Humanitarian action Humanitarian action and peace operations and peace operations

in Africain Africa

David AmbrosettiDavid Ambrosetti(CNRS – Université Paris Ouest Nanterre)(CNRS – Université Paris Ouest Nanterre)

I – Africa, a cradle of the humanitarian I – Africa, a cradle of the humanitarian action and peace operationsaction and peace operations

II – Effects and stakes of this II – Effects and stakes of this international interventionisminternational interventionism

I – I – Africa, a cradle of the Africa, a cradle of the humanitarian action and peace humanitarian action and peace

operationsoperations

A) Two founding « episodes » in A) Two founding « episodes » in current humanitarian action: Biafra current humanitarian action: Biafra and Ethiopiaand Ethiopia

B) UN peace operations and AfricaB) UN peace operations and Africa

A) 1. Biafra (1967-1970)A) 1. Biafra (1967-1970)

NigeriaNigeria AbujaAbuja IboIbo

Lieutenant-colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu Lieutenant-colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu

Joint Church Aid Joint Church Aid – 55 000 tons of supplies– 55 000 tons of supplies

International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) – 22 000 tons– 22 000 tons

Bernard KouchnerBernard Kouchner Médecins sans frontières (1971)Médecins sans frontières (1971)

Jacques FoccartJacques Foccart Nuclear test in Reggane (déc. Nuclear test in Reggane (déc. 1960)1960)

Félix Houphouët-BoignyFélix Houphouët-Boigny Léopold Sédar Senghor (Sénégal)Léopold Sédar Senghor (Sénégal)

Markpress (Genève)Markpress (Genève)

2. Ethiopia (1984-1985)2. Ethiopia (1984-1985)

Wollo (nord)Wollo (nord) charity businesscharity businessBob GeldofBob Geldof

Band Aid (nov. 1984)Band Aid (nov. 1984) Live Aid (juil. 1985)Live Aid (juil. 1985)

1 200 000 tons of aid1 200 000 tons of aid

The DergThe Derg Mengistu Haïle-MariamMengistu Haïle-Mariam

Tigrean People’s Liberation FrontTigrean People’s Liberation Front

Eritrean People’s Liberation FrontEritrean People’s Liberation Front

Forced displacements of 600 000 persons, 200 000 diedForced displacements of 600 000 persons, 200 000 died

B) UN peace operations and AfricaB) UN peace operations and Africa

1. ONUC: a turn1. ONUC: a turn

2. The post Cold War renewal (1988-1993)2. The post Cold War renewal (1988-1993)

3. Blazing failures and withdrawal (1993-1999)3. Blazing failures and withdrawal (1993-1999)

4. The current unprecedented rise of UN peace 4. The current unprecedented rise of UN peace operations (2000 decade, till now)operations (2000 decade, till now)

1. The ONUC (1960-1964)1. The ONUC (1960-1964)

Congo-Léopoldville / République démocratique du Congo-Léopoldville / République démocratique du Congo (RDC) / Zaïre (Congo-Kinshasa)Congo (RDC) / Zaïre (Congo-Kinshasa)

Patrice LumumbaPatrice Lumumba KatangaKatanga Moïse Moïse TshombéTshombé

Dag Hammarskjöld (Dag Hammarskjöld (†† en sept. 1961)en sept. 1961)

Resolution 143 of the UNSC Resolution 143 of the UNSC withdrawal of Belgian withdrawal of Belgian forcesforces

19 500 personals19 500 personals30 contributor states (Africa and Asia)30 contributor states (Africa and Asia)

2. The end of the Cold War and the renewal of 2. The end of the Cold War and the renewal of peace operations (1988-1993)peace operations (1988-1993)

PerestroïkaPerestroïka

NamibiaNamibia Angola Angola MozambiqueMozambique

Somalia : Somalia : Restore Hope Restore Hope (UNITAF / Dec. 92- March 93) et (UNITAF / Dec. 92- March 93) et ONUSOM II ONUSOM II (ONU / March 93 – March 95)(ONU / March 93 – March 95)28 000 personals28 000 personals

Mohamed Farah AideedMohamed Farah AideedJune 1993 (24 Pakistani blue helmets)June 1993 (24 Pakistani blue helmets)3 October 1993 (18 US Marines and one UN Malaysian)3 October 1993 (18 US Marines and one UN Malaysian)

US Congress (Jesse Helms)US Congress (Jesse Helms)Boutros Boutros-Ghali UN Secretary-GeneralBoutros Boutros-Ghali UN Secretary-GeneralKofi Annan Deputy-UNSG Chief of the DPKOKofi Annan Deputy-UNSG Chief of the DPKO

3. Blazing failures and withdrawal (1993-1999)3. Blazing failures and withdrawal (1993-1999)

MINUAR in Rwanda (5 October 1993)MINUAR in Rwanda (5 October 1993)General R. DallaireGeneral R. Dallaire

Michael Barnett – US delegation to the UNMichael Barnett – US delegation to the UN

President J. Habyarimana (President J. Habyarimana († † 6 April 1994) 6 April 1994) Rwandan Patriotic Front (P. Kagamé)Rwandan Patriotic Front (P. Kagamé)Hutu PowerHutu Power Col. Théoneste BagosoraCol. Théoneste Bagosora

Resolution 925 – withdrawal of 2 000 Blue Helmets in the Resolution 925 – withdrawal of 2 000 Blue Helmets in the heart of the genocide (« g »-word)heart of the genocide (« g »-word)

500 000 to one million died500 000 to one million diedThen Bosnia - Zaïre 1996-1997Then Bosnia - Zaïre 1996-1997

Withdrawal: 70 000 UN personals in 1993, 13 000 in February Withdrawal: 70 000 UN personals in 1993, 13 000 in February 1998. Budget decline (from 3,6 billion $ to 1 billion $)1998. Budget decline (from 3,6 billion $ to 1 billion $)

4. The current unprecedented rise (decade 2000)4. The current unprecedented rise (decade 2000)

Lakhdar Brahimi report (July 2000)Lakhdar Brahimi report (July 2000)

Peace building, even state buildingPeace building, even state building

Security Sector ReformSecurity Sector Reform

Regionalization (Regionalization (African ownershipAfrican ownership))

UNAMSIL in Sierra Leone (1999-2005)UNAMSIL in Sierra Leone (1999-2005)UK leader, rescuing the UN in May 2000UK leader, rescuing the UN in May 2000Revolutionary United Front (RUF)Revolutionary United Front (RUF)President Ahmed Tejan KabbahPresident Ahmed Tejan Kabbah

African dossiers = some 70-75 % of the UNSC agenda African dossiers = some 70-75 % of the UNSC agenda

In 2010, Africa In 2010, Africa = half of the UN operations deployed around the world (8 out = half of the UN operations deployed around the world (8 out

of 16) of 16) = three-quarters (73 500) out of the 100 000 personals in = three-quarters (73 500) out of the 100 000 personals in

uniform deployed around the worlduniform deployed around the world

Sudan alone = a third (30 000, 20 000 for Darfur and 10 000 Sudan alone = a third (30 000, 20 000 for Darfur and 10 000 for South Sudan)for South Sudan)

DRC = 20 000DRC = 20 000 Liberia = 11 000Liberia = 11 000 Côte-d’Ivoire = Côte-d’Ivoire = 85008500

Pakistan, Bangladesh and India (3 major troop contributors) = Pakistan, Bangladesh and India (3 major troop contributors) = 28% of the total28% of the total

9 African states among the 20 major contributors9 African states among the 20 major contributors

Negligible financial contributions: Zambia and Somalia = Negligible financial contributions: Zambia and Somalia = 0,001% of the UN budget each ; South Africa = 0,29%0,001% of the UN budget each ; South Africa = 0,29%

A)A) Some figures: a call for modestySome figures: a call for modesty

B)B) Strategic learning from African actorsStrategic learning from African actors

C)C) The « Africanization » of peace and The « Africanization » of peace and security matters in Africa: towards a security matters in Africa: towards a new peace and security architecture new peace and security architecture in Africain Africa

II – Effects and stakes of this II – Effects and stakes of this international interventionisminternational interventionism

A) A) Some figures: a call for modestySome figures: a call for modesty

1. The decrease of death tolls due to armed 1. The decrease of death tolls due to armed violence in Africaviolence in Africa

Human Security Center: Death tolls related to Human Security Center: Death tolls related to armed conflicts regularly increased from 1960 to armed conflicts regularly increased from 1960 to 1990. Decreasing since then.1990. Decreasing since then.

In 1960, Africa = 68 % of the total of people killed In 1960, Africa = 68 % of the total of people killed in armed conflicts around the world ;in armed conflicts around the world ;13 % in 2005 (African bank for development).13 % in 2005 (African bank for development).

Proposed causes : transformations of the forms of Proposed causes : transformations of the forms of violence and improvement of sanitary conditions violence and improvement of sanitary conditions and humanitarian relief.and humanitarian relief.

2. Engaged means remain modest2. Engaged means remain modest

Multidimensional operations, very intrusive Multidimensional operations, very intrusive Security Sector Reform (Sierra Leone, RDC, Liberia, Côte-Security Sector Reform (Sierra Leone, RDC, Liberia, Côte-d’Ivoire)d’Ivoire)

But limited means:But limited means: UN peace operations = 7,7 billion $ per year around the UN peace operations = 7,7 billion $ per year around the

world; UNAMSIL in Sierra Leone (750 million $ per year world; UNAMSIL in Sierra Leone (750 million $ per year in 2002 for 17 500 personals in uniform)in 2002 for 17 500 personals in uniform)

Comparison : arms trade around the world = 30 billion $ Comparison : arms trade around the world = 30 billion $ per year; and the total of state military budgets around per year; and the total of state military budgets around the world = 800 billion $ per year.the world = 800 billion $ per year.

20 000 personals in uniform to cover the whole Darfur 20 000 personals in uniform to cover the whole Darfur (size of France, very divided habitat, rudimentary or (size of France, very divided habitat, rudimentary or inexistent infrastructures)inexistent infrastructures)

Weak strategic commitment, short-term objectives, Weak strategic commitment, short-term objectives, improvisation, personal professionalization improved but improvisation, personal professionalization improved but still insufficientstill insufficient scandal of sexual abuses (Sierra Leone, Liberia, DRC)scandal of sexual abuses (Sierra Leone, Liberia, DRC)

B) Strategic learning from African B) Strategic learning from African actorsactors

Commitment of African states in peace operationsCommitment of African states in peace operations Access to foreign currencies, opportunities for training Access to foreign currencies, opportunities for training

(Burundi), “risky” military kept away, multilateral (Burundi), “risky” military kept away, multilateral visibility as a regional powervisibility as a regional power

Sidelining and direct opposition strategiesSidelining and direct opposition strategies Political weakness of international forces rapidly Political weakness of international forces rapidly

analyzed and exploited (Somalia 93, Rwanda 94, Sierra analyzed and exploited (Somalia 93, Rwanda 94, Sierra Leone 2000, UA au Darfur 2004-2007)Leone 2000, UA au Darfur 2004-2007)

Obstacles, UN (Western) personal expelled (Eritrea and Obstacles, UN (Western) personal expelled (Eritrea and the border commission for Badme 2005 ; Sudan and Jan the border commission for Badme 2005 ; Sudan and Jan Pronk 2006 ; Chad et MINURCAT 2010)Pronk 2006 ; Chad et MINURCAT 2010)

Medias, humanitarian action and military Medias, humanitarian action and military strategies strategies Kamajors and LURD (Danny Hoffman)Kamajors and LURD (Danny Hoffman)

C) The « Africanisation » of peace C) The « Africanisation » of peace and security in Africaand security in Africa

1. Context1. Context

Pan-African Movement Pan-African Movement Organization of the African Unity (OAU, Organization of the African Unity (OAU, May 1963)May 1963)

Bilateral interferences from ex colonial powers Bilateral interferences from ex colonial powers 20 French armed 20 French armed operations from 1963 to 1983.operations from 1963 to 1983.

First OAU peace operation in Chad in 1981. Withdrawn in June First OAU peace operation in Chad in 1981. Withdrawn in June 1982 on a failure. 1982 on a failure.

OAU Mechanism for prevention, management and resolution of OAU Mechanism for prevention, management and resolution of conflict in 1990 (military observation missions in Rwanda, conflict in 1990 (military observation missions in Rwanda, Burundi, Comoros)Burundi, Comoros)

Continental integration weakened by a rapid process of sub-Continental integration weakened by a rapid process of sub-regional cooperation regional cooperation seven regional organizations in Africa seven regional organizations in Africa todaytoday ECOMOG by ECOWAS in Liberia (1990-1997) and Sierra Leone ECOMOG by ECOWAS in Liberia (1990-1997) and Sierra Leone (1991-1999)(1991-1999)

2. The African Union (AU) in 20022. The African Union (AU) in 2002

InnovationsInnovations Inspired by the European Union (Commission) Inspired by the European Union (Commission)

and the UN (PSC)and the UN (PSC) Article 4 of the constitutive ActArticle 4 of the constitutive Act Department of Peace and SecurityDepartment of Peace and Security

Operations in Burundi, Darfur and ComorosOperations in Burundi, Darfur and Comoros

The African Stand By Force and the Continental The African Stand By Force and the Continental Early Warning System (AU and the five Regional Early Warning System (AU and the five Regional Economic Communities): in progressEconomic Communities): in progress

3. Limits3. Limits

External:External:

Strong commitment of foreign partners: Strong commitment of foreign partners: Peace Facility of the EU, then the Europe / Africa Partnership in Peace Facility of the EU, then the Europe / Africa Partnership in

Lisbon, financial support from the G8 Lisbon, financial support from the G8 « a rush among donors  » « a rush among donors  » in the context of a “new scramble for African mineral resources”in the context of a “new scramble for African mineral resources”

Donor conditionality: strong presence of foreign (Western) experts Donor conditionality: strong presence of foreign (Western) experts in Addis Ababa surrounding these projectsin Addis Ababa surrounding these projects

AU used in a AU used in a ad hoc ad hoc way, selectivity according to the interests of way, selectivity according to the interests of the foreign powers with important projection forces in Africa (US, the foreign powers with important projection forces in Africa (US, France, UK)France, UK)

Reluctance to provide the African forces with better military Reluctance to provide the African forces with better military equipmentequipment

Internal:Internal:

Weak political commitment of the African states Weak political commitment of the African states only when only when competition for regional hegemonycompetition for regional hegemony

Military contributors: Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa, Uganda Military contributors: Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa, Uganda Financial contributors: Ethiopia, Libya, KenyaFinancial contributors: Ethiopia, Libya, Kenya

Difference to make between « Africanization » and « ownership » Difference to make between « Africanization » and « ownership » (Benedikt Franke)(Benedikt Franke)