Joint Aviation Authorities Private Pilot’s Licence

Ground School

! What is the human factor? §  Understanding of your body and mind §  YOU are the most important and valuable element in the

airplane!

! Why is this important? §  Knowing our limitations §  Reducing human error §  Optimising human performance

Systems

Organs

Tissues

Cells

! Nervous System §  Central Nervous System §  Peripheral Nervous System

! Circulatory System §  Heart §  Blood Vessels

Air is a mixture of gases composed of:

§  78% Nitrogen §  21% Oxygen §  1% Other gasses:

§  Water Vapour §  Carbon Dioxide §  Inert gases

! Transports Oxygen into the bloodstream AND expels Carbon Dioxide via the process of gas diffusion (transfer).

! Principle of Diffusion: Gas moves from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration

! The body can detect the level of Carbon Dioxide (acidity) and modify the breathing rate.

! Oxygen carried in the red blood cells though haemoglobin complexes. Carbon dioxide carried dissolved in the blood plasma (liquid).

! Boyle's law (pressure-volume law): the volume of a given amount of gas held at constant temperature varies inversely with the applied pressure when the temperature and mass are constant

! Charles' Law: (temperature-volume law) the volume of a given amount of gas held at constant pressure is directly proportional to the temperature

! Gay-Lussac's Law: (pressure temperature Law) the pressure of a given amount of gas held at constant volume is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature

§  Partial pressure = pressure that one of the gasses in a mixture would exert if it were alone

§  Total pressure of mixture = sum of partial pressures

§  As altitude increases, total pressure of air decreases and individual partial pressures decrease

§  The relative composition of air remains constant. (Does NOT vary with altitude).

A lack of sufficient oxygen to the body Symptoms include:

§  Difficulty in concentration §  Faulty Judgment §  Headache §  Deterioration of Vision §  High Pulse Rate §  Blue Lips §  Cyanosis §  Tingling of the skin §  Loss of Consciousness

Prevention:

§  Avoid flying above 10,000 without supplemental oxygen.

§  The effects can be experienced at lower altitude by smokers/unfit persons

! Developed to allow people to fly at high altitudes which would usually require the use of supplementary oxygen

! Cabin Altitude: Conditions ‘mimic’ lower alt (8000 feet)

! What if it fails? §  Time of Useful Consciousness

Altitude Mod Activity Min Activity

22,000 5 min 10 min

25,000 2 min 3 min

28,000 1 min 1.5 min

30,000 45 sec 1.25 min

35,000 30 sec 45 sec

40,000 12 sec 15 sec

! Sudden loss of cabin pressure

! Air condenses forming mist

! Body gasses will attempt to vent out. Can cause perforation of ear drum especially in case of blocked nose

! In extreme cases can cause loose objects to become projectiles (Explosive Decompression)

! Immediate donning of oxygen masks + emergency descent

Over breathing causing Carbon Dioxide levels to drop. Symptoms include:

§  Numbness and Tingling sensations §  Palpitations, increased pulse rate and chest pains §  Sweating §  Blurred vision §  Dizziness and Fainting §  Ringing in the ears §  Muscle Spasms §  Drowsiness and eventually unconsciousness

! Warning: Symptoms can be dangerously similar to those caused by Hypoxia! Refer to cabin altitude for confirmation of diagnosis.

! Treating/Preventing Hyperventilation:

§  Consciously slowing down breathing rate (Calm patient down) §  Ask patient to breathe into a PAPER bag

! Forces exerted on the body measured in Gs ! 1G = force exerted on an object at rest due to gravity

! Positive G forces increase weight of human body: ! Blood becomes heavier and settles into the lower body ! Black out

! Negative G forces decrease weight of human body: ! Blood becomes lighter and rises into the head ! Red out

§  The most important sensory organ for flying.

§  Information received from our eyes is backed up by other inputs.

§  Can be the source of many deceiving illusions.

§  We need to understand the limitations of our sense of vision to be able to use it efficiently.

§  The eye is a complex structure made up of many parts such as the cornea, iris and lens.

§  The Retina is the light sensitive layer located at the back of the eye. It is composed of:

§  The Optic nerve carries sensory information from the retina to the brain. The spot where the optic nerve connects to the retina cannot have cones or rods! That part is therefore ‘blind’. It is known as the blind spot.

