Human Computer Interaction: Developing Effective Organizational Information Systems

Dov Te'eni JaneCarey Ping Zhang

with a Foreword by Izak Benbasat

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Contents *.'.*»!

Foreword xv Preface xvii

CONTEXT

• Chapter 1 Introduction

1 Human-Computer Interaction: Definition, Importance and Scope 2 1.1 Quality Human-Computer Interaction 2 1.2 Scope of HCl 5

2 Themes in HCl Underlying This Book 6 2.1 Fit 7 2.2 Levels of Interaction 9 2.3 Human Resources in HCl and their Impact 10 2.4 Context 11

3 Application—A Methodology for HCl Development 12 4 The Structure of the Book 14 5 Summary 16 6 Summary of Concepts and Terms 17 7 Bibliography and Additional Readings 18 8 Case Study 19 9 Exercises 19

• Chapter 2 Organizational and Business Context

1 Introduction 22 2 Individual Level 23

2.1 Office Automation Systems 24 2.1.1 Electronic Document Preparation Systems 24 2.1.2 Data Entry Systems 27 2.1.3 Customer Account Management Systems 27

2.2 Knowledge Work Systems (KWS) 29 2.3 Decision Support Systems (DSS) 31 2.4 Executive Support Systems 32

3 Work Group Level 34

3.1 Project Management Systems (PMS) 34 3.2 Work Flow Management Systems 36 3.3 Group Support Systems 39 3.3.1 GSS User Interface 39 3.3.2 Shared Workspace 40

4 Organizational Level Systems 41 4.1 Communication Systems 41 4.2 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems 43 4.3 Customer Relationship Management (CRM) 44

5 Interorganizational Systems 44 6 Summary 45 7 Summary of Concepts and Terms 45 8 Bibliography and Additional Readings 45 9 Case Study 48 10 Exercises 49

F0UNDATI0NS

• Chapter 3 Interactive Technologies

1 Introduction 52 2 Sensory Perception and Interactive Input Devices 52

2.1 Devices That Rely on Vision 53 2.1.1 Keyboards 53 2.1.2 Pointing devices 54 2.2 Devices That Rely on Audition—Speech Recognition 56 2.3 Devices That Rely on Touch 57

3 Output Devices 57 3.1 Visual Display 57 3.2 Printers 58 3.3 Auditory Output—Nonspeech 59 3.4 Auditory Output—Speech 59

4 Wearable Devices 60 5 Wireless Devices 60 6 Virtual Devices 61 7 Summary 62 8 Summary of Concepts and Terms 63 9 Bibliography and Additional Readings 63 10 Case Study 64 11 Exercises 65

• Chapter 4 Physical Engineering

1 Introduction 68 2 Human Performance and Limitations 69

2.1 Performance and Other Criteria for Physical Engineering 69 2.2 Limitations 71 2.2.1 Sensory Limits 72 2.2.2 Responder (Motor) Limits 72 2.3 Fitts' Law 72

3 Sensory Perceptions and Implications for Design 73 3.1 Vision 73 3.2 Audition 75 3.3 Touch 76

4 Health Problems Associated with HCl 78 4.1 Emissions 78 4.2 Repetitive-Motion Problems 78 4.3 Vision Problems 79 4.4 Muscular Problems 79

5 Technical Support for the Disabled 81 5.1 Support for the Visually Impaired 81 5.2 Support for the Hearing-Impaired 81 5.3 Support for Physically Impaired 81

6 Summary 82 7 Summary of Concepts and Terms 83 8 Bibliography and Additional Readings 83 9 Case Study 84 10 Exercises 84

• Chapter 5 Congnitive Engineering

1 A Simplified View of Human Information Processing 88 2 The Complexity of HCl 90

2.1 HCl as a Bridge between Human and Computer 90 2.2 The Gulfs of Execution and Evaluation 91 2.3 Norman's Seven-Stage Model of User Activity 92 2.4 Fit and Complexity 94

