operations in close collaboration with the governments.

In addition, the World Bank conducts in-depth studies on the contemporaryphenomena underlying the development and increase of conflicts and thus ofhumanitarian crises around the world, such as economic causes of civil conflict; or the

role and incidence of organized crime in the proliferation of trafficking in arms, drugsand humans.

2.2 GOVERNMENTS AND SPECIALIZED GOVERNMENT STRUCTURES

2.2.1 GOVERNMENTS

The pre-eminent role of the host government in managing contemporaryhumanitarian crises has too often been overlooked, both in its legal dimension and inactual fact. The media perspective often gives most of the credit to internationalhumanitarian or non-governmental organizations without considering the responsibilities,

the obligations, but also the enormous amount of work performed by local governmentsand the decisive role they play in the management of refugees and displaced persons.

ASYLUM AND PROTECTIONIn the management of a humanitarian crisis, the host country is the first to decide

on the admissibility of a request for asylum, whether it be individual or collective. Thelarge movements of populations (for example, the 800,000 people of Rwandan originwho crossed the Zairian border in 1994, and the almost 900,000 Kosovars who crossedinto Albania, Macedonia or Montenegro in spring of 1999) have accustomed us to prima

facie recognition of collective refugee status, regardless of the merits of each individualrequest. The obvious limit to this method of recognition, which often remains the only

available large-scale option, is that it allows those who may have committed war crimesor other criminal activities that would automatically bar them from refugee status to passalong with the "legitimate" refugees. Nevertheless, whatever the nature of the refugeescases, the host government is ultimately responsible for deciding the eligibility of allthose requesting asylum on its soil, whether or not it is supported by the protectiveservices of the UNHCR (whose primary function, one must remember, is that ofassistance).


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In the case where a government refuses to grant refugee status to the petitioners,claimants may always argue that they qualify as a Humanitarian-Assisted Person (H.A.P.,as in Macedonia in 1999); as legal immigrants; or simply as a tourist on an extended-stayvisa. Otherwise, the host country has a whole range of legal and prescriptive meansavailable to grant refugee status to asylum-seekers on its soil and to equip them with

basic administrative documents (registration, identity or travel papers, etc.).The UNHCR remains particularly vigilant, as much in the West as in Third World

countries, that the principles of the right of asylum continue to be respected. Over thepast 20 years, these rights have experienced an appreciable decline due to the influenceof nationalist policies and restrictive measures concerning immigration. This retreat hascompelled a number of humanitarian organizations to campaign for improvement inopening boundaries or for the improved handling of requests for asylum.

Beyond the granting of asylum, the host country has certain obligationsconcerning the protection of asylum-seekers and refugees. These activities usually mean

additional security and policing responsibilities for the host country. For example, anobligation specified by African countries stipulates that refugees must be located at least50 kilometres from the borders of their home country in order to avoid the possibility ofarmed incursions against them emanating from their country of origin. The conventionson refugee status also stipulate that refugees have certain rights available to them beforethey can be subjected to the laws of the host country.

ASSISTANCEThough it may seem paradoxical, the UNHCR has no formal mandate to provide

assistance to refugees. It is only since the early 1970s and the emergence of large-scalecrises that the UNHCR saw its mandate become increasingly operational, andconsequently its budget increased to acceptable levels in the 1980s and 1990s. In fact,the primary mandate for assistance continues to reside officially with the hostgovernment, which, in addition to offering protection to refugees or displaced persons,directly or indirectly offers a full range of services:

Places of residence and housing for refugees and displaced persons Resources for water consumption Wood or other energy resources for cooking and heating needs Education and health services equivalent to those of the country's citizens Food assistance Administrative, police, security and even legal services when necessary

It is in fact the case that in the majority of contemporary humanitarian crises, theshort-term support given to refugees by the host country, both by national authorities andthe civilian population, was proportionally greater than all the services offered later byhumanitarian organizations. Without the Albanians food and shelter for their Kosovarbrothers, or the similar support by citizens of the Ivory Coast for the Liberian refugees intheir country, tens of thousands of refugees would have undoubtedly spent their exile inmuch more trying and difficult living conditions.


