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LECTURE NOTES II

INTRODUCTION TO ETHICSHS30070

Developed and submitted by

C ChakrabortiDept of HSS

2008

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IIT KGP Intro to Ethics, A-2010

Limitations of Utilitarianism

Problem of measurement: subjectiveelement in benefit, some benefits &costs cannot be measured bynumerical value

Unpredictability of consequencesHas no importance for intention or

motive, which is often morallysignificantProblem of defining cost, benefit

satisfying allToo impartial: Who should you savewhen you cannot save all? No clearanswer.Concerns only for the greater

number of people may override

minority RIGHTS

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C Chakraborti IIT KGP Intro to Ethics, A-2010

1. Problem of measurement:2.

1.1. Are all pleasures, painsquantifiable? E.g. Value of life,health, etc.

3.

4. 1.2. Problem of measuringinterpersonal comparisons: your

happiness vis-avis my happiness.How far egalitarianism in this respectis defensible?

5.

6. 1.3. Is it plausible to think that summaximization of all different kinds of

pleasures and pains, which may notbe really comparable, can always beattained? E.g. What is the sum totalof benefit from jobs, cost from healthhazard in the Clemenceau case?

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If not happiness, Welfarism is indicated

by certain factors:

Human Development Index (HDI)

Human Happiness Index (HHI)

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Problematic questions for Utilitarianism:

1. Is happiness, or well-being the onlyvalue to be counted in deciding themoral worth?

2. Greatest good for greatest numbers:is always a worthy goal to pursue?

3. Is very low, practically negative valuea very large number of people betterthan moderate benefit for a lesserpopulation?

4. Harms are consequentially moreimportant than benefits. So, should wenot try to promote least amount ofharm?

5. Is happiness of one comparable to

anothers happiness?

6. Should consequence be the onlyfactor to determine moral worth of anaction? What about motive?

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THE TROLLEY PROBLEM (Phillippa

Foot & Judith Jarvis Thomson,Philosophers)

You see a trolley hurtling fast down atrack. In its path, 5 people areworking, unaware of the danger.

You are standing near a fork, andcan pull a lever that will divert thetrolley on to a spur (branch line).But the trolley would then run overone person who is working on the

spur.

Is it ethically permissible to throwthe switch, kill 1 man to save 5?

Survey says; almost everyone

says: YES

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Consider a modified scenario (Case2):

Now you are on a bridge overlookingthe hurtling trolley, the five unawarepeople down the track. Now no lever,no switch, and the only way to stop thetrolley is to throw a heavy object in its

path. And the only heavy object withinyour reach is this fat man standingnext to you.

Is it ethically permissible to throw the

man off the bridge, kill 1 man to save5?

Almost everyone says: NO, twocases are not equivalent.

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Martha Nussbaum: Limitations ofUtilitarianism

Utilitarianism is insensitive to matters of justice.Because maximum good is its goal, distributionis unimportant. It allows some individuals to beused merely as means to promote overallwelfare.

Can yield injustice in individual cases

Non-Utilitarianism position: Justice must bedone, individual rights must be protected (even if

does not increase sum total of happiness).

Application to Human Rights: Eachindividual is repository of certaininalienable rights, which must not bedenied. No person is to be used asmerely means to promote maximumgood for maximum people.

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Application to Animal Rights:

Miyun Park (Peter Singer Anthology):

Hens are cramped for their entire lives in wirecages stacked on top of one another. They

stand on wire-mesh flooring so unlike the earththat their nails, which would normally wear downwhile scratching the ground, curl around thebars. Feather loss is common as hens rubagainst cages until many appear to have beenplucked, their bodies raw with sores. Theycannot roost at night, dust-bathe to clean

themselves, feel sunlight, breathe fresh air, builda nest, raise their young, or even freely stretchtheir wings ... (Singer, 176) (1)

An egg-laying hen requires 290 square inches ofspace to flap her wings, yet each bird is allottedan average of 52 square inches--smaller than a

single sheet of paper--in which she eats, sleeps,lays eggs, drinks, and defecates.All this is so that the egg prices remain low forhumans.

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Bringing Real Life into Responsibility

C Chakraborti


[BMW Nanda gets five years- Age no excuse, Legal Correspondent, The

Telegraph, Kolkata, Sept 6, 2008]New Delhi, Sept. 5: A court today sentenced SanjeevNanda to five years imprisonment, saying he shouldhave knownthe consequences of drunk-driving sincehe had got his license in the US. The judge rejectedNandas plea to let him off on probation as he wasonly 19 at the time of the incident and his family had

compensated the victims. A person who got a drivinglicense from the US can be considered to be having ahigher degree of knowledge of the consequences ofdrunken driving. Therefore, on account of his youngage, no benefit can be given, he said. That Nandahad tried to win over witnesses also merited the highquantum of punishment, the judge said.

Two of Guptas employees, Bhola Nath and ShyamSingh, were sentenced to six months in jail and finedRs 100 each for washing off bloodstains andremoving pieces of flesh from Nandas BMW.

Nanda, was convicted of culpable homicide notamounting to murder for mowing down six persons

while driving his BMW in 1999.The question is whether a man on the road is safe andwhether drunken drivers would keep on committing suchoffences. This accountability to society can only be suitablyanswered if a substantial jail term is provided to him, theorder said.

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Non-consequentialist position:

To know if the choice of an action is good/right, not consequences, but criteria otherthan what the choice brings about shouldbe looked into.

i. Some actions, no matter howethically good theirconsequences are, areunethical.

Choices cannot be judged by their results.

Deontological Ethics (Gk. Deon (duty)): Anaction is ethical iff it is done in conformity

with an ethical norm.

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Non-consequentialist position:

judges the rightness or wrongness of anaction based on properties intrinsic tothe action, not on its consequences

Praiseworthy goals can never justifyimmoral actions

Ends do NOT justify the means

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Examples of relevant properties intrinsic

to an action:

1. Does the chosen action uses /exploits another person in any

way?

2. Is the chosen action fair / just to allconcerned?

3. Would the decision-maker like to

be at the receiving end of theaction?

4. Does the chosen action showenough human sensitivity?

5. Does it violate anyonesfundamental right?

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C ChakrabortiIIT KGP Intro to Ethics, A-2008

Kants Deontological Ethics:

An action is ethical iff it is done out of theduty motive (the agent).

Different Conceptions of DUTY

A. DUTY as compliance to given orders -Military model -Duty is externally imposed

B. DUTY as self-imposed obligation

-A choice made by the agent himself

B is Kants conception of an ethical duty

I should do this

I should NOT do this

Orders to oneself: Imperatives,commands

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Kants view of the Moral Agent

1. Human beings are part of the causalnexus of the world of physics.2. Yet, they are also capable of FREE

WILL or will power. In this aspect, theyescape the net of causal determinismthat rules the world of physics.3. They can impose on themselves a

rule, a sense of obligation or DUTY by

their free choice.4. Moral duties are one of a kind, self-

imposed rules.5. This ability to be governed by self-

decided rules is something that setshumans apart.