Cones Property Rods

Central Where they are found Peripheral

Colour What they can see Intensity

Need good light Light needed to work Affective in poorer light

Higher Visual Acuity Lower

§  Describes the ability to use inputs from two eyes.

§  Main advantage is protection against the blind spot: If an image falls on the blind spot of one eye, we can see it with the other eye!

§  Flickering Lights §  Automatically attract the eyes §  Cause feelings of unease or discomfort §  Can also bring about epileptic fits

§  Glare §  Whilst flying, our eyes can also be exposed to light coming

from below us, after being reflected by objects or clouds. §  This can make pilots feel uncomfortable: Use high quality

sunglasses which protect your eyes from all directions.

§  Divide windscreen in to 10° imaginary sections

§  Short regularly spaced movements spending a few seconds on each section

§  Avoids random ‘sweeping’ movements which are much less effective

§  Occasionally focus on wingtips or any distant object to ensure eyes are not affected by empty field myopia

§  Rods take around 30 minutes to adapt fully to darkness.

§  They will immediately lose this adaptation on exposure to bright white light, and require another full 30 minutes to re-adapt!

§  To avoid losing night adaptation, cockpit lighting is usually red as this does not have the detrimental effect of white light.

§  Close one eye if you cannot avoid being exposed to a bright light (for example an airport van approaches you with its headlights on).

§  Technique similar to that used during the day, however:

§  As discussed earlier, peripheral vision is the most sensitive at night.

§  During scanning by night, the pilot should scan the

individual sectors slower, so as to allow ‘off-centre’ viewing of objects in peripheral vision.

§  Empty Field Myopia: §  The tendency of our eyes to focus just 1-2 meters ahead when

flying over featureless terrain. §  This is will definitely not allow pilots to spot and avoid other

aircraft in time!

§  Depth Perception limitations: §  In hazy conditions, objects might be closer than they appear. §  In very clear conditions, objects might be further away than

what we perceive.

§  Staring at a light during the night can give the impression that the light is moving.

§  In this way, a star might appear to be an aircraft.

Can be caused especially by:

¡  Cloud ¡  Lights

Trust your instruments!

Runway Slope:

Runway Width

Haze: ¡  Makes runway/objects difficult to see

¡  Brain assumes objects which we can just barely see are far away

¡  Objects are closer than we perceive!

Black Hole Approach: ¡  Brightly lit runway against dark surroundings

¡  Lack of visual reference creates a visual illusion of being high on the approach

¡  Similar effect observed in white-out conditions

�  Pilot no longer understands the actual aircraft orientation in space

�  May be due to any of the visual illusions explained before or illusions of the vestibular system (will be explained later)

�  Trust your instruments and seek clear visual orientation points! Maintain clear of cloud at all times – disorientation is easier in IMC.

§  Outer Ear §  External ear §  Outer canal §  Ear drum

§  Middle Ear §  Air-filled cavity containing the ossicles (Three small bones

which are forced to move by the vibrating eardrum) §  Inner Ear:

§  Cochlea which converts the vibrations into electric signals to the brain.

§  Vestibular apparatus consisting of the static organ and semi-circular canals.

§  Semicircular canals arranged along the X, Y and Z axis

§  Full of fluid which moves and deflects sensory hairs – therefore act to give a sensation of movement

§  Most primitive sensory system

§  Climbing Higher: §  Outside Pressure Decreases therefore Pressure in Middle Ear

becomes relatively higher §  Pressure difference causes ear drum to cave out causing pain §  Eustachian tube vents out air into the throat to equalize pressure

§  Descending to a Lower Altitude: §  Outside Pressure Increases therefore Pressure in Middle Ear

becomes relatively lower §  Pressure difference causes ear drum to cave in causing pain §  Eustachian tube tries to vents out air into the throat to equalize

pressure…..BUT…

§  Eustachian tube is able to allow air to move freely outwards, but it is not so easy for air to move inwards

§  Pain is therefore more common during descent

§  Chew/Swallow/Yawn/Valsalva movement

§  When suffering from a cold, Eustachian tube is blocked with mucus – equalization impossible: §  Pain in ears §  Danger of eardrum damage §  Vertigo (Balance systems effected)

§  Results from exposure to noise

§  Temporary (experienced everyday) or Permanent

§  Results from loss of sensitivity of hair cells in cochlea. In extreme cases, physical damage to eardrum or ossicle bones may follow exposure to excessive noise.

