Human Biological and Cultural Evolution Cultural Anthropology

Culture in Evolutionary PerspectiveTo understand culture, we need to:(1) Know our biological capacity for culture(2) How we fit into the animal kingdom(3) How we came to be what we are

Our Capacity For Culture: Our Biological Roots(1) Our language ability(2) Our ability to make and use tools(3) Our bipedalismability to stand and walk on two feetIf the science of humankind is to be taken seriouslyWe need to know our own anatomy

First Things First: TaxonomyDefinition: Hierarchical, systematic classification of all lifeformsfrom the general (kingdom. Phylum, class, order)to the specific (genus, species, variety)Taxon (pl. taxa): categories at all levels from broad to specific

Taxonomy: Binomial NomenclatureEvery species has at least two namesGenus: HomoSpecies: sapiensVariety: sapiens? (If we accept the splitters terms)Stylistic ConventionItalicize or underline all namesCapitalize the genusLowercase the species and varietyExample: Homo (sapiens) sapiens

Taxonomy: The General TaxaKingdom: Animalia (ingests food, moves)Phylum: Chordata (has spinal cord)Subphylum: Vertebrata (has segmented protective bone or cartilageClass: Mammalia (warm blooded, female secretes milk, has hair)Order: Primata: (larger brain, stereoscopic [depth] vision, flexible digits, complex socialitySuborder: Anthropoidea (monkey, apes, humans)

Hominid TaxonomyThis is the new taxonomy: Hominids apply to all humans and African apesHominins apply to Homo sapiens and All extinct ancestors: Australopithecus, Homo habilis, H. erectus, H. heidelbergensis, and H. neanderthalensis

Overview: The Human SkeletonYou do need to know some of the parts of The human skeletonUse the online graphics (such as this) Or your printed handouts

Where It All Begins: The BrainFrontal Lobe and Motor Cortex:CognitionMotor AbilitiesParietal Lobe: Touch and TasteTemporal Lobe: HearingOccipital Lobe: VisionOlfactory Bulb: Smell

Parts of the Brain: Motor CortexRelated to Language: Lower Part:LipsTongueVocalizationRelated to Tool Making and Use: Upper part:Fingers and ThumbHandArm

Parts of the Brain: Language CentersParts of CerebrumFrontal LobeMotor CortexBrocas AreaTemporal LobeAuditory CortexWernickes AreaArcuate FasciculusParietal LobeOccipital LobeAngular Gyrus

Comic Relief, Anyone?(Courtesy of Geico)So easy a caveman can do it. . . .?

Human SkullNote the following:High foreheadRounded skullNo brow ridgeChin is presentTeeth are smallThe bones are named after the lobes of the brain they cover

Skull Morphology: Chimp and HumanNote the followingLarger brow ridge (supraorbital torus) of chimp than humansSloping forehead of chimp compared to humanMore prognathous jaw of chimp compared to humanLarger canine and gap (diastema) of chimp than human

Human and Chimp Skulls Compared: Brain StructureCompare the followingChimps brain is much smaller (400cc vs 1400cc)It has reduced frontal lobeIt has no Brocas or Wernickes areaIt does have Brodmanns area 10, where calls may originatebut no speechIt does have planum temporale, where calls are receivedbut not processed as language

What This All MeansOur brains are larger than the chimpsWe have a well-developed frontal lobeWe have well developed language areas: Brocas and Wernickes areaThe motor strip is more well developed among humans than among chimps

DentitionFor each jaw (upper or maxilla or lower or mandible:Incisors (4) for cuttingCanines (cuspid) (2) for piercingPremolars (4) for light grindingMolars (6) for grinding

Chimp and Human JawsNote the following:Dental Arcade: Humans are arclike; apes, parallel back teethCanines and Diastema (gap): Apes have larger canines and gaps in opposite jaw to fit them; humans do not

Anatomy of Tool Making and Use: The HandNote The Following:Our digits are straightOur thumb is opposableThe thumb is long