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Kants Classification of DUTIES

Self-imposed Imperatives or duties maybe of two kinds:

First type:

Hypothetical or Conditional Imperative: Self-imposed Duty conditional upon what I seek

IfI want to go to IITs, thenI should preparefor JEE. (Then your duty is to prepare forJEE)

If one wants to study at the IITs, then oughtshould prepare for JEE.

It is NOT binding if (and when) the conditionis removed.

-What if one does not want to study atthe IIT-s?

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Kant: This occasionally binding, contingent

imperatives are not DUTY per se. (Anyoneclaim exemption at any time)

Whatever goodness there may be in thesechoices are qualified good, and not good inthe ethical sense.

-Prudence, shrewdness, worldlinessmay be good, but these are not ethicalqualities.

DUTY: The RIGHT action done from theRIGHT motive

What Kant will not consider as right motive:

Self-interest: Kant does not consider itmorally worthy to do the right actionout of self-interest

-Grocers example: not cheatingbecause that harms his business Paying to charity to impress

others, or to get a tax break

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Feelings or impulses: Kant considered

these as unstable, unreliable as basis ofduty One day I feel pity, and I help a

person, next day I dont feel like.

THE MORAL DUTY

Categorical Imperative or Unconditionalought: Moral judgments bind us with anought of this kind. No clauses, DUTY no

matter what.I should do this because I realized it as theduty.

DUTY: The RIGHT action done from theRIGHT motive

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The moral imperative, or DUTY, isunconditionaland should be done because it is

recognized as the duty.Live by rules that you yourself see as

duties.

The only thing unqualifiedly good is thegood will

How to find what is a duty (a categoricalimperative)?

1st Formulation: I ought never to actexcept in such a way that I can also willthat my maximshould become auniversal law. Universalizability: What if everybody

did that?Reversibility: How would I like to be in

his/her shoes?

If I cannot will my action to be universalor reversible, then I have some amoralor non-moral motive.

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First formulation says: What is fair, should

be fair for all, and not just for the agent:Universalizable

2nd Formulation: Act in such a waythat you always treat humanity, whether

yourself or others, never simply as ameans.People are persons, not means or tools

for advancing one's own interests.Respect and help to develop the other

person's capacity to choose freely.

A morally right action will not involveusing others as mere tools for self-interest.

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Implications

What is morally right is universally right:

holds for everyone including me.

Moral right or wrong is not decided onlyby the results of action, but also by theright motive: motive: of realizing theaction as a DUTY.

Tight correlation with RIGHTS

Moral personhood: Being specially

endowed to live by ones chosenprinciples, every human as a moral selfis of equal value. In a moral communitywe must respect each other, and eachothers free choices. HUMAN RIGHTS

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C Chakrabort IIT KGP Intro to Ethics, A-2010

Personhood:

1. Respecting Autonomy: Choices

Informed Consent

Veracity or the duty of truth-telling

1. Sanctity of life

2. Other Human Rights

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C Chakrabort IIT KGP Intro toEthics, A-2010

Problems with Kants Ethics

Universalizability: Can human naturebe so standardized? What isuniversalizable and reversible to apsychopath, may not be moral.

How do we resolve conflicts, ifeveryones right has equal value?Sometimes circumstances matter a

lot. Kants theory seems to ignorethat.

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Deontological recommendation: Right

and wrong-making characteristic of achoice may be independent of theconsequences

Example:

Bhagavadgita : NISHKAMA KARMA(action without any desire forconsequence).

Arjuna is in profound indecision becausethe war will lead to so many

deaths.(Consequentialist)

Krishna advises that priority must begiven to duty irrespective ofconsequences, irrespective of the fruitsof the action.(Deontologist)

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Other Non-consequentialist answers:

1. Justice theories:

The right and wrong-makingcharacteristic of a chosen action/policy is whether it is just or unjust.

Equality for allEquity or Justice as FairnessEqual opportunityLevel playing field

Capability Approach

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GENDER GAP REVIEW 2009

WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM:.Out of 134 countries surveyed, India isamong the lowest ranked countries atthe 114th position in terms of gendergap.

Economic Participation and Opportunity:0.412 (Rank 127) Corporate sector: Nowoman CEO, only middle or entrypositions

Educational Attainment: 0.843 (Rank121)

Health and Survival: 0.931 (Rank 131)lowest, worst sex ratios

Political Empowerment: 0.273 (Rank 24)

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Other Non-consequentialist answers:

2. Virtue Ethics: Concerns with rightand wrong behavior is about the central

question: How should we live?

(entire life)And not about what is the right thingto do? (a specific dilemma)

It is about the good life and the kind ofperson we ought to be to get it right allthe time throughout life.

ARISTOTLE: Ethics and ethical actionsare for Character building, andunethical actions are for undoing

goodness in us.

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Character: a state of being (having

certain psychological dispositions andbeing a certain state)

No one is born good, or bad. Peopleare born with all kinds of tendencies.These can be encouraged or thwarted

by influences around (parents, teachers,peer group, role-model, appreciationetc)

A character is built through repeated

choices and behavior (a habit) over along period of time. And it is important todevelop the right habits, and wean thewrong ones: moral development

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Character traits are stable, reliable. Ex:

someone with character trait of kindnessis expected to act kindly in appropriatesituations, even when it is difficult to doso. Similarly, with the character trait ofcruelty.

Ex: Kindness as a virtue requires (a)realization that kindness is the rightresponse to a certain situation, and (b)the disposition to act kindly. It is not amechanical action, involves recognizing

kindness as a virtue and choosing to actin a certain way.

Virtue lies in a mean because the rightresponse to each situation is neither toomuch nor too little, but appropriate(situation-specific, role-specific).

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Virtues lead to Eudaimonia (blissfulexistence, human flourishing and well-being) : a good life. Vices lead us awayfrom that.

Feminist theorists: In addition to Beingfair, being brave, being rational, thereare other feminine virtues from caringfor others which are often marginalized:such as virtue of being patient, theability to nurture, self-sacrifice, etc.

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The aim

Is to develop good virtues, so thatthe right choices become more of ahabit, followed by right actions Involves prohairesis: a virtuous

person will choose to do the virtuous

thingsTo avoid the vices, which also will

rule our choices, actions, andeventually who we are.

Institutions too can be evaluated asvirtuous or vicious.

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The Six Pillars of Corporate

Wisdom -N.R.Narayana MurthyImportance of being trustworthy in

your dealings.Fear is natural, but do not let your

actions be totally governed by it.

A supportive family is the bedrockupon which lives and career arebuilt. Learn how to manage yourself,

separating the merits and demeritsof a decision from the feelingsaccompanying it.Live your life and lead your career in

a way that makes a difference toyour society.Choose a dream and go after it

confidently, but always ensure thatyou are following your bliss

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Causing Harm

Criminal Intention

(Murder) (culpable homicide)

Manslaughter

X did by commission X did by commissionor omission or omissionso-and-so to Y so-and-so to Ywith the intention, or with without the intention,the knowledge or without thethat thereby knowledgeX is likely to that thereby X is likelycause the death of Y to cause the death of

Y.