§  Protection: §  Avoid unnecessary exposure §  Headsets (PNR/ANR) §  Squelch

§  Inner Ear sensory system very primitive and prone to illusions

§  Illusion of level flight while in a steady turn (fluid settles and movement no longer detected) – USE AND TRUST YOUR EYES/INSTRUMENTS

§  Illusion of level flight whilst slowly banking into a shallow turn (rate of acceleration into the turn too minute to be detected) - USE AND TRUST YOUR EYES/INSTRUMENTS

§  Illusion of banking in the opposite direction when you are in fact banking out of a turn towards wings level (fluid would have settled when established in the original turn, and is now disturbed in the opposite direction) – USE AND TRUST YOUR EYES/INSTRUMENTS

§  Other illusions: §  Descending after being in a turn §  Tumbling backwards caused by acceleration §  Pitching forwards caused by deceleration

§  Causes: §  Mismatch of information received by the brain (Especially from eyes

and ears) §  Over-stimulation of inner ear mechanisms by accelerations (rapid

maneuvers/turbulence)

§  Symptoms: §  Discomfort §  Malaise §  Sweating §  Vertigo §  Nausea §  Vomiting

§  Prevention:

§  Be as smooth as possible (DO NOT fight turbulence – Pilot Induced Oscillations)

§  Avoid excessive unnecessary maneuvers §  Ventilate Cabin §  Keep a visual reference point §  Avoid rear-facing seats §  Involve affected passengers (keeping their eyes out) §  LAST resort: Recline seat to reduce accelerations §  Keep sickness bag available!

§  Tests: §  General Checkup §  Electrocardiogram §  Lipid Profile §  Blood Analysis §  Ophthalmic Function §  Pulmonary Function §  Urinalysis

§  Validity: §  Under 40: 60 months §  40-49: 24 months §  50+: 12 months

! The body contains trapped gasses in the following areas: §  Stomach §  Intestines §  Sinuses §  Middle ear §  Teeth (decaying or improperly filled)

! As cabin altitude increases, these gases expand causing pain!

§  Upper Respiratory Tract Infections (Colds): §  Eustachian tube blocked with mucus:

§  Unable to neutralize pressure differences §  Ear Pain

§  Sinus Pain §  Inability to concentrate §  Distractions:

§  Blocked Nose §  Running Nose §  Sneezing §  Coughing

§  Adequate and controlled nutrition is crucial for good health:

§  Avoid excessive fats, cholesterol and salt whilst ensuring adequate and body requirements.

§  Crew members should avoid the following foods, notorious for being responsible for food poisoning:

§  Shellfish or crustacean. §  Dishes prepared from or containing cream. §  Dishes prepared from or containing mayonnaise. §  Dishes prepared from or containing uncooked eggs. §  Dishes prepared from or containing uncooked fish.

§  Illegal drugs strictly prohibited.

§  Legal drugs mostly incompatible with flying.

§  Medication Adverse Effects: §  Dizziness, Nausea, Diarrhoea, Blurred Vision

§  Condition requiring use of medication: §  Cold, Infection, Allergy, Psychological issues.

§  Food Supplements acceptable and encouraged!

§ 

pt 1 – Use of Prescription/ Non-Prescription Drugs

§  AME to be consulted when use of medication is required.

§  Effect of drug on crew member observed. §  minimum 24 hours.

§  Above procedure to be repeated if the medication is changed. §  different combination products.

pt 2 – Use of Prescription/ Non-Prescription Drugs

§  Always advise health care team that you are a pilot.

§  Do not fly for: §  24 hours following local anesthetic §  72 hours following general anesthetic

§  Condition for which anesthetic was administered is usually more restrictive than the anesthetic itself.

§ 

pt 3 – Local and General Anesthetics

§  Monitor validity of inoculations. §  (Hep A – 2 yrs, Polio + Tetanus 10 yrs)

§  Avoid alcohol within 24 hrs of inoculation.

pt 4 – Immunisation

§  Do not fly for at least 24 hrs following

an inoculation and prior to seeking

advice from AME.