Ape and Human HandsHands of orangutan, chimpanzee, gorilla and human Note the following: Our thumbs are longer than the othersWe can make a finer grip than the others canLess visible: apes digits are curved, ours are straight

Power and Precision GripNote the Following:Power grip: Fingers and thumbs wrap around the objectPrecision grip: Forefingers and thumb hold the objectImportance: We can do finer work compared to nonhuman primates

BipedalismWe are the only mammals that can stand and walk on two feetKangaroos hop and maintain balance with their tailsApes are semibipedal, but use their knuckles to get aroundNotice the human is on his knees, not just his feet

Chimp and Human Locomotion

Advantages of BipedalismEfficient locomotionFreeing of handsForaging and hunting/scavagingTool making and useCare and provisioning of offspringTracking migrating herdsPredator avoidance

Vertebral Column and PelvisNote the followingHuman vertebral column is S-ShapedChimp verebral column is bow-shapedHuman pelvis, with ilium, is bowl-shapedChimp pelvis is long, with flat ilium

Pelvis and FemurNote the following:Longer ilium of chimpShorter, more curved ilium of humanStraight vertical orientation of chimp femurInward angle of human femur

Foot StructureNote the following:Large toe of chimp foot (right) is opposable to other digitsLarge toe of human foot (left) is aligned with other digitsAnkle bones (tarsals) of human food are larger and more rigid than the chimps

Foot Arch: Longitudinal and TransverseNote the following:Longitudinal arch reflected from First metatarsal to Calcaneus (heel bone)Transverse arch can be inferred fromLower placement of outside foot.

Overview of Human EvolutionPrinciples of evolution: Natural selection and geneticsTaxonomyThe behavior of our primate cousinsOur ancestry from Australopithecus to HomoTools as evidence of culture evolutionCapacity for languageand thereby capacity for culture

Principles of Evolution: Natural SelectionDarwins Contribution: On the Origins of Species Natural Selection: A twofold processVariation of speciesSelection of species better adapted to environment than othersExample: Industrial melanism among moths in England

Principles of Evolution: Genetics IGregor Mendel: Genetic theory, based on experiments with peasGenes: Hereditary information determining physical characteristicsGenotype: the genetic makeup of a particular characteristic (peas, eye color)Phenotype: the physical characteristics created by the genetic makeup

Principles of Evolution: Genetics IIGenes are always paired: male contributes half, female contributes halfAlleles: Variations of a genetic characteristicWhen different alleles combine:Allele of one manifests in physical characteristic (Dominant)The other does not (Recessive)Or both may manifest as hybrid (Codominant)

Trends in Human Evolution: Australopithecus to HomoAustralopithecus afarensis to A. africanus: Gracile AustralopithecinesParanthropus robustus and boisei: Robust AustralopithecinesDead end?A. africanus to Homo habilis: Rise of tool manufacture?H. habilis to H. erectus: Migration throughout Old World; more kinds of toolsH. erectus to H. sapiens: Tool specialization and population explosion to New WorldH. neanderthalensis: Dead end?

Fossil Hominins: Skull, Arms, HandsLarge bulbous craniumShort face compared to apeVertical carriage of headShortened forelimbHands (manipulation, not locomotion)Enlarged thumbStraight fingers, not curvedEnhanced finger sensitivity

Fossil Hominins: Bipedalism S-shaped vertebrae (backbone)Short, wide, bowl-shaped pelvisFemoral head (ball of femur at pelvis) angled and strengthenedLengthened hindlimbAngle of knee: femur slopes to pelvisPlatform (arched) structure of footNonopposable big toe; toes not curved

Encephalization (a.k.a. Bigger Brains)Defining Cranial Capacity (and ccs)A. afarensis: 390-500 cc; av. 440 ccA. africanus: 435-530 cc; av. 450 ccA./P robustus: 520 cc, one specimenA.P. boisei: 500-530 cc; av. 515 cc.H. habilis: 500-800 cc; av. 680 cc.H. erectus: 750-1250 cc; av. 1000 ccNeanderthal: 1300-1750 cc. av: 1450 H. (s.) sapiens: 900-2350 cc. av. 1400

Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis) and Us (Homo sapiens)Note the Following:Shorter (36)Longer armsCurved fingersShorter lower legsGreater prognathismSloped foreheadSmaller cranial capacityWhat are the Similarities?Hint: its all related to bipedalism

When We Became Bipedal (According to Gary Larson)Hey! Look! No hands!(Does he look like Lucy to you. . .?)