Abetting a murder

Abetting culpable homicide

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What is Applied Ethics?

Easy answer: Application (and also discovery )of ethical concepts, criteria, and reasoning toconcrete problems

APPLIED ETHICS

BUSINESS ETHICSCYBERETHICS

BIO ETHICS

ENGINEERINGETHICS

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Generally two ways to apply:

1. Theory extended to facts: Utilitarianism,Deontology, Virtue theory, Justice, Care _revised and reinterpreted to adequatelyunderstand and explain current ethicalproblems

2. Casuistry or Case-based reasoning: Doesnot begin with theory, but starts with aparticular case and asks what theoreticaland practical ethical considerations should

be considered in this case.

E.g.: Medical Ethics Board and a problematicmedical case (withholding medical support)

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1. If Theory extended to facts approach:

1.1. May choose one selective theory togenerate the recommendation or the rule,but then:(a) show why NOT the other theories

(b) show what is so special with this theory

1.2. May try to analyze the situation fromthe perspectives of several theories, andshow what the available solution are, then

adopt a relative weighted approach to selecta particular solution,

Or, do a scoring system from allperspectives

(a) If there are conflicting solutions, whetherthere is any overriding concern to resolvethe conflict

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Stakeholder analysis: tool for identifyingethical issues

A stakeholder:

any group or individual who can affect or isaffected by the achievement of theorganizations objectives (Freeman 1984,46)

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Environmental Ethics

Ecology: First use attributed to Germanbiologist Ernst Haeckel in 1860s.

Two Greek words:

Eko (home, household) + Logos (Study,discourse)

It is the logos / study of living organisms intheir home / natural habitat

Earlier ecology used Organic model

(Cowles, Clements in late 1800s):Assumed a part to whole relationshipamong every individual species (e.g.animals, plants) and environment.

Analogy: as organs are related to a body.

eye, nose to a human body

Assumes: a single common purpose amongspecies

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Ecologists job was thought to be like that of

a doctor: to diagnose and treat problems toensure a healthy and balanced statebetween the parts and the whole.

By early 1900s, many ecologists came to

reject this model:

Natural biotic communities (Lifezones,Biomes) : E.g. Alpine region of Sikkim,Sunderbans,

They do not always develop towards a

single organic whole (e.g. Plants VsAnimals).

More complex interaction among species,within the species, with abiotic naturalfactors exist (Soil, water, weather)

British ecologist Arthur Tansley firstintroduced the term ecosystem (a physicalsystem)

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A pond: fish, other marine animals, bacteria,insects, waterfowls, fungi, weeds,planktons, plants, sediments, watertemperature, oxygen level, , [the humanimpact]

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The Rivet argument: Change one affects the entire system

No Fungi decomposer of dead matter

lost natural recycler lost water quality

deterioration diseases in water plants,

fish diseases in birds .A river: ,[human impact]

A forest: trees, animals, microorganismsliving off the trees and animals, theinteraction among the trees and animals,

among the animals and the animals, theabiotic elements: climate, rainfall, soil,nutrients ..[human impact]

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Natural ecosystem: the food chain

Soil plants herbivores (rabbits,

elephants, humans) carnivores (hawks,

wolves, humans) carcasses beetles,

insects, microorganisms nutrients soil

80% of land plants depend on the symbioticroot fungi which fortify the plants rootsystem

Remove one component (drought,loss ofhabitat, overhunting, extinction), there maybe considerable impact on the Food web

Dung beetles (14,000 species) clear out thedroppings of herbivores : without themAfrican savannah would be wastelands

No bees (pollination crisis): fall in

agricultural crops less food for humans

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Mangroves of Indian coastlines:

Sunderbans. Mangroves are salt-tolerantplants which are highly productive but

extremely sensitive and fragile. Besidesmangroves, the ecosystem also harboursother plant and animal species. thepresence of mangrove ecosystems oncoastline save lives and property duringnatural hazards such as cyclones, storm

surges and erosion. These ecosystems arealso well known for their economicimportance. They are breeding, feeding andnursery grounds for many estuarine andmarine organisms. Hence, these areas areused for captive and culture fisheries. The

ecosystem has a very large unexploredpotential for natural products useful formedicinal purposes and also for saltproduction, apiculture, fuel and fodder, etc.
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.biodiversitygovernance.de/files/_news_files/mangroves1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.biodiversitygovernance.de/files/news_2004.html&h=708&w=1064&sz=381&hl=en&start=4&um=1&usg=__2xImgzuB_dBO2wDi6nr_isY27SM=&tbnid=r9cND7Wy06LFyM:&tbnh=100&tbnw=150&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dmangroves%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DNhttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.biodiversitygovernance.de/files/_news_files/mangroves1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.biodiversitygovernance.de/files/news_2004.html&h=708&w=1064&sz=381&hl=en&start=4&um=1&usg=__2xImgzuB_dBO2wDi6nr_isY27SM=&tbnid=r9cND7Wy06LFyM:&tbnh=100&tbnw=150&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dmangroves%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DNhttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.biodiversitygovernance.de/files/_news_files/mangroves1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.biodiversitygovernance.de/files/news_2004.html&h=708&w=1064&sz=381&hl=en&start=4&um=1&usg=__2xImgzuB_dBO2wDi6nr_isY27SM=&tbnid=r9cND7Wy06LFyM:&tbnh=100&tbnw=150&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dmangroves%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DNhttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.biodiversitygovernance.de/files/_news_files/mangroves1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.biodiversitygovernance.de/files/news_2004.html&h=708&w=1064&sz=381&hl=en&start=4&um=1&usg=__2xImgzuB_dBO2wDi6nr_isY27SM=&tbnid=r9cND7Wy06LFyM:&tbnh=100&tbnw=150&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dmangroves%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN

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ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS / HUMANIMPACT ON NATURAL ENVIRONMENT:

Climate Change:

Ozone layer depletion: the shield betweenSuns harmful UV rays, more harmfulwavelengths, and earths beings

Greenhouse gas emission: from various

human activities (chemical processes etc)through use of Ozone depleting substances(ODS), e.g. CFC compounds

Carbon footprints: a way to measure the

impact human activities on the environmentin terms of the amount of greenhouse gasesproduced (measured in units of CO2)Applicable to individuals, societies, nations,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas

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organizationsC ChakrabortiIIT KGP Intro to Ethics, A-2008

From Ecology to Ethics:

When we start looking at ecosystems aspart of the moral community

When we start conferring rights to non-human creatures and things

When we start to ponder on what ought tobe the relation between humans and naturalenvironment

When environmental problems (e.g.pollution) are framed in terms of socialjustice

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From Ecology to EthicsEthical and policy implications rising fromenvironmental concerns

ORGANIC MODEL:

Ecosystems are (and can be) understood as

independent living organism, with moralstanding.