§  Crewmembers should not normally act as blood donors.

§  Company to be advised prior to donating blood.

§  Do not fly for at least 24 hrs following blood donation.

§  Do not fly for at least 48 hrs following bone marrow donation

pt 4 – Blood Donation

§  Legal drug with detrimental effect on human skills and efficiency.

§  Effects related to the levels in the blood.

§  No alcohol for at least 8 hours prior to flight

§  Zero Alcohol level whilst flying: §  Body dissipates 1 unit of alcohol per hour.

§  Ensure you take the proper advantages of allocated rest time prior to flying

§  Credit system – 1 hour of sleep for every 2 hours of activity (8 hour sleep average).

§  Rapid Eye Movement Sleep: Refreshes Brain

§  Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep: Refreshes Body

§  No individual is to act as crew member if for any reason his physical or mental condition can endanger the safety of the aeroplane and occupants.

§  Aero-medical advice should be sought prior to returning to flying duties following any surgical procedure.

§  Legal requirement for passenger briefing

Seat Belts

To fasten the seatbelt, insert the latch into the buckle, and pull the strap to tighten.

To release the seatbelt, pull the top of the buckle and pull the latch apart.

Front seats are equipped with a shoulder strap which should be fastened to the latch.

Life Vests & Life Rafts

The Life Vest are located in a blue pocket under your seat

To wear the life vest, put your head through the neck opening

Fasten the Straps around your waist and pull to tighten

To inflate the vest pull the red straps. The life vest should be ONLY inflated once you are

outside the aircraft

When flying over water, this aircraft will be equipped with a Life-Raft which can

accommodate from 4 to 6 persons. A nominated person will get the raft out of the

aircraft and ONLY inflate it when OUTSIDE the aircraft

Bracing Position

In case of an emergency landing or ditch, you are required to assume the bracing position. Fasten your seatbelt tight and bend forward on your lap with your hands over your head. Maintain this positon until the aircraft comes

to a complete stop.

Passengers seated in the front seat are to tighten their sholder strap and sit up straight

and cover their face. It is advisable that sharp objects such as keys

& pens are to be removed from pockets and stowed to avoid injury.

Emergency Exit

There is a door on each side of the cabin. To open the door pull the lever backwards to the open position.

When evacuating the aircraft, rear passengers are to exit the aircraft first, followed by the front seat occupants.

Always vacate to the rear and wait near the tail away from any smoke, fire, or other

danger.

In case of ditching, when opening the doors allow water to flow into the cabin to equalize pressure to be able to open the doors fully. Inflate the life vest and raft

outside the aircraft and board the life raft.

When evacuating the aircraft, rear passengers are to exit the aircraft first, followed by the front seat occupants.

Always vacate to the rear and wait near the tail away from any smoke, fire, or other

danger.

In case of ditching, when opening the doors allow water to flow into the cabin to equalize pressure to be able to open the doors fully. Inflate the life vest and raft

outside the aircraft and board the life raft.

Other Equipment

This aircraft is equipped with a Fire Extinguisher which is locaged under one of the front seats

A First Aid Kit is found under the rear seat

Smoking is PROHIBITED at all times

Mobiles are to be switched OFF during the flight

When evacuating the aircraft, rear passengers are to exit the aircraft first, followed by the front seat occupants.

Always vacate to the rear and wait near the tail away from any smoke, fire, or other

danger.

In case of ditching, when opening the doors allow water to flow into the cabin to equalize pressure to be able to open the doors fully. Inflate the life vest and raft

outside the aircraft and board the life raft.

§  Emergency Location Transmitters: transmit aircraft location when: §  Activated by pilot §  A hard impact is detected

§  International Search and Rescue Signals

§  When pressure is applied (due to diving) Nitrogen gas dissolves into the blood.

§  §  If the pressure is released rapidly, Nitrogen

bubbles out creating a possible fatal condition.

§  Decompression Sickness (the bends) creates a need for strict discipline in people who undertake both diving and flying activities.

§  Crew members should not fly for 12 hours following diving using compressed air.

§  In case of dives of greater than 10 metres depth, crew members should not fly for at least 24 hours.

