human aggression chapter six. human aggression ► we americans display a chilling acceptance of...

Human Human AggressionAggressionChapter SixChapter Six

Human AggressionHuman Aggression

►We Americans display a chilling acceptance of We Americans display a chilling acceptance of violence that, at times, seems utterly absurd violence that, at times, seems utterly absurd and mindless.and mindless.

►On a broader scale, we humans have shown On a broader scale, we humans have shown ourselves to be a particularly aggressive ourselves to be a particularly aggressive species.species.

► Some questions: Some questions: Is aggression inborn? Is aggression inborn? Can it be modified? Can it be modified? What are the social and situational factors that What are the social and situational factors that

increase or decrease aggression?increase or decrease aggression?

Aggression DefinedAggression Defined

►Aggression action is defined as Aggression action is defined as intentional behavior aimed at intentional behavior aimed at causing either physical or causing either physical or psychological pain.psychological pain. It is not to be confused with It is not to be confused with assertiveness.assertiveness.

The most important factor is The most important factor is INTENTION.INTENTION.

Aggression DefinedAggression Defined

► It is useful to distinguish between hostile It is useful to distinguish between hostile aggression and instrumental aggression:aggression and instrumental aggression: Hostile aggressionHostile aggression is an act of is an act of

aggression stemming from a feeling of aggression stemming from a feeling of anger and aimed at inflicting pain or anger and aimed at inflicting pain or injury.injury.

Instrumental aggressionInstrumental aggression also has an also has an intention to cause injury, but the intention to cause injury, but the hurting takes place as a means to hurting takes place as a means to some goal other than causing pain.some goal other than causing pain.

Is Aggression Instinctive?Is Aggression Instinctive?

►Scientists, philosophers, and other Scientists, philosophers, and other serious thinkers are not in complete serious thinkers are not in complete agreement about whether aggression is agreement about whether aggression is an inborn, instinctive phenomenon or an inborn, instinctive phenomenon or whether such behavior must be learned.whether such behavior must be learned. It is a controversy that has been raging for It is a controversy that has been raging for

centuries.centuries.►Example: Hobbes’s Example: Hobbes’s LeviathanLeviathan►Example: Rousseau’s concept of the noble Example: Rousseau’s concept of the noble

savagesavage


►Hobbes’s more pessimistic view Hobbes’s more pessimistic view was elaborated in the 20was elaborated in the 20thth century century by Sigmund Freud.by Sigmund Freud. Freud theorized that human Freud theorized that human

beings are born with an instinct beings are born with an instinct toward life (toward life (ErosEros) and an equally ) and an equally powerful instinct toward death powerful instinct toward death ((ThanatosThanatos).).


►Freud believed that aggressive Freud believed that aggressive energy must come out somehow energy must come out somehow – a notion best characterized as – a notion best characterized as a a hydraulic theory.hydraulic theory.Unless aggression is allowed to Unless aggression is allowed to drain off, it will produce some drain off, it will produce some sort of explosion.sort of explosion.


►According to Freud, society According to Freud, society performs an essential function performs an essential function in regulating this instinct and in in regulating this instinct and in helping people sublimate it.helping people sublimate it.To sublimate is to turn To sublimate is to turn destructive energy into destructive energy into acceptable or useful acceptable or useful behavior.behavior.


►Research on the instinctiveness of Research on the instinctiveness of human aggression is provocative but human aggression is provocative but inconclusive because it is impossible to inconclusive because it is impossible to conduct a definitive experiment.conduct a definitive experiment.

►Accordingly, scientists have turned to Accordingly, scientists have turned to experiments with nonhuman species to experiments with nonhuman species to gain additional insight into the extent gain additional insight into the extent to which aggression may be hardwired.to which aggression may be hardwired. Example: Cats vs. Rats (Kuo)Example: Cats vs. Rats (Kuo)


►Kuo’s research does not Kuo’s research does not demonstrate that aggressive demonstrate that aggressive behavior is not instinctive.behavior is not instinctive. It merely demonstrates that It merely demonstrates that the aggressive instinct can the aggressive instinct can be inhibited by early be inhibited by early experience.experience.


►What if an organism grows up without What if an organism grows up without any contact with other organisms?any contact with other organisms? Example: Rats raised in isolation will Example: Rats raised in isolation will

attack a fellow rat when one is attack a fellow rat when one is introduced, and will use the same introduced, and will use the same pattern of threat and attack that pattern of threat and attack that experienced rats use.experienced rats use.

►Aggression, apparently, does not need Aggression, apparently, does not need to be learned.to be learned.


►It is also insightful to study It is also insightful to study animals with whom we share animals with whom we share the most genetic similarity – the most genetic similarity – chimpanzees.chimpanzees.Chimpanzees are extremely Chimpanzees are extremely aggressive and males will aggressive and males will hunt and kill other chimps.hunt and kill other chimps.