James Lovelock (Brit. Scientist) & Lynn Margulis

(Am. Biologist): The GAIA hypothesis

1. The entire earth could be understood

as a SINGLE living organism withhumans just as a part

2. GAIA, the Greek goddess of Earth =Earth is a living entity, a goddess,Mother Nature

3. Human activities that degrade and

pollute the entire planet are morallycondemnable

Rolston (1996): humans are a kind ofplanetary cancer

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Ideological Change: Ecological Ethics

We, humans, are part of a much largerecological system. It is our ethical dutyto protect the welfare about not justhumans but also that of non-human

parts of that system

Corollary: Well being of all the partshave value in themselves, independentof their usefulness for human purposes

Humans have no special right tointerfere or adversely affect this rich anddiversity of life forms

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Environment, Ecology and Ethics:

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ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS:

Q1. The relation between humans andnature: How shouldit be?

Q2. Do humans have moral obligationstowards the environment? If so, what?

Q3. Is it morally wrong to pollute soil, water,and air?

Q4. Why should we conserve? Do humanshave moral duties to future generations

to conserve natural resources?

Q5. What kind of moral obligations dohumans have to the nonhuman forms oflife? Why? Do the beings and things ofnonhuman world have intrinsic value, or

worth?

Q6. Is it morally wrong to be cruel, or toabuse non-human animals?

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Q7. Can we extend the boundaries of themoral community to the entire naturalworld, so that rights can be ascribed?

Environmental ethics say yes to most ofthe questions above

It debates how to balance the claims:-of the present and the future

-of humans and non-humans

-of sentient and non-sentient

-of individuals and wholes

And strives for a sustainable relationship[Q1]

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ANCIENT VIEW:

Human-centeredness: ANTHROPOCENTRISM

*That the world belongs to humans alone

*That everything else that is there is toserve the humans or for their use

*Nonhuman beings and objects have onlyinstrumental value, or utility value in so faras they are useful to the humans.

-Instrumental value: valued only as ameans to some other goal (e.g. a pen)

Only humans have intrinsic value andunique worth.

-Intrinsic value: valued for its sake,inherent worth, independent of its value forsomething else (e.g. friendship, talent)

Idea can be found in ancient thinking,religions

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For example:

Aristotle: nature has made all thingsspecifically for the sake of man (Politics,Bk. 1, Ch. 8)

Judaic-Christian beliefs: God createdman in His own image. God said unto

them: Fill the earth & subdue it, havedominion over fish & birds, & over everyliving thing that moves upon the earth.(Genesis, Bk.I)

Men are God-made stewards of the earth,

and rest of the beings (women, slaves,animals, plants) are put there to serve men.

BUT, that animals are there to serve humanend has become increasingly untenablewith Darwinism.Similarly, adverse effects of human activityon environment have steadily underminedthe idea of nature merely as a resource

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Criticisms:

Christianity is the most anthropocentricreligion the world has seen. It placesanimals and nature at the feet of humans.Thus the main strands of Christian thinkinghad encouraged the overexploitation of

nature--The Historical Roots of Our EcologicalCrisis, Lynn White, 1967, Science,55:1203-1207

Christianity encouraged certain attitudes tonature: that it exists primarily as aresourcethat man a right to use it as hewillthat mans relationships with it are notgoverned by moral principles

[Philosopher John Passmore]

But, it is not an exclusive flaw of Christianity

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Though Asian religions have religioussanction for treating every life as sacred(Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism etc) andteaches oneness with the world,

YET, China, India : destroying forests

systematically, desertification, dumping intothe riverwaysJapan: whaling industry, purchases lumberfrom rainforests, Cadmium and itai-itaidisease, Minemata Bay mercury poisoning

Thus, anthropocentrism is an attitudinalproblem: an illusion, a false presumption

ECOLOGICAL ETHICS:No ground for anthropocentric attitude, it

should be replaced by bio-centricegalitarianism: everyone in a ecologicalsystem has equal right to be there,

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and non-human parts of the environmentdeserve to be preserved for their own sake,regardless of whether they are of any use tohumans

So, environmental values:A. Intrinsic value:

(a) value as an individual organism(BIOCENTRISM)

(b) value as a component, biotic orabiotic, of the ecosystem to which itbelongs (ECOCENTRISM)-Does not make a distinction

between biotic and abiotic entities

B.Respect for Biodiversity

Biodiversity: Variety of life forms (genediversity, species diversity in a givenecosystem. It is a measure of health ofbiological systems.

Natural diversity is to be preserved.

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Principal focus of Biodiversity is on: Speciesdiversity

Abt 1.5 million species of plants and animals areknown to biologists, but that is only est. 1/10 ofthe total number existing.

In 500n Mn yrs, 5 times major species extinctionhad happened.

Before the arrival of humans, one speciesbecame extinct every 1000 years.

Now the annual rate is between 1000 to 27000[Carpenter, S R, 1998, Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics, (ed.)Chadwick R., San Diego, Academic Press, Vol. 4., 275-293.]

Terrifying rate if remains unchecked

5 basic causes for biodiversity loss:

1. Overhunting and harvesting: animals for shell,skin, fur, bones.2. Pressure of population growth and theirincreased needs3. Habitat destruction: drive to increase

agriculture, taking over forests, oceans, land,rivers for commercial purposes4. New diseases that affect indigenous species5. Pollution, and climate change, and theircollective effect

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Why preserve biodiversity?

Consequential ethics answer: Becausehuman welfare and survival is inextricablyintertwined with the welfare and survival ofthe non-human beings and things.

Non-consequential ethics answer: Becauseall the members of the biotic and non-bioticcommunity have rights which are to berespected

So, Q7. Certain legal and moral rights mustbe extended for protection and conservationof living beings such as non-human animals(animalia), trees, flora and fauna, forests,insects, and of non-living things such asrivers, mountains, deserts, wetlands, andother natural objects.

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12 mega-diversity Ecological Hot Spots inIndia: North-East India, Western Ghats,Eastern and Western Himalayas, Andamanand Nicobar Islands, Sikkim, etc.

India with 2.4 percent of worlds area has 8

percent of global bio-diversity.

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From Ecology to EthicsBasic argument A

P1. Destruction / impairment of naturalenvironment is largely due to anthropogeniceffects or human impact

P1.1 What is at the root of this reckless

human behavior?A1.1. The worldview of Anthropocentrism or

Human centeredness (DEEP ECOLOGY)A1.2. Patterns of social domination of one class

over can foster ideology of domination of nature(SOCIAL ECOLOGY, Murray Bookchin)

A1.3 The same social structures which serve to

oppress women in a society are closely liked with thedomination and abuse of nature (ECOFEMINISM)

P2. [Those who cause damage, injury, harm,oughtto bear the responsibility / obligation / dutyto repair, compensate, restore where possible.]Ethical principle based on Justice, Fairness.

C. Hence, Humans ought to bear theresponsibility / obligation / duty to repair,compensate, restore the natural environmentwhere possible.