Gracile and Robust AustralopithecinesFor A. africanus (top), note:Somewhat rounder skullNo Sagittal crestPrognathous jawFor Paranthropus boisei, note:Sagittal crest (ate a lot of veggies)Massive lower jaw (mandible)Flatter faceMassive cheek bones (zygomatic arch)

Homo habilis: The First Known ToolmakerNote the following:Face is much flatterReduced brow ridge (supraorbital torus) Larger cranial capacity (680 cc.)Toolmaking TechniqueHammerstone used to strikeA core (lump of stone) to knapA Flake (stone chip)Note: Stone has to be crystalline (so it will fracture predictably)

Homo erectus: Cranial StructureNote the Following:Cranial capacity: 1,000 ccOccipital bunReduced brow ridgeReduced sloping foreheadReduced prognathismArtists conception of H. erectus

Homo Erectus (H. ergaster to Some): Postcranial SkeletonNote the following:Fully bipedalArms about length of Homo sapiensCranial capacity: 1000 cc (average)Main apelike features: Prognathous lower faceSloping forehead

Lower PaleolithicOldowan Tradition: Four or five strokesUnspecialized: choppersFlakes also made and usedAcheulean Tradition: 50-75 strokesSymmetrical design Multiple uses: cutting, piercing, chopping

Homo heidelbergensis (a.k.a. Archaic Homo sapiensNote the following:Brow ridges much reducedForehead is higher, though slopingReduced prognathiamCranial capancity 1200 cc. Artists conception shows closer similarities to ourselves

Manufacturing Levallois Cores and FlakesKnappers:Selects the appropriate core, up to a pound of stoneStrikes the edge of the coreKnaps the surface of the intended flakeKnocks off the flakeRetouches the flake to desired shapeMay knap four to five flakes

Homo neanderthalensis and H. sapiens skullNote the following for Classic NeanderthalGreater prognathism; humans lower jaw is straightAbsence of chin that human hasPresence of brow ridge; human has none, has higher foreheadPresence of occipital bunLarger cranial capacity: 1450 cc vs. 1400 cc in humansAlso note: Artists conception of Neanderthal child

Homo neanderthalensis and H. sapiens: Postcranial SkeletonsNote the following for Neanderthals:Heavier brow ridge and sloping foreheadBones generally more robustLarger rib cageBroader pelvisShorter forearmShorter tibiaLarger ankle joint

Neanderthal Tools: Mousterian and Chtelperronian TraditionsMousterian (top)Bordes: 63 typesBurins (engravers) Scrapers and knivesEven a type of handaxePart of the MesolithicChtelperronian (bottom)First bladesby NeanderthalsDefinition: flakes twice as wide as they are longInitiated the Upper Paleolithic

Upper Paleolithic: Modern Human Tool Traditions. Commonalities of Tools:Blades: Ever thinner and smallerIncreased tool specializationOther material: bone, ivory, antlerOther DevelopmentsArtwork (such as this mural at Altamira, Spain)Ornamentation (Venus statuettes)

Review and ConclusionWe have. . . Looked at the biological bases of culture: for language, toolmaking, and bipedalismCompared our anatomy with chimps, our closest relativesDiscussed evolutionary change based on natural selection and mutationLooked at our ancestors and the tools they made

The Territory AheadNonhuman Primate Behavior: How close in behavior are our cousins?Language: The medium of cultureMaking a Living: Industrial societies are not the only cultures in the worldSex, Family, and Its Extensions: The worlds first social organizationsEconomics: How goods and services are providedSocial Control: Governance and lawPsychology: Freud didnt start it allThe Supernatural: Were there gods before God?Culture Change and Globalization: Is there life outside corporations?