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8/8/2019 HR Feelings

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Perception and personalityin organisationsChapter 3


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Chapter learning objectives

1. Outline the perceptual process.

2. Explain how we perceive ourselves and

others through social identity.

3. Discuss the accuracy of stereotypes.

4. Describe the attribution process and two

attribution errors.

5. Identify the Big Five personality

dimensions.


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Chapter learning objectives

6. Discuss the psychological dimensions

identified by Jung and measured in the Myers-

Briggs Type Indicator.

7. Diagram the self-fulfilling prophecy process.

8. Discuss three types of diversity initiatives.

5. Explain how the Johari Window can help

improve our perceptions.


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PERCEPTUAL PROCESS MODEL

Perceptionprocess of receivinginformation from environment and

making sense of it (organising andinterpreting).


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Perceptual process model

1. Environmental stimuli are receivedthrough senses:

FeelingFeeling HearingHearing

SeeingSeeing

SmellingSmelling

TastingTasting


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2.Received stimuli selected in or screened

out

3.Selected stimuli are organised andinterpreted

4.Interpreted information becomes beliefs,

which influences behaviour


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Selective attentionSelective attention

Emotions andEmotions and

behaviourbehaviour

Organisation andOrganisation and

interpretationinterpretation


Environmental stimuliEnvironmental stimuli

Feeling Hearing Seeing Smelling TastingFeeling Hearing Seeing Smelling Tasting


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SELECTIVE ATTENTION

Three influences on selective attention

1.Characteristics of the object

large size brightly coloured (intensity)

in motion

- repetitive

unique (novelty)


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SELECTIVE ATTENTION

2. Perceptual context

objects/people stand out against the

environment / setting

Ex. You received a phone call from your

colleague & you would be aware of her

English accent if the call was from your

Brisbane branch BUT not if the call wasfrom London.


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SELECTIVE ATTENTION

3.Characteristics of the perceiver

we recognize and remember information

consistent with our values and attitudes


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SELECTIVE ATTENTION

There are cases when our emotions screen

out large blocks of information that threaten

our beliefs and values, self-esteem -

perceptual defence affects ourexpectationscondition us to

expect events (at workplace expectations

prevent decision makers from seeingopportunities & competitive threats)


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SELECTIVE ATTENTION

One way to minimize selective attention is by

engaging inSplatter vision scanningeverything & focusing on nothing,

taking everything in as a whole while:

focusing on nothing

expect the unexpected

reduces chance of screening out potentially

important information


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Perceptual Organisation &

Interpretation

1.Perceptual grouping principles -involves organizing information intogeneral categories and interpreting it.

Identifying trends

similarity/proximity (nearness)

Closure (filling in missing pieces (e.g.assuming who attended meeting while youwere away)

(helps us make sense of the workplace,but it may inhibit creativity)


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Perceptual organisation/interpretation

2.Mental models - consist of the broad worldviews or theories in use that people relyon to guide their perceptions and behaviors

They create the screens through which peopleselect information.

They guide perceptions and alert people todeviations from the past.

They help to make sense of ones

environment. A disadvantage is that they mayblind people

from seeing the world in different ways / betterperspectives


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Social identity

Social identify theory explains theprocess of personal orself-

perception and socialperception. The theory proposes that people

develop their perceptionsthrough personal identity andsocial identity.


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Social identity

Personal identity includes the

individuals unique characteristics and

experiences, such as physical

appearance, personality traits, andspecial talents.

Social identity refers to a persons

self-perception as memberships in

various social groups


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Social identity theory features

People adopt degrees of personal and

social identity depending on the situation We identify ourselves with several groups

and are motivated to create and present a

positive self-image


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Social identity

How we perceive others through social identity

Comparative processcompare characteristics

of our groups with other groups

Homogenising processwe perceive that

everyone in a group has similarcharacteristics

Contrasting processwe often distinguish our

social identity groups with others by forming lesspositive images of others


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3 ERRORS IN THE PERCEPTUAL

PROCESS

Stereotyping

Attribution

Self-fulfilling prophecy can distort

reality


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Professors areabsent-minded

Our instructoris a professor

Our instructor is

absent-minded

The stereotyping process

Assign categorys traitsAssign categorys traits

to theto the personperson

Assign person to categoryAssign person to category

based on observable infobased on observable info

Develop categoriesDevelop categories

andand assign traitsassign traits


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1.STEREOTYPING

It is the process of assigning traits topeople based upon their membership in asocial category

Holding beliefs about people that places them incategories lessening chances of interaction anddiminishing potential for recognizing andaccepting differences.