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Deep Ecology: Radical Environmental

Ethics

Deep Ecology: Arne Naess, (1973)Norwegian philosopher, Bill Devall, GeorgeSessions

Radical cure suggestion: Rejection of

anthropocentric attitude and adopting aholistic, non- anthropocentric outlook

Naess first introduced a distinction: ShallowVs Deep Ecology

Shallow ecology movement: Ecologymovement at a superficial level looking atpollution, resource depletion as isolatedevents.

Ultimately it is an anthropocentric fight

with the central objective of how to maintainthe health and affluence of people in thedeveloped countries.

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Deep ecology movement: A relational,total-field perspective. Looks beyondoutcome into the social and humanpractices that cause them (e.g. pollution,resource depletion.

-Affluent, easy lifestyle promotes

overconsumption Forsake it, go for asimpler, less technology-driven lifestyle,Asian religions

- Greed of businesses lead to

overutilization of resources curbconsumerism, block overambitious eco-unfriendly business moves

- Self-centered individualism allows forfalse distinctions from the nature and from

other human beings Change to aholistic, relational perspective

A PRACTICAL ETHICS: Significant changein outlook, behavior at individual andorganizational level

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Deep Ecology Principles:

1. Human and non-human life haveintrinsic value, irrespective of theirutility to human purposes

2. Biodiversity is to be preserved,humans have no right to reduce thisdiversity except to satisfy vital needs

3. Principle of biosphericegalitarianism: no humans havespecial right, our needs cannotoverride needs of other creatures.

Change human economic, technological &

ideological structures.

By: A new self-realization based onSpiritualism, Buddhism, Gandhian thoughts

An agenda of political action, civil

disobedience, and eco-sabotage.

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Greenpeace : Its earlier days

June 1990, under pressure US Fish &Wildlife Service barred Timber Industryfrom logging old forests in NorthCalifornia (Wilderness conservation,plus Habitat of Spotted Owl). Loss:36,000 lumber jobs, price of furniture,

musical instruments soared

In 1980s, members of the SeaShepherd Conservation Societysabotaged plants, sunk ships & thusimposed costs on commercial whaling

industry (depletion of whales)

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GREENPEACE :Deep Green and

Business

Dec 2007 : IFC, Worldbanks lending arm ,sells its equity stake in Olam International,for illegal timber trading in Congo.2007: EUs ban on energy-wasting

incandescent lightbulbs2007: deep-sea bottom trawling method nomore allowed for fishing industry in SouthPacific2006: Food companies, supermarkets,suppliers sign a zero deforestation policy :

no purchase from newly deforested land

The world is today more aware ofconservation of wilderness, protection of

natural resources and biodiversity

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Criticisms against Deep Ecology:

1. What is to be done when human interestsconflict with the interest of the elements in non-human natural world? There seems to be noclear answer

2. Ramachandra Guha: Deep Ecology isUtopian. It may prove disastrous for poor and

agrarian population (tribals) of less developedcountries (India) who live in fine balance withnature. A policy of wilderness preservation andbiocentric equality would effectively result indirect transfer of wealth from poor to rich and amajor displacement for the poor (ecologicalrefugees).

3. Social Ecology and Ecofeminism: Deepecology is concerned with factors that are tooabstract while ignoring the human and socialcauses of the environmental destruction. E.G. Itoveremphasizes value of wilderness whileignoring the human costs of environmentalharm. The focus should be on social justice.

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Ecofeminism: Connects environmentalismswith feminisms

Root of ecological problems lies in certainsocial factors: A power issueSocial injustices based on race, gender andclass are related to the ideologies thatsanction the exploitation and degradation of

nature.Nature is an analogy to women: There onlyto serve the needs of men. Uncaring use,dominate, exploit and then discardThe attitudes towards women in a societyreflect in attitude towards nature

Also, many ecological damaging issueshave more detrimental effect on women, ifthe women are involved more in thehousehold management: Food,desertification, deforestation, flooding,

access to safe water, etc.

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Male chauvinism: The belief that menare superior to women

Assumed precept: Those who aresuperior have this right to be the masterof the inferior class

There is violence inherent in thatassumption, power politics is an integralpart of the art of conquest

Ecofeminism:

Environmental destruction anddegradation is yet another expression ofmale chauvinism

The ideology that authorizesoppressions based on race, class,physical disability, also sanctions theoppression of nature.

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Women affected worst by climatechange:

70 per cent of the world's poor, who arefar more vulnerable to environmental

damage, are women

75 per cent of environmental refugeesare also women.

severe water scarcity :

women are more likely to be the unseenvictims of resource wars and violence asa result of climate change.

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More on Ecofeminism:

1. Male ownership of land a culture ofdomination and exploitation, abuse ofland (overcultivation, overgrazing) andof other humans (serfs, bondedlabour), abusive land ethic where theland and animals in it are valued only

by economic value (a certain kind ofcapitalism)2. Environmental degradation harms

women more when agriculturallyproductive land is taken away for cashcrops, when fertile forest is deforested

for timber (money) or for real estate(money)3. Vandana Shiva (Physics, IISc-B): (a)

how societies look mistakenly at bothwomen and nature taken as passiveand submissive, and take that as a

signal to be misused. (b) A river, e.g.is perceived as unproductive if it issimply there fulfilling thirst. Unless it isa source of hydropower, it is notvalued.

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Vandana Shiva & Ecofeminism (StayingAlive: Women, Ecology and Development)

Women have a way of taking from the forestthat is distinctly different from that of men.Women give back also to the forest. Theycare and see to it that the forestregenerates and is conserved.

At 6000 ft altitude, in Balganga Valley ofGarhwal lies the Kangad, a hamlet of 200families. In 1977, the already degradedforest of Kangad was marked for felling byforest dept. The women, who had to walk

long way to gather fodder, fuel and water,were determined to same the last patch oftrees. The men of Kangad were employedby the Forest dept for the felling operations.With the gender fragmentation within thevillage, it was not easy to launch Chipko.

The women contacted Bimla Bahuguna inSilyara (15 kms away from Kangad), andshe came with Chipko activists DhoomSingh Negi and Pratap Shihar. After 4

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months of resistance, the womensucceeded in saving their forest.

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The womens orgn. (Mahila Mandal) thendecided to regenerate the forest. On thebasis of cattle owned by each family,contributions were raised to employ a forestguard (Rs 300 p.m) to deter gathering ofwood and fodder. It worked for three years,after which the watchman became corrupt

and allowed some people to gather woodand fodder. When the women came to knowof this, they abolished the watchman postand guarded the forest themselves. 10-12women were on duty, and it was rotationalin a cycle of 15-20 days. As one woman

said: On these days we leave our own workand protect the forest because our oak treesare like our children. Oak trees are nowregenerating naturally in Kangad.Once a Gujjar allowed his goats to graze inregenerated area, and the women fined him

Rs 200. Once during a forest fire the womenjoined hands to put out fire. As one womansaid: The men were at home, but theydecided to stay back rather than join us.

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The men are least bothered about savingthe trees. In 1986 Mahila Mandaldecided toassist Forest Dept in tree planting. They dug15000 pits but when they found out thatForest Dept wants to plant only exoticPoplars, they refused and forced ForestDept to bring back the diverse indigenousfodder species.

The strength of nature and the strength ofwomen is the basis of recovery of forest inKangad. The market is not the guidingfactor. The capital is not debt and aid fromWorld Bank. The energy of women andnature is the capital,and the principle is

conservation for a sustainable living with theforest.

Shiva: The chipko struggle is a non-violentstruggle to recover hidden and invisibleproductivity of vital natural resources and

that of women, to recover their entitlements,and to create ecological insights (socialforestry) and political spaces which do notdestroy fundamental rights to survival.

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Ethics of care

Ethics need not follow only the dictates ofrationality (consequence calculation,authoritarian concerns for justice andfairness, duty, or rational ideals ofuniversalizability and reversibility)

For, rationality is not the only element thathumans are made of. Feelings andemotions play an equally important role indefining who we are.

The extra emphasis on reason as the

defining characteristic of humans as aspecies (by Plato, Aristotle, etc) is a malebias, which presents a distorted view ofhuman nature.It overlooks the role of softer emotions inour decision-making, and in our moral

judgments.

Ethics of care, i.e. ethics based on care, isan ethic from that viewpoint.

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Carol Gilligan: The standard (male)viewpoint in ethics is adherence to abstract,universal rules. Cold and shrewd reasoningdrives the moral reasoning. Objectivity isextolled but long-term self-interest isadvocated, and the motivating factor is how

in a moral community every moral agenthas equal worth.

In contrast, there is another perspective(Gilligan: often feminine) possible on whywe ought to do something. This viewpoint

derives its moral imperatives from thecontextual and unique details of certainsituations and certain individuals.

[E.g. the unique bond between a degraded forestand local women in Kangad case]

The substantive concern in this perspectiveis CARE and RESPONSIBILITY that ensuefrom caring (for fellow human beings, fornature and natural elements)

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Feelings of empathy, compassion,friendship, kindness, and the self-imposedmoral obligation that one assumes becauseof that feeling, particularly whenconsiderations of short-term or long-term

benefit, or reparation of injustice, apply.

The moral task is not to follow onlyuniversal and impartial principles, but tofulfill situation-specific obligations tospecific individuals or groups based on

a sense of care

An accident trauma patient, no one elsesurvived

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Ethics of care: person-to-person, or personto group, or within society

Radical examples:-Obligations that a mother (parents) feels forcaring for a child with terminal illness- Obligations towards the bereaved family of

a departed, very good friend

Moderate examples: Obligations towardsthe underprivileged

Extension: A society is an web of

relationships, our well-being cannot be anisolated affair

We have an extra obligation to take specialcare towards those with whom we havespecial relationships, such as dependency.

- caring for old parents, sick patients,friends or relatives going through arough patch

- Caring for sick animals

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Ecofeminism of a certain kind speaksof environmental obligations becauseof:(a) Non-exploitative, non-oppressive

emotional bond with nature (e.g.the valley that you grew up in),

(b) Asks for a change in the outlooktowards nature (not as

resources)(c) In a sense, much of degradation

and its reparation stands in anasymmetric dependency withhumans

It suggests a different paradigm forsustainable living.

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Shiva on Women in the food chain

Historically nature and women have beenprimary food providers thorough naturalfarmingThe feminine principle of food production:intimate, reciprocal links with crops, treesand animals. Food production is not a

distinct process from forest, water, animalmanagement.

The male paradigm of food production:Green revolution, scientific agriculture,scientific dairy / animal farm .

-Food became a commodity for profit- Displaced women, peasants, andnature from the process

- Manipulation of nature to yield more.-Efficient but not sustainable

Resulting in eco-degradation.

Commodization of food either destroys thebasis of womens work in food production ordevalues it.

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Bina Agarwal [Neither Sustenance nor Sustainability:Agricultural Strategies, Ecological Degradation, and IndianWomen in Poverty, in Structures of Patriarchy, Delhi: Kalifor Women, 1988]

Commercial prosperity through taming ofnature and the resulting devaluation ofwomen

In the heart of Green Revolution region ofPunjab, the food abundance in the markethas not been translated into nutrition for thegirl child in the house. A 1978 study showsthat within the same economic zone inLudhiana district % of undernourished girlchildren is higher than % of undernourishedmale children.

This region was the first to turn toamniocentesis for selective termination offemale fetuses.

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Bandopadhyay & Moench [Basic Needs andBiomass Utilization, in J. Bandopadhyay et al, Indias

Environment, Dehradun: Natraj, 1987.]: Value of thewomens knowledge base in foodproduction

In Garhwal Himalayas, 2/3 of fodder forfarm animals from the straw of cereal crops

(wheat etc). This is stored to provide animalfodder during low periods.The shift to plants vegetables for exportearns cash.But destroys food and fodder source on thefarm.

Pressure on the forests for fodder increasesthreefold, as if population has grownthreefold.Invisible costs: women have to spend moreenergy to get fodder from forests, resultingforest degradation, soil erosion etc.

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Male and Female Morality

From the field of moral psychology: Whether

there is a distinctly female approach to ethicsthat is grounded in the psychological differencesbetween men and women.

According to many feminist philosophers,traditional morality is male-centered since it ismodeled after practices that have been

traditionally male-dominated, such as acquiringproperty, engaging in business contracts, andgoverning societies. The rigid systems of rulesrequired for trade and government were thentaken as models for the creation of equally rigidsystems of moral rules, such as lists of rightsand duties.

They claim: Women, by contrast, havetraditionally had a nurturing role by raisingchildren and overseeing domestic life. Thesetasks require less rule following, and morespontaneous and creative action. Using thewoman's experience as a model for moral

theory, the basis of morality would bespontaneously caring for others as would beappropriate in each unique circumstance. Onthis model, the agent becomes part of thesituation and acts caringly within that context.

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This stands in contrast with male-modeledmorality where the agent is a mechanical actorwho performs his required duty, but can remain

distanced from and unaffected by the situation.A care-based approach to morality, as it issometimes called, is offered by feminist ethicistsas either a replacement for or a supplement totraditional male-modeled moral systems.

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From Ecology to Ethics: EnvironmentalJustice and Social Ecology

Basic argument B

P1. Destruction / impairment of natural environment islargely due to anthropogenic effects or humanimpact by certain advantaged populations orsocieties, but the burden is placed on the leastadvantaged (minorities, poor).

Example: Race is the best predictor in whichneighborhoods the toxic waste sites will be (1982study, Toxic Wastes and Race in United States).Health and safety risks always higher in the poorareas.Poor countries are more likely suffer the brunt ofenvironmental degradation than wealthy countries.

A1.2. Patterns of social domination of one classover can foster ideology of domination of nature(SOCIAL ECOLOGY, Murray Bookchin)

P2. Disproportionate burdening is unfair and is socialinjustice [Ethical principle based on RawlsDistributive Justice, Fairness].