3 User Activity with Multiple Intentions 95 4 UsingGOMS to Describe User Activity 98

4.1 Goals, Operators, Methods, and Selection Rules 98 4.2 UsingGOMS 99

5 Errors 102 5.1 A Classification of Errors according to Behavior Type 102 5.2 The Causes of Error 103

viii • Contents

6 Fit and Complexity Extended 104 7 Summary 105 8 Summary of Concepts and Terms 106 9 Bibliography and Additional Readings 106 10 Case Study 106 11 Exercises 107

• Chapter 6 Affective Engineering

1 Introduction: Feeling and Attitüde 111 2 A Simplified View of Affect in HCl 112

2.1 Some Core Concepts of Affect 112 2.2 Affective Qualities and Affective Impressions in HCl 113 2.3 Applications of Affect to Computing 117 2.4 Affect and Performance 118

3 Attitudes 120 3.1 Attitudes—Concept and Measurement 120 3.2 TAM—Technology Acceptance Model 120

4 Expanded View of Affect in HCl 122 4.1 Attitudes Revisited 122 4.2 Satisfaction 123 4.3 Individual Differences and Training 124 4.4 Summary of Attitudes 126

5 Flow and Playfulness 126 6 Summary 127 7 Summary of Concepts and Terms 129 8 Bibliography and Additional Readings 129 9 Exercises 131

APPLICATIONS

• Chapter 7 Evaluation

1 Introduction 135 1.1 What to Evaluate: Multiple Concerns of HCl 135 1.2 Why to Evaluate 139 1.3 When to Evaluate 141 1.4 Issues in Evaluation 142

2 Usability and Usability Engineering 144 2.1 The Origin of Usability Concerns 144 2.2 Usability Definitions 144 2.3 Usability Engineering 145

2.4 Universal Usabihty 146 3 Evaluation Methods 146

3.1 Analytical Methods 147 3.1.1 Heuristic Evaluation 147 3.1.2 Guideline Review 150 3.1.3 Cognitive Walk-Through 151 3.1.4 Pluralistic Walk-Through 152 3.1.5 Inspection with Conceptual Frameworks

such as the TSSL Model 152 3.2 Empirical Methods 160 3.2.1 Survey/Questionnaire 160 3.2.2 Interviews 163 3.2.3 Lab Experiment 164 3.2.4 Observing and Monitoring Usage through Field Studies 164 3.3 Comparison of Methods 165

4 Standards 165 4.1 Types of Standards for HCl and Usability 167 4.2 Common Industry Format (CIF) 167 4.2.1 Background and Current Status 167 4.2.2 The CIF Format 168 4.2.3 How to Use the CIF 169

5 Summary 169 6 Appendix A: The Detailed CIF Template 169 7 Appendix B: Research Tools 176 8 Appendix C: Sample Laboratories for HCl Studies 180 9 Summary of Concepts and Terms 187 10 Bibliography and Additional Readings 188 11 Case Study 190 12 Exercises 190

• Chapter 8 Design Principles and Guidelines

1 Introduction 194 2 Design Principles 196

2.1 Improve Users' Task Performance and Reduce Their Effort 197 2.2 Strive for Fit between the Information Representation

Needed and Presented 197 2.3 Provide and Constrain Affordances to Capture

Real-World Knowledge 198 2.4 Design for Error 199 2.5 Design for an Enjoyable and Satisfying Interaction 200 2.6 Promote Trust 201

x • Contents

2.7 Support Diversity of Users 202 3 Design Guidelines 202

3.1 Issue I: Consistency Guidelines 203 3.2 Issue II: User Control and Feedback Guidelines 208 3.3 Issue III: Metaphor Guidelines 211 3.4 Issue IV: Direct Manipulation 214 3.5 Issue V: Aesthetics in Screen Design 215