Stereotypes affect what a person thinks and

believes about others, as well as how she or hebehaves toward them.


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How accurate are stereotypes?

Some accuracy, but also distortion

and error

traits dont describe everyone in thegroup

we screen out inconsistent /

contradictory information


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How accurate are stereotypes?

Stereotypes are less accurate when

we have little interaction with people in that

group

we experience conflict with members of that

group

Stereotypes enhance our own social identity

(We rely less on stereotypes as we get to knowpeople better from personal experience)


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Ethical problems of stereotyping

Prejudiceunfounded negative emotionstowards people belonging to a particular

stereotyped group

limits employment for qualified people Stereotyping contributes to sexual

harassment

Harassers tend to stereotype the (female)victim as subservient or powerless


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2.Attribution Theory

The attribution process involves deciding

whether an observed behavior or event is

largely caused by internal or external factors

Internal attribution

perception that outcomes are due to

motivation/ability rather than situation or fate

External attribution

perception that outcomes are due to situation or

fate rather than the person


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3 Rules of attribution

Distinctiveness refers to whether anindividual displays different behavioursin different situations

Ex: Is the employee who arrives late todayalso the source of complaints fromcolleagues for being lazy? (what we wantto know is whether this beh.is unusual ornot, unusual (beh = external attribution)unique (beh = internal attribution)


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behaviour is Consensus if everyone who isfaced with a similar situation responds in the

same way.

Ex. Our tardy employees beh. would meet this

criterion if all the employees who took the same

route to work were also late. (attribution

perspective if consensus is HIGH = external

attribution to employees tardiness / consensus

is LOW = internal attribution other employees

took the same route BUT was not late)


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Consistency in a persons action

the more consistent the behaviour themore the observer is inclined to attribute itto internal causes

HIGH consistency = Internal attribution

LOW consistency = External attribution

Ex. When one perform their task the sameway as they perform other task given tothem by their managers.


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3. SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY

It occurs when our expectations aboutanother person cause that person to act

in a way that is consistent with those

expectations There are four steps in the self-

fulfilling prophecy process:


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4 steps in the self-fulfilling prophecy

process

1. Expectations formed

e.g. supervisor develops expectations about employeesfuture behaviour

2. Expectations affect behaviour towards employee

high-expectancy employees receive:

more emotional support through non-verbal cues (e.g.more smiling and eye contact);

more frequent/valuable feedback/reinforcement;

more challenging goals and better training; more opportunities to demonstrate their performance


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4 steps in the self-fulfilling prophecy

process

3. Effects on employee

better training/practice results in more skillslearned

emotional support and feedback results instronger self-efficacyleads to higher motivation

4. Employee behaviour and performance

Better motivation/skills leads to high

performance High performance reinforces the original

perception


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Dealing with self-fulfilling prophecy

Awareness training leaders learn effects of negative perceptions

Problemlimited effect because leaders

have difficulty maintaining positive

expectations of people who dont perform well


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Dealing with self-fulfilling prophecy

Emerging three-prong strategy (toharness self-fulfilling prophecy effect)

1. Learning orientationleaders need to

appreciate employee learning, not justaccomplishing tasks

2. Appropriate leadership styleleaders adjusttheir style to different employees

3. Increase employee self-efficacybehaviouralmodelling, opportunities to practisesuccessfully


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4 Other perceptual errors

1. Primacy Effect

It relates to the saying that first

impressions are lasting impressions. It is our tendency to quickly form an opinion

of people based on the first information we

receive about them


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2. Recency Effect It occurs when the most recent information

dominates our perception of others It is found in performance appraisals, for

which supervisors must recall every

employees performance over the previous

year.


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3.Halo Effect one trait forms a general impression

Becomes the basis for judgments about othertraits

Often occurs to fill in missing information and

when the perceiver is not motivated to

observe Problem in performance appraisalspositive

halo employee rated high on all dimensions


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5. Projection believing other people are similar to you

D

efence mech

anism to protect our self-esteem


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ImprovingImproving

perceptualperceptual

accuracyaccuracy

DiversityDiversity

initiativesinitiatives

EmpathiseEmpathise

with otherswith others

PostponePostponeimpressionimpression

formationformation

KnowKnow

yourselfyourself

CompareCompareperceptionsperceptions

with otherswith others

Improving perceptual accuracy


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IMPROVING PERCEPTIONS

(5 ways)

1. Diversity initiativesa. Recruit people with diverse backgrounds

build long-term relationships with minorities

b. Provide reasonable accommodation accommodate workfamily balance

support non-traditional breaks for religious reasons

c. Diversity awareness activities

appreciation of differences in the workplace

sensitise people about stereotypes and prejudicesBeyond diversity awarenessinteract more with people

from different backgrounds


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(5 ways)

2.Empathise with others

A persons ability to understand the

feelings, thoughts and situation of others Developing empathy skills

receive feedback on our interaction with

others

work with others in their environment


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(5 ways)

3. Postpone impression formation

Avoid first impressions

It also enables people to engage in adevelopmental learning process that forms

a better understanding of others

Actively seek out contrary information


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(5 ways)

4. Compare perceptions with others

Get different points of view

By sharing perceptions, people learndifferent points of viewand potentially

gain a better understanding of the situation


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(5 ways)

5. Know yourself(Johari Window)

Developed by Joseph Luft and Harry

Ingram (hence the name Johari) Need to be aware of and sensitive to our

own values, beliefs and prejudices

Better mutual understanding when othersknow us better

Helps us understand colleagues, etc.


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(5 ways)

Objective is to increase size of open

area:

a. Disclosure tell others aboutyourself

b. Feedback receive information from

others about yourself found in the blindarea


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(5 ways)

Applying the Johari Window

a. diversity awarenessinteracting with

othersb. the 360-degree feedback process

c. dialoguesharing perceptions

Cultural and ethical limitations of

applying Johari Window


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Known to self Unknown to self

Knownto others

Unknownto others

OpenOpenAreaArea BlindBlind

AreaArea

UnknownUnknown

AreaArea

HiddenHiddenAreaArea

Know yourself (Johari Window)

OpenOpen

areaarea

BlindBlind

areaarea

HiddenHidden

areaarea

UnknownUnknown

areaarea

DisclosureDisclosure

FeedbackFeedback


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Personality defined

Relatively stable pattern of behaviours

and consistent internal states that

explain a person's behaviouraltendencies.


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PERSONALITY IN ORGANIZATIONS

A. Personality and OrganizationalBehavior

Scholars often explain employee behavior in

terms of personality traits and companiesregularly administered personality teststo job applicants.

Recent studies have reported that certain

personality traits predict certain work-related behaviors, stress reactions, andemotions fairly well under certain conditions.


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PERSONALITY IN ORGANIZATIONS

3.Openness to experience refers to theextent to which people are sensitive,flexible, creative and intellectual

4.Agreeableness includes traits of beingcourteous, good-natured, trusting,cooperative, empathic and caring

5.Extroversion characterises people whoare outgoing, talkative, sociable andassertive


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Big Five Personality Dimensions

Conscientiousness one of the mostvaluable personality dimensions

Set higher personal goals for themselves

Higher levels of organisational citizenship

More adaptive to empowerment

Tend to provide better customer service(along with agreeableness and emotional

stability)


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Outgoing, talkative

Courteous, empathic

Caring, dependable

Poised, secure

Sensitive, flexible

Big five personality dimensions

ExtroversionExtroversion

AgreeablenessAgreeableness

ConscientiousnessConscientiousness

Emotional stabilityEmotional stability

Openness to experienceOpenness to experience

Jungs Psychological Types & the


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Jung s Psychological Types & the

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Jungs personality theory

Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung

that identifies the way people prefer toperceive their environment as well as

obtain and process information


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Courtesy of Thompson Doyle Hennessey & Everest


During their retreat in Maine, US,

employees at Thompson Doyle

Hennessey & Everest completed theMyers-Briggs Type Indicator and

learnedhow their personalities can

help t

hem understand eac

hot

her moreeffectively.

M B i T I di t


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personality test that measures traits in Jungs

model Extroversion/introversion

how people prefer to focus their attention

Sensing/intuition

collecting information through senses or intuition Thinking/feeling

processing and evaluating information

using rational logic or personal values

Judging/perceiving orient themselves to the outer world

order and structure or flexibility and spontaneity


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MBTI widely used in career

counselling and self-awareness,

but probably should not be usedin employment selection


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OTHER PERSONALITY TRAITS

1. Locus of control

2. Self-monitoring


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OTHER PERSONALITY TRAITS

1. Locus of control refers to a generalized

belief about the amount of control people

have over their own lives.

Internal locus of control individualswho feel that they are very much in

charge of their own destiny.

External locus of control--those who

think that events in their life are due tofate or luck.


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Locus of control and self-

monitoring

2. Self-monitoring personality sensitivity to situational cues and ability to

adapt your behaviour to that situation

High self-monitors: adjust behavior

quite easily and show little stability inother underlying personality traits;conversationalists, better organizationalleaders, and better in boundary-spanning positions.

Low self-monitors more likely toreveal their moods and personalcharacteristics.

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