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We mention this not only to recognize the governments of both Southern andNorthern countries who have proved to be exceptionally generous in aiding refugees, butalso to make clear the reality facing all humanitarian actors over the course of anassistance operation. These actors must attempt to:

Understand the depth of the institutional and humanitarian support provided by a

host government or its people to a refugee or displaced population Systematically seek out connections or methods of offering support to exiledpopulations by working through local organizations where feasible

Give as much support to the local populations as to the refugees and avoid creatingfeelings of discrimination, frustration or jealousy over the nature of servicesprovided (collateral aid)

For Northern operators working in countries of the South, seek out ways over themedium or long-term to progressively transfer responsibility for assistance to localorganizations (government or NGO) through the transfer of knowledge andresources as well as training

In the end of crisis phase following the repatriation of refugees or any other

lasting outcome (local integration, for instance), help to return things to their stateprior to the crisis and thank the host population and government by restoring orupgrading essential services, rebuilding transport infrastructure, reforestation andthe like.

To sum up the principles outlined above, it is useful to relate a comment oftenvoiced by African government officials who, after generously opening their doors torefugees, observe: Refugees have water, clinics, schools and food. The population ofthe host country has nothing. We fear a backlash. In other words, a backlash on the partof the local population who begin to question the growing inequality being created oftenin the same territory, where the assisted population and the local population end up

reaching disproportionate levels of development, solely by virtue of whether or not one isa a mandated beneficiary of international assistance and protection.

The guidelines concerning the need to contemplate support of local populations inthe same way as refugee populations draw on two approaches:

The PARINAC (Partnership in Action) process, chartered by the UNHCR inCopenhagen in 1994, seeks to further the takeover of assistance operations by localagencies from large international agencies; whereas it is clear that in a greatnumber of developing nations, local structures are hardly capable of respondingadequately in the short term to serious humanitarian situations.

An economic and ethic type approach maintains that the continued managementof the majority of humanitarian situations by Northern agencies is unethical if itdoes not allow national agencies (public or private) to learn and to assume controlonce the first stages of an emergency are over. The economic approach aims tolessen the high costs that Northern NGOs impose on national or UN donors in thefinancing of their assistance programs.


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2.2.2 SPECIALIZED GOVERNMENT STRUCTURES

The foreign policy of a nation is conducted by its government, which in turn usesa certain number of specialized government agencies to carry out its humanitarian policy.It is important to note a number of changes that have emerged between the years 1980

and 1990. During this period France pioneered protection in the United Nations of theright to humanitarian interference, and was the first to create a specific governmentalstructure responsible for humanitarian issues. The French Minister of HumanitarianAssistance coordinates the roles of different entities acting in this arena and shapesgovernment policy on the subject. The first to hold this position was Dr. BernardKouchner, who was also named by the UN Secretary General to be Civil Administratorof Kosovo.

There is nonetheless no single agency model common to every country. Themajor European and North American actors such as US AID and its partners, the DisasterAssistance Relief Team (DART), or the European Community Humanitarian Office

(ECHO) based in Brussels, are equipped with organizations on the scale of their largemeans. In every other Western country, there is traditionally an organizational unit forthe management and coordination of humanitarian affairs. This coordination is made allthe more necessary if one considers that in Western countries, actual bilateral agreementsof humanitarian intervention have been established (occasionally running counter topolicies coordinated at the regional level) bringing together men and women from severalnational civil services, including civil security forces, police, public health, andspecialized military or civil units (engineering, health, epidemiology, mine clearance,etc.).

Conflicts of competence or direction often arise among several international unitsplaced in the same territory, not to mention the competition created by variousexhibitions of flag politics, where each organization attempts to meet the criteria ofvisibility and communication demanded by different countries in order to satisfy theirrespective public opinions.

It would be wrong to conclude this section without mentioning the workaccomplished to strengthen humanitarian intervention policies by nations of the Souththat welcome refugees and displaced persons. From Ethiopia in the 1980s to Nicaragua,Pakistan, Rwanda, Sudan, or Vietnam, a large number of Southern nations have judged itimportant to be able to:

Coordinate under a single structure policies for complex humanitarian interventionthat would cover long periods of time and often large areas

Manage the different national and international agencies in order to avoid errorsand duplications and to focus the actions undertaken

Begin replacement of foreign organizations through gradual takeover by Stateentities of financing and humanitarian action

Strictly administer end-stage or exit operations and reinforce policies forreconstruction once the humanitarian crisis has ended


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To accomplish these goals, a large number of governments have seen fit to createspecialized agencies to administer the humanitarian policies listed above. These agencies,along with the specialized ministries of the host country, are necessary partners in thefollow-through of a humanitarian crisis and must be respected by humanitarians for whatthey represent.