C. Hence, the populations who enjoy more benefitsought to bear the more burden / obligation / duty torepair, compensate, restore the natural environmentwhere possible.

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Environmental Justice:Key issue is the inequity in the distributionof burden of environmental degradation +depletion borne by certain groups (the poor,the women, the racial minorities, the lessdeveloped countries)

And also the inequitable access to theenvironmental benefits of certain groups

(the poor, the women, the racial minorities,the less developed countries)

Goods: Livable environment, better health,better healthcare, nutrition from food, safewater, clean air, safe living zones, safe

recreation zones, natural resources

And also participation in the decision-making

Burden: Pollution, ozone layer depletion,fossil fuel cost, proximity to unsafe waste,health problems, violence, crime, etc.

The aim is: To redress this inequity

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Acc to this view,

The root causes of environmental injusticesinclude :

An institutionalized form of discrimination(race, gender, class, caste, wealth, lessdeveloped countries): a dominating attitude,a power issue

Power structures that foil the attempts ofmore equitable environmental reform

Advocates of this view demand:

That governmental policies (public policies)be based on respect for all (withoutdiscrimination)That natural resources should be ethicallyusedThat there should be universal protection

from harmThat right to participate in every level ofdecision-making should be equitablyawarded

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-

EXPORTING TOXIC WASTES:THE

WORLD BANK MEMOThe following memo was circulated at theworld bank in 1991.Lawrence Summers wasthe chief economist of world bank at thattime, and went on to become the presidentof Harvard University.

Date :December 12,1991 To DistributionFrom Lawrence H Summers.

Dirty industries: Just Between You AndMe, should not the world bank be

encouraging MORE migration of the dirtyindustries to the LDCs (less developedcountries)? I can think of three reasons:

1. The measurements of the costs ofhealth impairing pollution depend on the

foregone earnings from increasedmorbidity and mortality. From this point ofview, a given amount of health impairingpollution should be done in the country

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with the lowest cost, which will be thecountry with the lowest wages. I think, theeconomic logic behind dumping a load oftoxic wastes in the lowest wage country isimpeccable and we should face upto that.2. The costs of pollution are likely to benonlinear as the initial increments ofpollution probably have very low costs. Ihave always thought that under populated

countries are vastly UNDERpolluted, theirair quality is probably vastly inefficientlylow compared to Los Angeles or Mexicocity. Only the lamentable facts that somuch pollution is generated by non-tradable industries (transport, electrical

generation) and that the unit transportcosts of solid waste are so high preventworld welfare enhancing trade in airpollution and waste.3. The demand for a clean environmentfor aesthetic and health reasons is likely

to have very high income elasticity. Theconcern over an agent that causes a onein a million change in the odds of prostratecancer is obviously going to be much

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higher in a country where people surviveto get prostrate cancer than in a countrywhere under 5 mortality is 200 perthousand. Also, much of the concern overindustrial atmosphere discharge is aboutvisibility impairing particulates. Thesedischarges may have very little directhealth impact. Clearly trade in goods thatembody aesthetic pollution concerns

could be welfare enhancing. Whileproduction is mobile the consumption ofpretty air is a nontradable. The problemwith the arguments against all of theseproposals for more pollution in LDCs(intrinsic rights to certain goods, moral

reasons, social concerns, lack ofadequate markets, etc.) could be turnedaround and used more or less effectivelyagainst every Bank proposal forliberalization.

[Source: Laura Westra, A Transgenic Dinner?Ethical and Social Issues in Bioetchnology andAgriculture, Journal of Social Philosophy 24,Winter 1993, 215-32.]

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ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS IN INDIA

Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)1985

1. THE ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT(EPA) 1986

BUT it is mainly about pollution

EPA 1986 gives power to the centralgovernment i.e., the Union Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests to take allmeasures that it feels is necessary toprotect and improve quality of theenvironment and to prevent and control

environmental pollution. To meet thisobjective the Central Government canrestrict areas in which any industries,operations or processes or class ofindustries, operations or processes shall notbe carried out or shall be carried out subject

to certain safeguards.(Refer section 3(2)(v)of the Act.)

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Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)Act, 1974,amended 1988

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prohibits the discharge of pollutants into waterbodies beyond a given standard, and lays downpenalties for non-compliance

CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) laysdown the standards

Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,1981

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2. Conservation

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Central Govt is empowered to declare some

areas as Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESA)or Ecologically Fragile Areas (EFA) andthereby granting it a special protectionstatus.

-1989, Doon Valley, Uttaranchal[prohibits the setting up of an industry in which

the daily consumption of coal/fuel is more than24 MT (million tonnes) per day in the DoonValley.]

-1989, Murud-Janjira (fragile coastal ecology& heritage), Maharashta,

-1992, Aravalli Hills, to save from large scalemining

-1996, No development zone 15 km radiusof Numaligarh refinery, to save KazirangaNational Park, Assam

-2001, Mahabaleswar, Panchgani and 2003 Matheran,

to save from human impact and unplanned tourism

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The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972,

Amendment 1991Protection to listed species of flora and faunaand establishes a network of ecologically-important protected areas.

Empowers the central and state governments todeclare any area a wildlife sanctuary, national

park or closed area. There is a blanket ban oncarrying out any industrial activity inside theseprotected areas.

Regulate the hunting of wild animals; protectspecified plants, sanctuaries, national parks andclosed areas; restrict trade or commerce in wild

animals or animal articles; and miscellaneousmatters

The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

Restricts the powers of the state in respect ofde-reservation of forests and use of forestland

for non-forest purposes (the term non-forestpurpose includes clearing any forestland forcultivation of cash crops, plantation crops,horticulture or any purpose other than re-afforestation).

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Other notable notifications and rules issued

under EPA:Taj Trapezium Notification (1998): no powerplant could be set up within the geographicallimit of the Taj Trapezium

Disposal of Fly Ash Notification (1999): toconserve the topsoil, protect the environment

and prevent the dumping and disposal of fly ashdischarged from lignite-based power plants.

Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling)Rules, 1989, amended 2000

Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling)

Rules,1998Municipal Wastes (Management and Handling)Rules, 2000

Factories Act, 1948 and its Amendment in 1987

contains a comprehensive list of 29 categories of industries

involving hazardous processes, which could

Cause material impairment to health of the persons engaged

Result in the pollution of the general environment

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The National Environment AppellateAuthority Act, 1997

the establishment of a National EnvironmentAppellate Authority to hear appeals withrespect to restriction of areas in which anyindustry operation or process or class ofindustries, operations or processes couldnot carry out or would be allowed to carry

out subject to certain safeguards under theEnvironment (Protection) Act,1986.

Other Govt strategies:

Particulate matter emission standards

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)Lower Carbon emission (complies to Kyoto

Protocol 2002) Incentive for Non-conventional, renewable

energy: Solar, wind

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Other Govt Initiatives:

Fiscal incentives to the industry: customswaivers, soft loans, to help installation ofpollution abatement equipments

Fines on old, inefficient coal-fired plantsRecycling: deposit refund systemBicchri Case, Udaipur, Rajasthan, 1996:

Supreme Court laid down the rule:

Polluter Pays Principle (PPP) 1996:

Absolute and strict liability for harm to theindustry who caused the pollution

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In Spite of the laws, the facts show a dismalpicture:

Uncaring Industrialization is worsening thesituation

State of West Bengal

All of 15 major rivers are badly polluted. Pollutionload is more from rural and domestic sourcesthan from urban sources.

Groundwater level in Kolkata has gone from 3mto 9m (Highrises)

Arsenic ( 7 districts very badly affected) andfluoride contamination (4 major districts)

Illegal coal mining in Asansol-Ranigunj area hasturned the land over 110 mines into wasteland.

The KMC and Howrah Muni. Corp produce120+tonnes of hospital solid waste without aproper system of waste disposal.

West Bengal Industrial Dev Corp (WBIDC) andWest Bengal Industrial Infrastructure Corp

(WBIIDC) have no link with State EnvironmentalDept or State Pollution Control Board.

[HT, Kolkata Live, Growth Demon fouls up Bengal GreenScene, Subhomoy Chatterjee. Oct 13, 2008, p.4)

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Foremost Environmental Responsibility /duty : To practice sustainability

Sustainability: the capacity building tomaintain a state or a process indefinitely

Originally from forest, animal management:

-How many trees can be cut without

hampering forest growth: (Maximumsustainable cut)

-How many fishcan fished and still have afishery functioning at the end of the timeperiod? (Maximum sustainable yield)

But these trees, fish etc are just individualcomponents of an ecosystem. Even whenthese maximums are observed for certainelements, the ecosystem may not remainsustainable.

Sustainability for a species sustainabilityof the ecosystem

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Also, short-term sustainability long-termsustainability

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So, a wider definition is required

Sustainability is a communitys strategy tobuild capacity to maintain the quality of life(economical quality, ecological quality, andsocio-cultural quality)

-Healthy, productive, enriched life

E.g. If in last 10 yrs, less jobs, lessaffordabilityeconomical loss in quality oflife

If in last 10 yrs, more crime, more violence,more insecurityloss of social quality

If in last 10 yrs air quality, water quality,food quality gotten worse, loss ofenvironmental quality of life

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The piecemeal approach to each is thetraditional way.

But now, sustainability is an idealizationabout achieving balances simultaneouslyamong all these three parts:

How to live long, dignified, comfortable, andproductive lives, satisfying their needs inenvironmentally sound and socially justways so as to not compromise the ability of

other human beings from doing the samenow and into the distant future.

Since humans have contributed to theenvironmental problem by unsustainable

ways of living, they have the onus to controland curb consumption rates and patterns toachieve sustainability

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Concept of SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT: How to have the cakeand eat it too?

-To bridge the gulf between developmentand environment

Defn 1. Meeting the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of futuregenerations to meet their own needs(Brundtland Report, World Commission on Environment andDevelopment, 1987)

Mohan Munasinghe (1993, World Bank

Economist): Survivability Sustainability.

The former requires welfare to be above athreshold at all times, and the latter requiresthat the welfare does not decrease at alltimes

Newer Defn 2. Improving the quality of life

while living within the carrying capacity ofthe supporting ecosystems. (Jacobs, 1996,Politics of the Real World, Earthscan, p.26)

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Sustainability has 3 components or 3bottom lines (Triple bottom lines or 3BL):1. Economic (development)2. Environmental (ecology)3. Social (equity)

Brundtland report suggested 7 initiatives for

sustainable development:

1. Reviving growth;

2. changing the quality of growth;

3. meeting essential needs for jobs, food, energy,

water and sanitation;

4. ensuring a sustainable level of population;

5. conserving and enhancing the resource base;

6. reorienting technology and managing risk;

7. merging environment and economics indecision-making

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Guiding steps towards sustainability:

1.Develop an environment which supports

human dignity through gender and racial

equality and promotes intergenerational

respect.

2.Develop honesty and integrity in daily life.3.Encourage the fair distribution of wealth.

4.Work to strengthen local communities and

safeguard the health and safety of all.

5.Commit to maintaining and enhancing the

integrity and biodiversity of the natural

environment6.Use natural resources, such as water and land

wisely and aim to reduce consumption.

7.Refuse, reduce, reuse, repair and recycle.

8.Where possible buy green products, locally

produced with reduced packaging.

9.Understand the synergies between advances intechnology and behavioural change to achieve

sustainability.

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10.Encourage ethical business practices.

11.Develop business strategies which promote

good corporate governance.

12.Encourage financial success through

openness and transparency.

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Some theoretical considerations:

A. Mathusianism or Doomsday argument

Economist Thomas Malthus (in 1798)predicted that population when uncheckedgrows in geometrical ratio and subsistencefor man in arithmetical ratio. Ergo, there is alimit to any growth(Malthusian limit).

Critics: How has it been possible to havesix-fold increase of population since 1798and still able to more or less feed thepopulation?

Neo-Malthusians: In 1973, Club of Rome

published a book Limits to Growthpredicting dire consequences for the next30 years. Most of them have notcome true.

But the overall lesson is good: Continuedprofligate consumption rate could sooner or

later get us into trouble.

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B. The optimist Cornucopians: Ester

Boserup (1981) and others claim thatpopulation pressure is not necessarily bad,it acts as incentive and pressure for moreinnovation in technology, for moreproduction of food. Population declineswhen developmental needs are met.

Who is to be believed and what is to bedone?

We still do not have a consensus howimpaired worlds ecosystems are, or what isour potential for continued development for

the growing population.

So, sustainability remains a core issue

today.

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The ecological approach to Sustainability:

1. Responsible consumption particularly fornon-renewable resources (mainly forwestern lifestyle, consumerist culture):

-Curb overconsumption wherever possible, --Control waste, recycle and reuse whereverpossible

Ex. EU in 2007 mandated that 20% of EUsenergy requirements must come fromrenewable source by 2020. Current rate is8.5%.

2. Maintain the essential ecological

processes and life support systems: Preventdecimation, prevent or manage harmfulpollution at the source, help regeneration

3. Preserve genetic biodiversity

Not an easy task

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5 identified areas of sustainable development:

1. economic growth to a limit

2. equitable allocation of resources to sustaingrowth3. more democratic systems: more participationin developmental decisions and policies4. adoption of lifestyles within the planetsecological means (aimed to developedcountries)

5. population levels within the productivepotential of ecosystems (aimed at Lessdeveloped countries).

Indias National Environment Policy 2006:Sustainable development is to be

understood in terms of human well-being

(a) Human beings shd be able to enjoy adecent quality of life

(b) Humans shd become capable torespect the finiteness of biosphere

(c) Neither aspiration for good life norrespect for biophysical limit shdpreclude the greater justice in theworld

[Preamble, NEP 2006]

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