4 Summary 219 5 Summary of Concepts and Terms 220 6 Bibliography and Additional Readings 220 7 Case Study 221 8 Exercises 223

• Chapter 9 Tasks in the Organization! Context

1 Introduction 229 2 Characteristics of Organizational Tasks 231 3 Work at the Office as Context—Tasks and Their Interrelations 234

3.1 Characteristics of Different Types of Work 235 3.2 Information Processing Functions Supported by HCl 237 3.3 WorkModeling 238

4 Decision Making as Organizational Task 239 4.1 The Decision Life Cycle for Determining Requirements 239 4.2 Levels of Interaction in Decision Making 243

5 A Method for Task Analysis and Decision Support 245 5.1 An Overview of the Method 245 5.2 Situational and Functional Analysis 247 5.3 Constraint Analysis 249

6 A Demonstration of the Method for Task Analysis 250 7 Summary 253 8 Summary of Concepts and Terms 254 9 Bibliography and Additional Readings 254 10 Exercises 255 11 Appendix: Decision Decomposition Protocol 255

• Chapter 10 Componential Design

1 Introduction 258 2 Color 261

2.1 Color—Introduction 261 2.2 Color—The Building Blocks 263 2.3 Color—The Syntactic and Semantic Levels 263

Contents < xi

2.4 Color—The Task Level 264 3 Datalnput 265

3.1 Data Input—Introduction 265 3.2 Data Input—The Building Blocks 266 3.3 Data Input—The Syntactic and Semantic Levels 267 3.4 Data Input—The Task Level 267

4 Navigation and Flow Control 268 4.1 Navigation and Flow Control—Introduction 268 4.2 Navigation and Row Control—The Building Blocks 269 4.3 Navigation and Row Control—The Syntactic

and Semantic Levels 271 4.4 Navigation and Flow Control—The Task Level 272

5 Quantitative Graphics 274 5.1 Graphics—Introduction 274 5.2 Graphics—The Building Blocks 275 5.3 Graphics—The Syntactic and Semantic Levels 276 5.4 Graphics—The Task of Deciding and Communicating 277 5.5 More on Graphics: Training, Individual Differences, and

Affective Impressions 281 6 Form Design 282

6.1 Forms for Data Input—Introduction 282 6.2 Form Fill-In—The Building Blocks 283 6.3 Form Fill-In—The Syntactic and Semantic Levels 283 6.4 Form Fill-In—The Task level 284

7 Summary 286 8 Summary of Concepts and Terms 287 9 Bibliography and Additional Readings 287 10 Exercises 288

• Chapter 11 HCl Development Methodology

1 Introduction 293 2 The Role of HCl Development in SDLC 294

2.1 SDLC: The Systems Development Life Cycle 294 2.2 HCl in SDLC: What It Has Been 297 2.3 The Human-Centered SDLC Model: HCSDLC 297 2.4 Modern SA&D and HCl: Different Emphases 298

3 The HCl Development Methodology 299 3.1 Philosophy, Strategies, Principles, and Guidelines 300 3.2 The Project Selection and Planning Phase 300 3.3 The Interaction Analysis Phase 301 3.3.1 Requirements Determination and User-Needs Test 301

xii • Contents

3.3.2 Context Analysis 302 3.3.3 User Analysis 303 3.3.4 Task Analysis 304 3.3.5 Evaluation Metrics 305 3.3.6 Alternative Generation and Selection 305 3.4 The Interaction Design Phase 306 3.4.1 Interface Specification 306 3.4.2 Metaphor Design 307 3.4.3 Media Design 307 3.4.4 Dialogue Design 307 3.4.5 Presentation Design 308 3.4.6 Formative Evaluations 308 3.5 The Implementation Phase 308 3.6 Prototyping 308 3.7 Documenting HCl Development Activities and Deliverables.... 309

4 Applying the HCl Development Methodology 309 5 Summary 317 6 Summary of Concepts and Terms 317 7 Bibliography and Additional Readings 318 8 Case Study 318 9 Exercises 324

ADDITIONAL CONTEXT

• Chapter 12 Interpersonal Relationships, CoUaboration, and Organization

1 Introduction 328 2 CoUaboration 328

2.1 CoUaboration—The Building Blocks 330 2.2 CoUaboration—Semantic and Syntactical Level 331 2.3 CoUaboration—Task Level 331

3 The Issue of Trust 332 4 Communication and Technology 333

4.1 Information Richness Theory 333 4.2 Social Identity and De-invidualization (SIDE) Process 334

5 Work Group Level 335 5.1 Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS) 335 5.2 Virtual Teams 338 5.3 Culture and CSS 339 5.4 Leadership and GSS 341 5.5 Anonymity and GSS 342

6 Enterprise-Level Systems 343 6.1 Wiki 343 6.2 Anthony's Triangle (Also Known as Anthony's Pyramid) 345 6.3 Communication Support Systems 347

7 Enterprise-Level Implementation Issues 348 7.1 Innovation Diffusion Theory 348 7.2 Technology Acceptance Model and the Organizational Level... 350

8 E-Commerce: Linking the Customer to the Enterprise 351 8.1 Trust and TAM in Online Shopping 352 8.2 Consumer Behavior Models 353

9 Summary 354 10 Summary of Concepts and Terms 355 11 Bibliography 355 12 Exercises 357

• Chapter 13 Social and Global Issues

1 Introduction 360 2 Social Context 361

2.1 Anxiety 361 2.2 Alienation 362 2.3 Potency and Impotence of the Individual 365 2.4 Complexity and Speed 366 2.5 Organizational and Societal Dependence 367 2.6 Unemployment and Displacement 368 2.7 Valuing Human Diversity 369

3 Ethical Considerations 370 3.1 Accessibility 370 3.2 Privacy 371 3.3 Accountability 372 3.4 Intellectual Property 373 3.5 Using Computers to Support Social Responsibility 373

4 Global Context 374 4.1 Software Globalization 374 4.2 Software Localization 376

5 The Social and Global Aspects of the Internet 379 5.1 Social Impact of the Internet 379 5.2 Global Impact of the Internet 380

6 Summary 382 7 Summary of Concepts and Terms 384 8 Bibliography and Additional Readings 384 9 Case Study 386 10 Exercises 387

Contents

• Chapter 14 Meeting the Changing Needs of IT Development and Use

1 Introduction 390 2 Emerging IT Use Changes and the Impacts 391

2.1 Ubiquitous Computing (Ubicomp) 391 2.1.1 What Is Ubicomp? 391 2.1.2 Challenges for HCl Design and Evaluation 392 2.2 Social Computing and Communityware 393 2.3 Value-Sensitive Design (VSD) 395 2.3.1 What Is VSD? 395 2.3.2 Case 1: Room with a View: Using Plasma Displays

in Interior Offices 395 2.3.3 Case 2: UrbanSim: Integrated Land Use, Transportation, and

Environmental Simulation 399 2.3.4 VSD and HCl Development 401

3 Emerging IT Development Changes 402 3.1 OpenSource 402 3.1.1 What Is Open Source? 402 3.1.2 Challenges for HCl Design and Evaluation 404 3.2 Component-Based Software Development (CBSD) 405 3.2.1 What Is CBSD? 405 3.2.2 Challenges in HCl Design and Evaluation 405 3.3 Outsourcing, Offshore Outsourcing, and Freelancing 406 3.3.1 What Are Outsourcing, Offshore Outsourcing,

and Freelancing? 406 3.3.2 Challenges in HCl Design and Evaluation 408

4 Summary 410 5 Summary of Concepts and Terms 410 6 Bibliography and Additional Readings 410 7 Case Study 412 8 Exercises 412

Glossary 413 Bibliography 421 Subject Index 433