Might be harmless in everyday use but can pose dangers wherever carried on an aircraft:

! Explosives: fireworks, flares ! Gases: camping gas ! Flammable liquids: machines with petrol fuelled engines

including those which have been drained ! Flammable solids: non-safety matches ! Oxidisers: bleach ! Poisons: pesticides ! Corrosives: car batteries, mercury

! Carbon Monoxide: §  Colourless §  Odourless §  Tasteless

! Symptoms include: §  Headache, dizziness and nausea §  Deterioration in vision §  Impaired judgment and memory §  Personality change §  Coma and death

! Shut off cabin heater ! Stop all smoking (It shouldn’t have been there in the

first place) ! Increase the supply of fresh air through vents and

windows ! Land as soon as possible

§  Brain + Spinal Cord = Central Nervous System (CNS)

§  Smaller nerves = Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

§  How it works: §  Stimulus §  Analysis §  Action §  Feedback

§  Sense Organs: §  Eyes §  Ears §  Nose §  Taste Buds §  Skin/Muscle ‘feeling’ receptors

§  Sensitivity to particular stimulus §  Sensory Threshold §  Adaptation to continuous stimulus §  Sensory information stored briefly in sensory memory unless it is

processed

§  Involves the receipt of information by the senses, followed by its analysis

§  Affected by experience and expectation – stimuli more easily integrated and processed if they have been experienced before (Non-pilots find it hard to understand ATC)

§  Anticipation: Mind-set based on prior experience/ expectation

§  CAN HINDER AS MUCH AS HELP: make sure you ‘hear’ what you are told and not what you expect to be told (also applies to navigation features)

§  Habits: routines of behavior that are repeated regularly and tend to occur subconsciously. On many occasions, we don’t even realize that we are engaging in such activities (no self-analysis)!

§  Emphasis needs to be placed on analyzing each task before carrying it out – errors are likely to occur especially when: §  Flying a new type §  Tired §  Under-aroused §  Over-aroused

§  Thinking, reasoning and decision-making take place in the brain, in a part known as the central decision-maker.

§  Input signals: sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory, long term memory. The signals are many times passed from one form of memory to the other until a decision/action is taken.

§  Following a decision, an electrical signal is sent via nerves to muscles.

§  Limitations: The system can only handle one decision at a time (single-channel decision-maker).

§  Time-sharing takes place between tasks – each move forward together in stages. This will at first be difficult but if practiced sufficiently, the task will become a motor programme/skill like driving a car.

§  Best performance requires high levels of: §  Skill §  Knowledge + Optimal arousal §  Experience

§  Example: Poor skill and knowledge, low experience + poor cockpit design, bad weather and poor ATC service = high workload and poor performance

§  High workload will slow down or even stop decision making (tunnel vision effect – focusing only on one task)

§  Very low workload causes under arousal – also poor performance

§  Limited – very easily overloaded: §  Sensory memory can be overloaded with too many incoming

signals (busy ATC)

§  Short-term memory can be overloaded with a lot of information or a long delay (it can store an average of 7 items for 15 - 30 seconds)

§  Conflicting information is received

§  Excessive Workload

§  Person is excessively aroused

§  Information sources: §  Stimuli:

§  Necessity for attention to sensory information from surroundings)

§  Past Experiences

§  Learned Knowledge

§  Verbal Communication: §  Words, Tone, Pitch, Rate, Volume, Emphasis (supplemented by

body language) §  Non-verbal supplementation of great importance on occasions

(asking passengers if they are feeling unwell)

§  Memory: (Limitations in Red) §  Sensory Memory: Images, sounds

and other detected stimuli. (Max storage 1-2 seconds).

§  Short-Term Memory: 7 items for 15 seconds – Always write!

§  Working memory: Items currently being used (from short-term or long-term memory) . Limited capacity.

§  Long-Term memory: Information stored for later use. Two main sections: meaning + events. May not always remain 100% accurate when recalled to working memory.

§  Causes of Misinterpretation:

§  Ineffective communication §  Over-arousal §  Mind-set §  Mis-association with previous experience

§  Importance of acquiring clarification whenever not sure!