►We should also examine the bonobo, an We should also examine the bonobo, an equally close genetic relative.equally close genetic relative. Bonobos have been described as more Bonobos have been described as more

intelligent, more compassionate, more intelligent, more compassionate, more empathic, and more peaceful than empathic, and more peaceful than chimps.chimps.

The bonobo is also one of the least The bonobo is also one of the least aggressive species of mammal on the aggressive species of mammal on the planet.planet.►They have been called the “make-love-They have been called the “make-love-not-war” ape.not-war” ape.


►The bonobo is a rare exception – among The bonobo is a rare exception – among primates, aggression is nearly universal, primates, aggression is nearly universal, which strongly suggests that it has which strongly suggests that it has evolved and been maintained because it evolved and been maintained because it has survival value.has survival value.

►However, evolutionary psychologists However, evolutionary psychologists underscore the point that nearly all underscore the point that nearly all organisms also have evolved strong organisms also have evolved strong inhibitory mechanisms that enable them inhibitory mechanisms that enable them to suppress aggression when it is in their to suppress aggression when it is in their best interests to do so.best interests to do so.


►Aggression is an optional strategy.Aggression is an optional strategy.► It is determined by the animal’s It is determined by the animal’s

previous social experiences as well as previous social experiences as well as by the specific social context in which by the specific social context in which the animal finds itself.the animal finds itself.

►The bonobos prove that violence The bonobos prove that violence between animals is far from inevitable.between animals is far from inevitable. It can be virtually eliminated within a It can be virtually eliminated within a

culture.culture.


►Where humans are Where humans are concerned, because of the concerned, because of the complexity of our social complexity of our social interactions, the social interactions, the social situation takes on even situation takes on even greater importance than it greater importance than it does in the animal kingdom.does in the animal kingdom.


► Berkowitz suggested that humans seem to Berkowitz suggested that humans seem to have an inborn tendency to respond to have an inborn tendency to respond to certain provocative stimuli by striking out certain provocative stimuli by striking out against the perpetrator.against the perpetrator. Whether or not the aggressive tendency is Whether or not the aggressive tendency is

actually expressed in overt action is a actually expressed in overt action is a function of a complex interplay among function of a complex interplay among these innate propensities, a variety of these innate propensities, a variety of learned inhibitory responses, and the learned inhibitory responses, and the precise nature of the social situation.precise nature of the social situation.


►There is much evidence to support There is much evidence to support Berkowitz’s contention that, among Berkowitz’s contention that, among humans, innate patterns of behavior are humans, innate patterns of behavior are infinitely modifiable and flexible.infinitely modifiable and flexible. Example: “primitive” tribes living in peace, Example: “primitive” tribes living in peace,

“civilized” societies (like ours) opting for war“civilized” societies (like ours) opting for war►Changing social conditions can lead to Changing social conditions can lead to

dramatic changes in aggressive dramatic changes in aggressive behavior.behavior. Example: Iroquois tribe vs. Huron tribeExample: Iroquois tribe vs. Huron tribe


► In our own society, there are some In our own society, there are some striking regional differences in striking regional differences in aggressive behavior and in the kinds of aggressive behavior and in the kinds of events that trigger violence.events that trigger violence. Example: Homicide rates in the North vs. Example: Homicide rates in the North vs.

South (Nisbett)South (Nisbett) Example: “Culture of honor” (Nisbett, et al.)Example: “Culture of honor” (Nisbett, et al.) Example: Reaction to honor-related murder Example: Reaction to honor-related murder

(Cohen & Nisbett)(Cohen & Nisbett)


►Although an instinctual component of Although an instinctual component of aggression is almost certainly present aggression is almost certainly present in human beings and other primates, in human beings and other primates, aggression is not caused entirely by aggression is not caused entirely by instinct.instinct.

►In human beings, such behavior can be In human beings, such behavior can be modified by situation and social modified by situation and social factors.factors.

►In short, aggressive behavior can be In short, aggressive behavior can be reduced.reduced.

Is Aggression Useful?Is Aggression Useful?

►Should aggression in humans be reduced?Should aggression in humans be reduced? Lorenz argued that aggression is “an Lorenz argued that aggression is “an

essential part of the life-preserving essential part of the life-preserving organization of instincts.”organization of instincts.”

Basing his argument on nonhumans, he Basing his argument on nonhumans, he sees aggression as being of prime sees aggression as being of prime evolutionary importance; others concur.evolutionary importance; others concur.►Example: Washburn & Hamburg; Example: Washburn & Hamburg; Pinker; LeBoeufPinker; LeBoeuf


►Using data from the animal kingdom, Using data from the animal kingdom, some observers urge caution in some observers urge caution in attempting to control aggression in attempting to control aggression in humans, suggesting that, as in some humans, suggesting that, as in some lower animals, aggression may be lower animals, aggression may be necessary for survival.necessary for survival.

►Aronson argues that such reasoning Aronson argues that such reasoning is based on an exaggerated is based on an exaggerated definition of aggression.definition of aggression.


►Ashley Montagu feels that an Ashley Montagu feels that an oversimplification and oversimplification and misinterpretation of Darwin’s misinterpretation of Darwin’s theory has provided the theory has provided the average person with the average person with the mistaken idea that conflict is mistaken idea that conflict is necessarily the law of life.necessarily the law of life.


►The danger is that his kind of reasoning The danger is that his kind of reasoning becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy and becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy and can lead us to ignore or downplay the can lead us to ignore or downplay the survival value of nonaggressive and survival value of nonaggressive and noncompetitive behavior.noncompetitive behavior. There is ample evidence to support this There is ample evidence to support this

conclusion.conclusion.►Example: Kropotkin work on mutual Example: Kropotkin work on mutual aidaid

►Example: Altruistic chimpanzeesExample: Altruistic chimpanzees


►As a culture, Americans seem to thrive As a culture, Americans seem to thrive on competition.on competition. Example: Lombardi, “Winning isn’t Example: Lombardi, “Winning isn’t

everything, it’s the everything, it’s the onlyonly thing.” thing.”►While it may be true that, in the early While it may be true that, in the early

history of human evolution, highly history of human evolution, highly competitive and aggressive behaviors competitive and aggressive behaviors were adaptive, Aronson questions the were adaptive, Aronson questions the current survival value of that behavior current survival value of that behavior now.now.


►Does Does catharsiscatharsis work? work? Catharsis is the psychoanalytic Catharsis is the psychoanalytic

concept of the release of energy, concept of the release of energy, specifically aggressive energy.specifically aggressive energy.►If not released, pressure from this If not released, pressure from this energy would build, exploding into energy would build, exploding into acts of violence or emerging as a acts of violence or emerging as a mental illness.mental illness.

►This belief has become part of our This belief has become part of our cultural mythology.cultural mythology.


►There is a plethora of evidence There is a plethora of evidence indicating that catharsis simply does indicating that catharsis simply does not work.not work. Example: BushmanExample: Bushman►Physical activity seems neither to Physical activity seems neither to dissipate anger nor to reduce dissipate anger nor to reduce subsequent aggression.subsequent aggression.

Example: PattersonExample: Patterson


►What happens when acts of aggression What happens when acts of aggression are targeted directly against the person are targeted directly against the person who provoked us? Does this satiate our who provoked us? Does this satiate our need to aggress and reduce our need to aggress and reduce our tendency to hurt that person further?tendency to hurt that person further? Systematic research again Systematic research again

demonstrates that the opposite demonstrates that the opposite occurs.occurs.►Example: Geen, et al.Example: Geen, et al.


►Taking all of this together it Taking all of this together it is clear that venting anger – is clear that venting anger – directly or indirectly, directly or indirectly, verbally or physically – does verbally or physically – does not reduce hostility.not reduce hostility. It increases it.It increases it.


►Why does expressing aggression lead to Why does expressing aggression lead to greater hostility?greater hostility? First, once we express negative feelings it First, once we express negative feelings it

becomes that much easier to follow such becomes that much easier to follow such behavior with consistent statements and behavior with consistent statements and actions.actions.

Moreover, retaliation is typically more Moreover, retaliation is typically more severe than the initial insult or attack.severe than the initial insult or attack.►We tend to engage in overkill, which sets We tend to engage in overkill, which sets

the stage for dissonance reduction.the stage for dissonance reduction. Example: KahnExample: Kahn


► Overkill maximizes dissonance.Overkill maximizes dissonance. The greater the discrepancy between that The greater the discrepancy between that

the perpetrator did to you and your the perpetrator did to you and your retaliation, the greater the dissonance.retaliation, the greater the dissonance.

The greater the dissonance, the greater The greater the dissonance, the greater your need to derogate him.your need to derogate him.►Example: Kent State shootingsExample: Kent State shootings►Example: Denying African Americans Example: Denying African Americans

educationeducation►Example: Anti-American sentiment post-Example: Anti-American sentiment post-

9/119/11


►In most situations, committing or In most situations, committing or condoning violence does not reduce the condoning violence does not reduce the tendency toward violence.tendency toward violence. Committing acts of violence increases Committing acts of violence increases

our negative feelings about the our negative feelings about the victims.victims.►Ultimately, this is why violence Ultimately, this is why violence almost always breeds more almost always breeds more violence.violence.


►What happens if we can somehow arrange it What happens if we can somehow arrange it so that retaliation is not allowed to run so that retaliation is not allowed to run roughshod over the instigator of aggression?roughshod over the instigator of aggression?

►What if the degree of retaliation is reasonably What if the degree of retaliation is reasonably controlled so that it is not significantly more controlled so that it is not significantly more intense that the action that precipitated it?intense that the action that precipitated it? Aronson predicts that there would be little or no Aronson predicts that there would be little or no

dissonance.dissonance.►Experiments confirm that when retaliation matches the Experiments confirm that when retaliation matches the

provocation, people do not derogate the provocateur.provocation, people do not derogate the provocateur.


► The major point to be emphasized is that most The major point to be emphasized is that most situations in the real world are messy – situations in the real world are messy – retaliation almost always exceeds the original retaliation almost always exceeds the original offense.offense. Why? The pain we receive always feels Why? The pain we receive always feels

more intense that the pain we inflict.more intense that the pain we inflict.►Example: Neurology research on “tit-for-Example: Neurology research on “tit-for-

tat”tat” The conclusion? Escalation is a “natural The conclusion? Escalation is a “natural

by-product of neural processing.”by-product of neural processing.”

Causes of AggressionCauses of Aggression

►One major cause of violence is One major cause of violence is violence itself.violence itself. Other major causes include:Other major causes include:►Neurological and Chemical CausesNeurological and Chemical Causes►Pain and DiscomfortPain and Discomfort►FrustrationFrustration►Rejection, Exclusion, & TauntingRejection, Exclusion, & Taunting►Social LearningSocial Learning


► Neurological and Chemical CausesNeurological and Chemical Causes There is an area in the core of the brain There is an area in the core of the brain

called the amygdala which is associated called the amygdala which is associated with aggressive behaviors in human beings with aggressive behaviors in human beings and lower animals.and lower animals.►When electrically stimulated, docile When electrically stimulated, docile

organisms become violent; when blocked, organisms become violent; when blocked, violent organisms become docile.violent organisms become docile.

►The impact of these neural mechanisms The impact of these neural mechanisms can be modified by social factors, can be modified by social factors, however, even in subhumans.however, even in subhumans.


►Neurological and Chemical CausesNeurological and Chemical Causes Certain chemicals have been shown to Certain chemicals have been shown to

increase aggression.increase aggression.►Example: Testosterone, a male sex hormone, Example: Testosterone, a male sex hormone,

increases aggression in animals.increases aggression in animals.►Example: Dabbs, et al. report related findings Example: Dabbs, et al. report related findings

in humans.in humans.►It is clear that testosterone affects It is clear that testosterone affects

aggressiveness, but behaving aggressively aggressiveness, but behaving aggressively also increases the release of testosterone. also increases the release of testosterone.


► Neurological and Chemical CausesNeurological and Chemical Causes If testosterone level affects aggressiveness, If testosterone level affects aggressiveness,

does that mean that men are more aggressive does that mean that men are more aggressive than women?than women?►When it comes to physical aggression, the When it comes to physical aggression, the

answer appears to be yes.answer appears to be yes. Example: Maccoby and JacklinExample: Maccoby and Jacklin

►When we consider nonphysical forms of When we consider nonphysical forms of aggression, the picture gets more aggression, the picture gets more complicated.complicated. Example: Relational aggression (Crick, et Example: Relational aggression (Crick, et

al.)al.)


►Neurological and Chemical CausesNeurological and Chemical Causes Is the gender difference in physical Is the gender difference in physical

aggression biological or social in origin?aggression biological or social in origin?►We cannot be sure, but some We cannot be sure, but some evidence points to biology.evidence points to biology.Example: Archer & McDaniel cross-Example: Archer & McDaniel cross-cultural studycultural study

►It also is apparent that these findings It also is apparent that these findings are not due are not due solelysolely to biochemical to biochemical differences.differences.


►Neurological and Chemical CausesNeurological and Chemical Causes One chemical that people throughout One chemical that people throughout

the world happily ingest is alcohol.the world happily ingest is alcohol. Alcohol tends to lower our inhibitions Alcohol tends to lower our inhibitions

against committing acts sometimes against committing acts sometimes frowned upon by society, including frowned upon by society, including acts of aggression.acts of aggression.►Example: Crime statisticsExample: Crime statistics►Example: Laboratory experimentsExample: Laboratory experiments


►Neurological and Chemical CausesNeurological and Chemical Causes This does not mean that alcohol This does not mean that alcohol

automatically increases automatically increases aggression.aggression.

Research indicates that alcohol Research indicates that alcohol serves as a disinhibitor and also serves as a disinhibitor and also tends to disrupt the way we tends to disrupt the way we usually process information.usually process information.


►Pain and Discomfort Pain and Discomfort Pain and discomfort are major Pain and discomfort are major precursors of aggression. precursors of aggression. ►Example: Easily seen in Example: Easily seen in animalsanimals►Example: Berkowitz study Example: Berkowitz study with cold waterwith cold water


►Pain and Discomfort Pain and Discomfort Observers have speculated that other forms Observers have speculated that other forms

of bodily discomfort (e.g., heat, humidity, of bodily discomfort (e.g., heat, humidity, offensive odors) might act to lower the offensive odors) might act to lower the threshold for aggressive behavior.threshold for aggressive behavior.►Example: “The long, hot summer”; Carlsmith & Example: “The long, hot summer”; Carlsmith &

Anderson study of riotsAnderson study of riots►Example: Anderson, et al. study of heat and Example: Anderson, et al. study of heat and

violenceviolence►Example: Griffitt and Veitch laboratory studyExample: Griffitt and Veitch laboratory study►Example: MLB games, car horn honkingExample: MLB games, car horn honking


► FrustrationFrustration Of situational causes of aggression, the Of situational causes of aggression, the

major instigator is frustration.major instigator is frustration.►If an individual is thwarted on the way If an individual is thwarted on the way

to a goal, the resulting frustration will to a goal, the resulting frustration will increase the probability of an increase the probability of an aggressive response.aggressive response. This is called the “frustration-This is called the “frustration-

aggression hypothesis.”aggression hypothesis.” Classic experiment: Barker, Classic experiment: Barker,

Dembo, & LewinDembo, & Lewin


►FrustrationFrustration Several factors can accentuate Several factors can accentuate

frustration.frustration.►Example: Nearness of goal Example: Nearness of goal (Harris)(Harris)►Example: Unexpected or Example: Unexpected or illegitimate interruption illegitimate interruption

(Kulik & Brown)(Kulik & Brown)


► FrustrationFrustration Frustration is most pronounced when the Frustration is most pronounced when the

goal is becoming palpable and drawing goal is becoming palpable and drawing within reach, when expectations are high, within reach, when expectations are high, and when the goal is blocked unjustifiably.and when the goal is blocked unjustifiably.►These factors help to point out the These factors help to point out the

important distinction between important distinction between frustration and deprivation.frustration and deprivation. Frustration is not the result of simple Frustration is not the result of simple

deprivation – it is the result of deprivation – it is the result of relative deprivation.relative deprivation.


►Rejection, Exclusion, & TauntingRejection, Exclusion, & Taunting Aronson concludes that rampage Aronson concludes that rampage

killings (e.g., at Columbine High killings (e.g., at Columbine High School) are just the pathological tip of School) are just the pathological tip of an enormous iceberg: the poisonous an enormous iceberg: the poisonous social atmosphere prevalent at most social atmosphere prevalent at most high schools in this country.high schools in this country.►This atmosphere is fraught with This atmosphere is fraught with exclusion, rejection, taunting, and exclusion, rejection, taunting, and humiliation.humiliation.


►Rejection, Exclusion, & TauntingRejection, Exclusion, & Taunting Recent research by Twenge, et al. Recent research by Twenge, et al.

demonstrates that being rejected has a demonstrates that being rejected has a plethora of negative effects, not the least plethora of negative effects, not the least of which is a dramatic increase in of which is a dramatic increase in aggressiveness.aggressiveness.

Aronson’s research also reveals that Aronson’s research also reveals that rejection and the accompanying rejection and the accompanying humiliation were the dominant issues humiliation were the dominant issues underlying high school rampage killings.underlying high school rampage killings.


►Social LearningSocial Learning Social learning plays an Social learning plays an

important role in determining important role in determining whether or not a person will whether or not a person will aggress in a given situation.aggress in a given situation.►One qualification is the One qualification is the intention attributed to an agent intention attributed to an agent of pain or frustration.of pain or frustration.


►Social LearningSocial Learning One aspect that seems to distinguish humans One aspect that seems to distinguish humans

from other animals is our ability to take the from other animals is our ability to take the intentions of others into account – we intentions of others into account – we become less aggressive when given a good become less aggressive when given a good explanation for the frustrating behavior of explanation for the frustrating behavior of others.others.►Example: Mallick & McCandlessExample: Mallick & McCandless

The tendency for frustration to provoke The tendency for frustration to provoke aggression can be strengthened if the aggression can be strengthened if the experience is combined with exposure to experience is combined with exposure to certain provocative stimuli.certain provocative stimuli.


►Social LearningSocial Learning The tendency for frustration to The tendency for frustration to

provoke aggression can be provoke aggression can be strengthened, however, if the strengthened, however, if the experience is combined with experience is combined with exposure to certain provocative exposure to certain provocative (aggressive) stimuli (e.g., associated (aggressive) stimuli (e.g., associated name or object, violent movie, rifle).name or object, violent movie, rifle).►Example: Berkowitz, et al.Example: Berkowitz, et al.


►Social LearningSocial Learning One aspect of social learning that One aspect of social learning that

tends to tends to inhibitinhibit aggression is the aggression is the tendency most people have to tendency most people have to take responsibility for their take responsibility for their actions.actions.

What happens if this sense of What happens if this sense of responsibility is weakened?responsibility is weakened?


► Social LearningSocial Learning Zimbardo has demonstrated that persons Zimbardo has demonstrated that persons

who are anonymous and unidentifiable who are anonymous and unidentifiable tend to act more aggressively than persons tend to act more aggressively than persons who are not anonymous.who are not anonymous.►He suggests that anonymity induces He suggests that anonymity induces

deindividuationdeindividuation – a state of lessened self- – a state of lessened self-awareness, reduced concern over social awareness, reduced concern over social evaluation, and weakened restraints evaluation, and weakened restraints against prohibited forms of behavior.against prohibited forms of behavior.


►Social LearningSocial LearningThere is reason to believe There is reason to believe that deindividuation also that deindividuation also takes place outside the takes place outside the laboratory.laboratory.►Example: Analysis of Example: Analysis of newspaper reports (Mullen)newspaper reports (Mullen)


►Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass MediaMedia One particularly powerful set of agents of One particularly powerful set of agents of

social learning is the mass media – social learning is the mass media – especially television and especially for especially television and especially for children.children.►A number of long-term studies indicate A number of long-term studies indicate that the more violence individuals that the more violence individuals watch on television as children, the watch on television as children, the more violence they exhibit years later more violence they exhibit years later as teenagers and young adults.as teenagers and young adults.


► Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass MediaSocial Learning, Violence, & The Mass Media Because this is an issue of great importance Because this is an issue of great importance

to society, it has been well researched.to society, it has been well researched.►The overwhelming thrust of the The overwhelming thrust of the

experimental evidence demonstrates that experimental evidence demonstrates that watching violence does increase the watching violence does increase the frequency of aggressive behavior in frequency of aggressive behavior in children.children. Example: Liebert & BaronExample: Liebert & Baron Example: JosephsonExample: Josephson Example: Parke, et al.Example: Parke, et al.


►Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass MediaMedia At a recent congressional hearing, it At a recent congressional hearing, it

was estimated that the average 12-was estimated that the average 12-year-old has witnessed more than year-old has witnessed more than 100,000 acts of violence on television.100,000 acts of violence on television.►One of the crucial factors believed One of the crucial factors believed to be involved in the research to be involved in the research findings is priming.findings is priming.


► Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass MediaSocial Learning, Violence, & The Mass Media The effect of media violence on violent behavior is The effect of media violence on violent behavior is

not limited to children.not limited to children.►Media violence has a major impact on the Media violence has a major impact on the

aggressive behavior of adolescents and young aggressive behavior of adolescents and young adults as well.adults as well. Example: Johnson, et al.Example: Johnson, et al.

There was a significant association There was a significant association between the amount of time spent between the amount of time spent watching television during adolescence watching television during adolescence and early adulthood and the likelihood of and early adulthood and the likelihood of subsequent violence.subsequent violence.


►Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass MediaMedia Additionally, on numerous occasions, Additionally, on numerous occasions,

adult violence seems to be a case of adult violence seems to be a case of life imitating art.life imitating art.►Example: Shooting spree in Killeen, Example: Shooting spree in Killeen, TexasTexas

►Example: Phillips study of homicide Example: Phillips study of homicide rates and heavyweight boxingrates and heavyweight boxing


► Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass MediaSocial Learning, Violence, & The Mass Media It seems to be the case that repeated It seems to be the case that repeated

exposure to painful or unpleasant events tends exposure to painful or unpleasant events tends to have a numbing effect on our sensitivity to to have a numbing effect on our sensitivity to those events.those events.►This seems to be true for exposure to violent This seems to be true for exposure to violent

television as well as violent video games.television as well as violent video games. Example: Cline, et al. Example: Cline, et al. Example: Thomas, et al.Example: Thomas, et al. Example: ThomasExample: Thomas


► Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass MediaSocial Learning, Violence, & The Mass Media There are four distinct reasons that There are four distinct reasons that

exposure to violence via the media might exposure to violence via the media might increase aggression:increase aggression:►““If they can do it, so can I.”If they can do it, so can I.”►““Oh, so that’s how you do it!”Oh, so that’s how you do it!”►““I think it must be aggressive feelings I think it must be aggressive feelings

that I’m experiencing.”that I’m experiencing.”►““Ho-hum, another brutal beating; what’s Ho-hum, another brutal beating; what’s

on the other channel?”on the other channel?”


►Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass MediaSocial Learning, Violence, & The Mass Media An important and troubling aspect of An important and troubling aspect of

aggression in the United States involves aggression in the United States involves violence expressed by some men against violence expressed by some men against women in the form of rape.women in the form of rape.►Almost half of all rapes or attempted Almost half of all rapes or attempted rapes are “date rapes” in which the rapes are “date rapes” in which the victim is acquainted with the assailant.victim is acquainted with the assailant.


► Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass MediaSocial Learning, Violence, & The Mass Media It appears that many date rapes take place It appears that many date rapes take place

because the male refuses to take the word “no” at because the male refuses to take the word “no” at face value, in part because of some confusion face value, in part because of some confusion about the “sexual scripts” adolescents learn as about the “sexual scripts” adolescents learn as they gain sexual maturity.they gain sexual maturity.►Scripts Scripts are a way of social behavior that we are a way of social behavior that we

learn implicitly from the culture.learn implicitly from the culture. The sexual scripts adolescents are exposed The sexual scripts adolescents are exposed

to suggest that the traditional female role is to suggest that the traditional female role is to resist the male’s sexual advances and the to resist the male’s sexual advances and the male’s role is to be persistent.male’s role is to be persistent.


►Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass MediaMedia Coincidental with the increase in rape Coincidental with the increase in rape

during the past few decades is an during the past few decades is an increase in the availability of the increase in the availability of the depiction of vivid, sexually explicit depiction of vivid, sexually explicit behavior on the Internet.behavior on the Internet.►For better or for worse, in recent years, For better or for worse, in recent years, our society has become increasingly our society has become increasingly freer and more tolerant of pornography.freer and more tolerant of pornography.


►Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass MediaSocial Learning, Violence, & The Mass Media Does the viewing of pornographic material Does the viewing of pornographic material

increase the incidence of rape?increase the incidence of rape?►After studying the available evidence, After studying the available evidence, the President’s Commission on Obscenity the President’s Commission on Obscenity and Pornography concluded that explicit and Pornography concluded that explicit sexual material sexual material in itselfin itself did not contribute did not contribute to sexual crimes, violence against to sexual crimes, violence against women, or other antisocial acts.women, or other antisocial acts.


► Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass MediaSocial Learning, Violence, & The Mass Media Malamuth, Donnerstein, et al. have conducted Malamuth, Donnerstein, et al. have conducted

a series of careful studies to determine the a series of careful studies to determine the effects, if any, of pornography.effects, if any, of pornography.►Taken together, these studies indicate that Taken together, these studies indicate that

exposure to pornography is harmless, but exposure to pornography is harmless, but that exposure to that exposure to violentviolent pornography – pornography – which combines pornographic sex with which combines pornographic sex with violence – promotes greater acceptance of violence – promotes greater acceptance of sexual violence toward women and is one sexual violence toward women and is one factor associated with aggressive behavior factor associated with aggressive behavior toward women.toward women.


► Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass MediaSocial Learning, Violence, & The Mass Media Exposure to aggressive pornography also Exposure to aggressive pornography also

tends to increase the tendency of men to tends to increase the tendency of men to believe the rape myth.believe the rape myth.

Data also suggest that a steady diet of Data also suggest that a steady diet of violent pornography can lead to emotional violent pornography can lead to emotional desensitization and callused attitudes desensitization and callused attitudes regarding violence against women.regarding violence against women.►Example: Linz, et al.Example: Linz, et al.


► Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass MediaSocial Learning, Violence, & The Mass Media To sum up, the combination of sex and To sum up, the combination of sex and

violence has effects remarkably similar to violence has effects remarkably similar to those associated with other violence in those associated with other violence in the media.the media.►The level of aggression is increased The level of aggression is increased

and, in many instances, attitudes and, in many instances, attitudes condoning violence are strengthened.condoning violence are strengthened.

►Viewing violence does not serve a Viewing violence does not serve a cathartic function but seems, rather, to cathartic function but seems, rather, to stimulate aggressive behavior.stimulate aggressive behavior.


►Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass MediaMedia Does violence sell? Does violence sell? ►TV producers and advertising TV producers and advertising agencies believe that it does. but agencies believe that it does. but research has shown that both sex and research has shown that both sex and violence can be so distracting that violence can be so distracting that they cause viewers to be less attentive they cause viewers to be less attentive to the product being advertised.to the product being advertised.Example: Bushman & BonacciExample: Bushman & Bonacci


►Social Learning, Violence, & The Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass MediaMass Media In a complex and apathetic In a complex and apathetic society like America, aggressive society like America, aggressive behavior may be the most behavior may be the most dramatic way for an oppressed dramatic way for an oppressed minority to attract the attention minority to attract the attention of the powerful majority.of the powerful majority.


►Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass MediaMedia Social psychology can tell us (again and Social psychology can tell us (again and

again) that violence almost never ends again) that violence almost never ends simply with a reification of the simply with a reification of the conditions that brought it about.conditions that brought it about.►Violence breeds violence; we must Violence breeds violence; we must search for alternate solutions.search for alternate solutions.Example: Civil disobedienceExample: Civil disobedience


►Social Learning, Violence, & The Social Learning, Violence, & The Mass MediaMass Media Research has shown over and Research has shown over and

over again that the only solution over again that the only solution is to find ways of reducing is to find ways of reducing violence as we continue to try to violence as we continue to try to reduce the injustice that produces reduce the injustice that produces the frustrations that frequently the frustrations that frequently erupt in violent aggression.erupt in violent aggression.

Toward the Reduction of Toward the Reduction of ViolenceViolence

►If we believe that reducing If we believe that reducing our propensity toward our propensity toward aggression is a worthwhile aggression is a worthwhile goal, how should we proceed?goal, how should we proceed?There are probably no There are probably no simple, foolproof solutions.simple, foolproof solutions.


►Aronson speculates about Aronson speculates about some complex and less some complex and less foolproof possibilities:foolproof possibilities:Pure ReasonPure Reason►Not likely to workNot likely to work


PunishmentPunishment

Severe punishment has been Severe punishment has been shown to be effective shown to be effective temporarily, but unless used temporarily, but unless used with extreme caution, it can with extreme caution, it can have the opposite effect in the have the opposite effect in the long run.long run.


Punishment Punishment (continued) (continued)

Punishment can be Punishment can be useful if applied useful if applied judiciously in the context judiciously in the context of a warm relationship.of a warm relationship.


Punishment (continued)Punishment (continued)►One factor to consider is the severity One factor to consider is the severity or restrictiveness.or restrictiveness.A severe or restrictive punishment A severe or restrictive punishment can be extremely frustrating which can be extremely frustrating which can lead to greater aggression.can lead to greater aggression. Example: Hamblin, et al.Example: Hamblin, et al. Example: Prison in the USExample: Prison in the US


Punishment (continued)Punishment (continued)►One factor to consider is the severity or One factor to consider is the severity or

restrictiveness.restrictiveness. Threats of mild punishment are far more Threats of mild punishment are far more

effective than threats of severe effective than threats of severe punishment.punishment.

Example: Aronson & CarlsmithExample: Aronson & Carlsmith

Example: FreedmanExample: Freedman

Example: OlweusExample: Olweus


►Aronson speculates about Aronson speculates about some complex and less some complex and less foolproof possibilities:foolproof possibilities:Punishment of aggressive Punishment of aggressive modelsmodels►Punishing someone else Punishing someone else doesn’t work well.doesn’t work well.


►Aronson speculates about Aronson speculates about some complex and less some complex and less foolproof possibilities:foolproof possibilities:Rewarding alternative Rewarding alternative behavior patternsbehavior patterns►Example: Brown & ElliotExample: Brown & Elliot►Example: DavitzExample: Davitz


►Aronson speculates about Aronson speculates about some complex and less some complex and less foolproof possibilities:foolproof possibilities:The presence of The presence of nonaggressive modelsnonaggressive models►Example: Baron & KepnerExample: Baron & Kepner


► Aronson speculates about some complex and less Aronson speculates about some complex and less foolproof possibilities:foolproof possibilities: Building empathy toward othersBuilding empathy toward others

►Feshbach notes that most people find it Feshbach notes that most people find it difficult to inflict pain purposefully on another difficult to inflict pain purposefully on another human being unless they can find some way human being unless they can find some way of dehumanizing their victim.of dehumanizing their victim.

►If so, building empathy among people will If so, building empathy among people will reduce aggressive acts.reduce aggressive acts. Example: Feshbach & Feshbach workExample: Feshbach & Feshbach work Example: Hammock & RichardsonExample: Hammock & Richardson Example: Obuchi, et al.Example: Obuchi, et al.

By April 17thBy April 17th

You should have read chapter six by this time. You should have read chapter six by this time. Now that you have completed these power Now that you have completed these power points, please go to the Social Animal points, please go to the Social Animal website.website.

http://bcs.worthpublishers.com/aronsonhttp://bcs.worthpublishers.com/aronson10e/default.asp10e/default.asp

Log in and take the quiz for chapter six, Log in and take the quiz for chapter six, submit answers to my email.submit answers to my email.

human aggression chapter six. human aggression ► we americans display a chilling acceptance of...

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