2.3 BENEFICIARY POPULATIONS: REFUGEES, DISPLACED PERSONS,WAR VICTIMS, CHILD SOLDIERS, VULNERABLE GROUPS, AT-RISKPERSONS

As of the turn of the millennium there were more than 50 million refugees anddisplaced persons in the world. The majority among them are displaced persons whilethe rest make up the category of refugees. The difference between the two categories isthat one group benefits from international protectionrefugees are under the protectionof the UNHCRwhile displaced persons are not officially under any particular sort ofprotection. The responsibility for persons falling under this category is referred either to

the host country or to a multilateral agency mandated by the international community todeal with the problem.

CONVENTION AND PROTOCOLTo describe the beneficiary populations for humanitarian aid, we must go back to

the definition of the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status ofRefugees. Citing these instruments, we can define a refugee as any person who "owing towell-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality,membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of hisnationality, and is unable, or owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of theprotection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the countryof his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to suchfear, is unwilling to return to it."

The Convention of 1951 established temporal limits on this protection ("As aresult of events occurring before 1 January 1951"); as well as geographic limits in somecases, due to States being able to specify at the time of their ratification whether theyaccepted the terms of the Convention as applying to events everywhere or only to eventsoccurring in Europe. The Protocol of 1967 was able to expand the spatio-temporaldimension of the Convention, even as it constituted a separate instrument. Nonetheless,the Convention and Protocol should not be considered universal tools, because fewer than150 nations are officially party to either one or both of these instruments. Some States(for example, India) officially have their own policy of asylum not regulated by theprovisions of the 1951 Convention. These legal distinctions aside, the Convention andProtocol constitute the major international accords on the protection of refugees, and theirfundamental character has been widely recognized both internationally and regionally.

Finally, we must recognize the efforts of African nations to establish aConvention for the protection of African refugees within the framework of the AfricanUnion (AU).


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2.3.1 REFUGEES, ASYLUM-SEEKERS, AND DISPLACED PERSONS

REFUGEESTechnically, it is important to distinguish between the categories of refugee and

displaced person . A refugee is a person who, in order to flee persecution, decided to

cross an international border, whether by land, sea or air. A refugee may have crossedover several borders before deciding to ask for asylum in the country of his or her choice.No international normative stipulation forces a refugee to request asylum only incountries neighbouring his own, where he might be subject to threats or pursuit by hisown government.

Before being declared a refugee, the person who requests asylum is classified asan asylum-seekermeaning a person who presents a request for asylum to animmigration authority or a public ministry. The response to this request is far from beingautomatically affirmative, especially in cases of individual requests. More and more

States, Western

governments inparticular, haveadopted theirown legislationregarding theright of asylum,often rendering itmore restrictive;limiting, forexample, thepossibility of

asylum-seekersto declare

themselvesrefugees if theyhave crossedseveral bordersoutside of their

countries of origin. On the other hand, prima facie declarations, which consider an entiregroup of people as refugees without individual selections or interviews, have facilitatedimmediate protection for large groups.

It must be kept in mind that even if a refugee is a beneficiary of certain norms ofinternational or national protection according to the provisions of the Convention signedby the host country, that host country may still limit its responsibilities to a strictminimum when determining the level of assistance the refugee is entitled to receive.

Hence an important distinction in the division of responsibilities concerningintervention for refugees or asylum-seekers: the host country and the UNHCR haveexclusive responsibility for questions tied to the protection of refugees (this is true even if

Macedonian Refugees arriving from Kosovo, FRY. UNHCR, R.LeMoyne, 03.1999.


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a growing number of non-governmental human rights organizationsincluding HumanRights Watchclosely monitor the application of these provisions); while traditionally,national governmental agencies or national charities and international humanitarianorganizations take on a major responsibility in the management of assistance operations.

DISPLACED PERSONSThe concept of displaced persons is the historical result of a hardening ofinternational borders by a growing number of nations in the 1980s and 1990s, as well asof a new vision of conflict that has emerged since the end of the Cold War. The greatmajority of these conflicts are intra-state in origin and provoke large displacements ofcivilians from one point to another within the same national territory, without their beingable to exit. The fact is as surprising as it is little-known, that the majority of personsdisplaced by conflict in the year 2000 were displaced internally (displaced persons) ratherthan internationally (refugees).

The dimension of this phenomenon is in some cases astonishing. It is estimated

that there are 1,200,000 displaced persons in Colombia, and several hundreds ofthousands remain displaced in, Burma, Burundi, Congo, Sudan, and other nations.

The important aspect of displaced persons is that they are not under the specificprotection of any international convention nor of the mandate of any internationalorganization. To study this phenomenon, the United Nations has created the position

humanitarian relief operations

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