§  Causes:

§  Physical Stressors (Heat, Vibration, Noise, Turbulence, Eye Strain, Flashing Lights)

§  Psychological Stressors (Family/Work)

§  Effects: §  Decreased overall performance §  Fatigue §  Poor Judgment §  Easy distraction/disorientation §  Fixation on single problem

Arousal: §  Describes the responsiveness to received stimuli

§  Important in regulating consciousness, attention and information processing

§  Low Arousal: Deep sleep, lack of motivation, fatigue

§  High Arousal: Panic, Fear

Performance VS Arousal

§  Identify stress by acknowledging: §  Excessive pressure §  Decrease in your performance §  Presence of the cause

§  Act: §  Remove stressor §  Remove yourself!

§  Reducing stress: §  Early decisions §  Do not allow unnecessary distractions (ATC/Passengers) §  Do not accept clearances/instructions which you are not happy with §  Be prepared for delays §  Cancel flight if not happy during preparation stage §  Beware of ‘get-there-itis’

�  Judgement: A mental process which results in a decision being

taken. ¡  Learned skills – judgement almost automatic due to prior

learning (perceptual judgement) ¡  Thinking judgement – information has to be gathered,

compared and analyzed (cognitive judgement)

�  Judgement makes use of: ¡  Knowledge ¡  Rules ¡  Thinking ability ¡  Practical skills

§  Taking a decision: §  Identify and evaluate relevant information §  Distinguish between facts and emotions §  Study all the possibilities and alternatives §  Balance risks and benefits §  Take decision

§  Psychological Attitudes: §  Personality and attitude play a significant role in personal judgement §  Extremes of personality (extroverts/introverts) render persons unsuitable for a

pilot licence §  Hazardous attitudes:

§  Macho (Show off) §  Anti-Authority (Rules are there for others) §  Invulnerability (Won’t happen to me) §  Impulsivity (Acts without thinking) §  Resignation (I am helpless)

§  Important behavioral aspects to develop: §  Respect for rules §  Recognition of own ability §  Ability to listen to others §  Ability to communicate effectively §  Ability to manage cockpit §  Ability to manage passengers/colleagues §  Adequate decision-making skills §  Ability to control personal arousal levels §  Ability to separate facts from emotions §  Ability to delegate tasks §  Ability to rank priorities §  Effective risk assessment skills §  A positive approach §  Adequate self confidence

§  Risk Assessment:

§  Understanding the quantities and qualities of risks involved with every situation/decision

§  Depends on: §  Presence of Hazard §  Nature of Hazard §  Possibility of Hazard influencing flight

§  Situational Awareness: §  Being completely in control §  Aircraft systems handled well §  Air Traffic Control instructions complied with §  Building mental picture of activity around you by following ATC messages §  Fully aware of aircraft location (and particular points close to the aircraft

such as danger areas/controlled airspace) §  Knowledge of what conditions (weather) to expect en-route and at

destination due to thorough preparation

§  Cockpit Resource Management: §  Good pre-flight preparation (organized!) §  Disciplined approach §  Situational Awareness §  Time awareness §  Stress Management

§  Pilot in Command: §  Command role to be established if two pilots are flying §  If flying as a passenger, query any deviation from normal procedure NEVER BE AFRAID TO QUESTION A MORE EXPERIENCED PILOT

§  Ergonomics: Scientific studies carried out prior to finalizing the flight deck design

§  Design Eye Position (DEP): §  Adequate view of surroundings §  Adequate view of cockpit instrumentation

Pilot’s Eye below DEP: Limited view of surroundings Pilot’s Eye above DEP: Limited view of instrumentation

�  Importance of standardization: ¡  Aids pilot transition between types ¡  Standardization of controls:

¢  Pull up on flight controls= pitch up ¢  Push forward on engine controls = increase power

¡  Safety features to avoid cockpit errors: ¢  Controls located close to each other designed to both look and feel

different. Examples: �  Gear lever many times looks like wheel �  Flap lever many times looks like flap

§  Instrument Standardization: The Basic T

§  Instruments: Analogue vs Digital §  Analogue:

§  Less precise information §  Easier rate of change information §  May be more difficult to interpret §  at times (Altimeter presents 3 hands)

§  Digital: §  Extremely precise information §  Very difficult to obtain rate of change information §  Some designs improve ease of instrument interpretation

§  Combinations possible: