HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

DEVELOPMENT THROUGH THE LIFE SPAN-FROM CHILDHOOD TO OLDAGE

“He who will learn to fly one day must first learn to stand ,walk, run,

climb and dance; one cannot fly into flying”

Lifespan or Periods in Life cycle

• Development psychologist conceptualize human beings growing through Stages

1. Life begins right after conception(Prenatal)

2. Infancy-(0-1yr)

3. Toddler-(2-3yrs)

Lifespan CONT’D

4. Early childhood(3-6yrs)- Preschool

5. Late childhood(6-12yrs)

6. Adolescence(12-18/19yrs)

7. Adulthood-20+

8. Old age or senescence

Development

• Changes in growth and capabilities with time or across the lifespan

• How people change across the lifespanDomains of Development:1. Physical developmenti. Deals with all growth and changes that occur

in a persons bodyii. Motor skills

Domains CONT’D

2. Cognitive development-language, memoryProcesses to acquire knowledge or become aware of the environment3. Psychosocial development- emotions, personality, relationship with other people and interaction b/n individuals and the surrounding culture

Major Issues in Development

• Heredity and the environment i. Nature/Nurture-- Are intelligence ,personality etc acquire or learnt- Is behavior determined by heredity or

environment- Nativistic- Empirist- tabla rasa

Major Issues CONT’D

ii. Interaction or both- Both nature and nurture affects a persons

dev’t- Heredity- Physical env’t

Major Issues CONT’D

iii. Relative importance of Heredity and Environment- How much genetic and biological make up are

contributing - How much social and environmental factors

are contributing

Major Issues CONT’D

2. Maturational Vrs Learning• Certain structure must mature before they can

function• Maturation-sequense of changes in behaviour or

development that result from genetic groupings• Learning refers to changes within the individual

as a result of specific experiences• Maturation results from aging and learning by

experience

Prenatal Development

• It consist of three stagesi. Germinal stage- first two weeks after

conception-zygoteii. Embryonic stage- 2-8 weeks –embryoiii. Fetal Stage- 9weeks till birth-fetus

Germinal Stage

• Begins when a sperm fertilizes an ovum

• Cell division-mass of cell

• Attaching itself to the mother womb

• 10-14days after conception

Embryonic Stage

• Two life support structures are develop:• Placenta-nutrition from mothers blood to

umbilical cord• Umbilical cord-nutrients to embryo and waste

products to the mother• Bodily organs and systems begin to form• By 8 weeks the heart is beating, eye, brain

Fetal Stage

• Muscle strengthen and other body systems develop completely

• 24 weeks the eyes are opened

• 27 weeks fetus is viable

Factors Which Affect Prenatal Development

• Genetic Factors

• Environmental factors

Genetic factors

• Humans consist of 23 pairs of chromosomes or 46 chromosomes

• Chromosomes pairs are called disomy• Chromosomes determine sex• Sex genes are on the 23rd chromosome pair• Male XY and Female XX• Y chromosome determines maleness

Genetics CONT’D

• During the germinal stage some mishaps can happened and the 23 pair may be missing

• Monosomy (XO) -birth deformities e.g is Turners’ syndrome

• Trisomy (XXY)- Klienfelter’s syndrome-males with female x’tics

• XYY-extra masculinity-found in prisons

Genetics CONT’D

• Down syndrome- not sex linked• 21st chromosome pair• Mothers over age 40(20x)

Other Pathological Genetic Traits

• PKU-Phenylketouria• Galactosemia• Heamophilia• Taysac’s disease• Sickle cell disease• Color blindness• Cretinism

Environmental Factors

• Mothers contribution

• Father’s role

Mothers Contribution

• General health of the mother

• Diet during pregnancy

• Sexually Transmitted diseases(STD’s)

• Emotional State of the mother during pregnancy

General Health Of the Mother/STD’S

Maternal illnesses• Can terminate the pregnancy during the first

three months• Chronic disease such DM,HTN,• STD’s such syphllis, gonorrhea, genital herpes• UTI, influenza, rubella, mumps

Diet

• Severely malnourish mother cannot maintain pregnancy

• Spontaneous abortion• Prematurity• Still birth• Mental retardation and damage to the

nervous system

Drugs

• Cigarettes and other drugs-PMB,SB• Alcohol-fetal Alcoholic syndrome-PMB ,SB,

LBW, Miscarriage• Narcotics-inadequate supply of oxygen-

hyperactivity, infection, withdrawal symptoms, death

• Prescription and over the counter drugs

Emotions

• Massive out pouring of hormones• Health and behavioral problems-irritability,

crying and later MH problems• Elevation in GI disorders

Fathers Contribution

• Fathers contribute half of the baby’s genes

• Defective sperms can results in birth defects

• Sperms detoriate with age- Marfan’s syndrome

• Exposure of pelvic area to high temperatures ,chemicals and drugs

Abortion

• Termination, expulsion or the removal of the developing organism b/4 the 28 week

• Three types:• Miscarriage• Spontaneous Abortion• Induced Abortion

Abortion CONT’D

• Miscarriages and abortions are natures way of eliminating abnormal fetuses

• Higher incidence of abnormality• Male fetuses are spontaneously aborted than

females• Premature death rates are higher than males

than females• Following birth females resist infection and

survive more than males

Premature Birth

Two criteria are used• Length of pregnancy• Size of the baby• An infant weighing less than 5.5 lbs or 2.5kg• Chdn born before the 37 week of gestationTwo types• Low birth weight: small- for- date• Pre-term babies

Causes of Prematurity

• Real cause is unknown-These factors contribute:

• Overcrowding in the uterus• An illness or disease• Mother health or nutrition prior to pregnancy• Mothers age height and weight• Smoking and use of drugs• Uterine problems and lack of prenatal care

Consequences of Prematurity

• More likely to show intellectual and learning difficulties

• May be found in classes for retarded chdn

• Social difficulties-hyperactivity

• Neurological problems

Consequences CONT’D

• Likely to die in first month of life

• Premature males are more likely to experience learning difficulties and school related problems

• More likely to be abused by parents

• Not all of them will suffers these setbacks

Physical Development: Infancy to Adolescence

Principles • Cephalo-Caudal-growth proceeds from head

to foot-baby gains control of the muscles of the head and neck then the abdomen then the legs

• Proximo-distal-physical growth and motor development proceeds from the centre of the body towards the periphery

Factors Affecting Physical Development

• Nutrition

• Health or disease

• Heredity

• Ecology: equator-artic

• Race-cultural and maturational factors

INFANCY

• At birth infant weighs 6-9lbs (2,700-4000g) • 19-21 inches long (48-53cm)• Head circumference 13-14 inches(33-35cm)• Chest 12-13 inches(30.5-33cm)• By the end of infancy or second year the

normal weight is equal to ¼ of his adult weight• Height is 1/2 of his expected adult height

Preschool

• Growth in weight and height is less rapid

• Both ht and wt continuous to increase at a faster rate

• Weight gain slows down or may even stop

Toilet and bladder training

• Bowel training precedes bladder training• Girls achieve toilet training earlier than boys

but will continue to wet the bed longer than boys

• Some train themselves by just telling parents its time to go to the bathroom

Toilet Training CONT’D

Those who continue to wet the bed or soil themselves may suffer from:

• Late development of the muscular system

• Emotional problems

• Combination of both

Retardation in Walking

• Most chdn walk by 18months or by the end of infancy

Factors1.Nutrtional deficiency 2. Disease or illness3. Obesity4. Tight clothing5. Unsuitable shoes

Walking CONT’D

6. Emotional blocking e.g.• Fear of walking –slight accident• Ridicule at first attempt• Domestic tension and hostility• Parental attitude• Mental retardation

Late Childhood

• By age 6 most chdn have lost their soft contours and heavy structure that make them appealing to adults

• In late childhood-arms and legs grow faster than the trunk-spindly appearance

• Girls mature early than boys but boys are more taller and heavier

Adolescence

There is a rapid increase in: • Body size

• Changes in body proportion and composition

• Swift development of reproductive organs and other sexual x’tics

• “Growth spurt”-girls first-11-13 than boys

Keywords

• Primary sexual x’tics-genital and inter reproductive organs

• Secondary sexual X’tics-special features other than the above

• Pubescence-stage of physiological growth when reproductive functions become mature

• Puberty-point at which an individual is sexually mature and is able to bear chdn

Sequence of Growth

Boys• Penis doubles in length and volume of testes

increase in 10 folds(17 years)• Followed rapidly by secondary sexual x’tics:- Pubic hair- Facial and axillary hair- Deepening of voice- First ejaculation(nocternal emissions)

Sequence CONT’D

Girls• Breast begins to develop followed by:• Development of uterus, labia and vagina• Enlargement of hips, breast and pelvis• Pubic hair• Axillary hair• Menarche-first menstruation

Play Development

Age characteristics

• Exploratory-(holding toys: age 0-1)

• Toys as adult tools-(imitation: age 1-7)

• Games and hobbies(age 8-12)

Play CONT’D

Social Characteristics

• Solitary play(infancy) -alone, but enjoys presence of others, interest centered on own activity

• Parallel play (toddler) –plays alongside, not with another, but can occur in other age groups

Play CONT’D

• Associative play (preschool) - no group goal; often follows a leader

• Cooperative play (School age) -organized, rules, leader/follower relationship established

Screening Tests

• Denver II-evaluates children from birth to 6yrs in 4 skill area: personal-social, fine motor, language, gross motor

• Standford-Binet

• IQ

Physical Development and Psychological Development

• Body build and personality• Body build and socialization:i. Goals and needsii. Type of groups we joiniii. How others react to us• Body build and self satisfaction

Cognitive Development

Piaget• Chdn pass through distinct stages in intellectual

development• Same stages in the same order• Chdn and adults are diff in terms of thinking• Chdn endowed with a structure of schema and

scheming• Basic unit of knowledge or building block of

intellectual development

Cognitive CONT’D

• Intellect develops or grows in two complimentary processes

• Assimilation- the use of old ideas or existing cognitive structures to deal with new situations: assimilate the new object into existing schemas

• Accommodation- modification of old ideas or creation of new ones to deal with new experiences: existing ideas are modified to be used to solve new problems

Stages

Sensorimotor-(0-2) • Use senses and motor activities

• Intellectual development is non-verbal

• Schema present at birth are for survival and adaptation e.g. grasping, sucking

• Forms schemas on objects present

Sensorimotor CONT’D

• Cannot deal with abstracts or mental representation of objects/activities

• Do not think-just behave

• This stage end when they begin to have object permanence

Stages CONT’D

Pre-operational(2-7)• Do not understand logical operations• Ability to think is symbolical and language• Thinking is intuitive• Make guesses(2nd stage)• Not able to differentiate b/n mental pictures and reality• Dominant by evidence of their eyes• Do not understand reversibility• Focus on one dimension, most salient

Pre-operational CONT’D

• Imaginative play-new meanings are attached to objects

• Deferred imitation-recreats components of parental behavior long after they were first observed

• Learning, perception and memory are present at this stage

• Behave in an intelligent manner

Pre-operational CONT’D

• Confuse words with objects-preocupied with name calling

• Transductive reasoning-makes no distinction between general and particular

• Phenomenalistic Causality-thinking that there is a causal relationship b/n two thgs that happens to occur together

• Animism-Inanimate world is alive

Pre-operational CONT’D

• Purposivism-everything has a purpose

• Egocentrism-self centered-stubborn

• Lack of conservation-amount of a substance remains the same irrespective of changes in shape

Why do Pre-operation Children fail to Conserve

• Their thinking is irreversible

• Centration-thoughts and thinking are centered

• Stasis-static and fragmented

• Can not form stable images in their head-finger counting

• Cannot direct you to a place but can lead you there

Stages CONT’D

Concrete operational(7-11)• Develop ability to conserve numbers and matter• Thoughts include concept of time, space and number• Simple logic and simple mental imagination• Sort objects-fruits, vegetables, tools, cars• See and understand• Can not perform abstract operations-freedom, and

justice• They acquire universal reversibility

Concrete CONT’D

• Dynamism-act of transfering one object to another

• There is decentralization

• They can perform problems on things that are present

• Cannot think hypothetically

Stages CONT’D

Formal operation(11 and above)• Thinking is abstract

• Think and reason abt thgs not present

• Think hypothetically, logically

• Weigh diff alternatives

• Make predictions of the future

Formal CONT’D

• Question social institutions and policies

• Understand issues of love, morality, law, politics, religion

• Strongly linked with school attendance

• Western world- about half of the people reach formal operation

• Reflective thoughts

Erickson’S Psychosocial Stages

• Personality is shaped more by society, culture and other people

• He describe 8 stages of developmental stages

• People face new social situations • Encounter new problems called psychosocial

crisis

Erickson CONT’D

• Conflict b/n personal impulses and the social world

• These conflicts are resolved either negatively or positively

Infancy(0-1)-Trust vrs Mistrust

• Sense of trust-depends on how caring is done• Child feels secure and believes the world is

safe• If baby care is haphazard, unpredictable and

harsh• Child develops mistrust

Toddlerhood(1-3)Autonomy Vrs Shame &Doubt

• Exhibit control over the environment• Try out new things-develop a sense of

autonomy• Some parents are over protective• Chdn develop shame and doubt about their

capabilities and abilities

Preschool Age(3-6)-Initiative Vrs Guilt

• Takes initiative in planning, organizing and executing it

• There is a sense of purpose

• They are curious

• If parents encourage them initiative develops but if they criticize then guilt develops

Late Childhood(6-12)Industry Vrs Inferiority

• Productive to meet challenges or new situations

• Try to help parents at home• Need is to do something worthwhile• Praise and encourage-industrious• Ridicule-inferior and scared

Adolescence(12-20)-Identity Vrs Role Confusion

• Individual defines self in relation to the society

• Who am I?

• If they get right social conditions-identity

• If conditions are limited- identity crisis

Moral Development

Rules and conventions in interpersonal interactions

3 related issues needs to be understood:

1. Cognition in children

2. Children’s behavior in moral circumstances

3. Child’s feelings about moral matters

Moral CONT’D

• Children think in two ways

• It also depends on the level of maturity

1. Heteronomous morality(4-7)- judge by considering consequences of behaviour

-Does not consider the intentions of others -Don’t think rules and conventions can be altered

Moral CONT’D

Autonomous Morality(7-10)-• Rules are made by humans• Can be modified when not convenient• Begin to consider the actors intentions• Rules are socially convenient at a particular time• Develops sophisticated thinking patterns• Acquire thru give and take interactions• Rules are handed down in an authoritarian

manner

Kohlberg’s Moral Development

• Goes thru a series of stages

• Based on three levels with each level having two stages

• Chdn acquire a body of standards and principles as they grow

• Controlled externally

• They become internalized and forms morality

Level 1-Preconventional

• No Internalization of moral values

• Moral reason controlled by external values, rewards or punishment

Stage 1-Punishment and Obedience-

Moral reasoning based on punishmentObey adults because they don’t want punishment

Level 1 CONT’D

Stage 2- Individualism and Purpose

• Rewards and self interest

• Obey when is in their interest

Level 2-Conventional Reasoning

• Abide and obey rules

• Rules and regulations of others eg. schools, church, society

Stage 3-Interpersonal Norms

• Morality is being trustworthy

• Caring and being loyal to others

Level 2 CONT’D

Stage 4- Social System Morality

• Begin to acquire social norms, justice, duties and responsibilities

• Laws are for effective social organization

• Prevents chaos

Level 3-Post Conventional

• Morality is completely internalized

• Based on personal standards

• Universal principles of equality, justice and respect for others

• Individual rights can override society

Level 3 CONT’D

Stage 5-Community rights vrs Individual rights

• Morality can vary from person to person

• Law can be changed when no longer useful or suitable

• Issues of justice and liberty are more important than law

Level 3 CONT’D

Stage 6- Universal ethical principles

• Universal human rights

• Person always follows his/her conscience when in a fix or dilemma