how to fiber optical works

7/25/2019 how to fiber optical works

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o .7*ast mile

2omparison with electrical transmission

8overning standards

7:ee also

;)eferences

9Further reading

10: and lower in countries li'e The?etherlands where digging costs are low and housing density is high.

:ince 1990 whenoptical!amplificationsystems became commercially available thetelecommunications industry has laid a vast networ' of intercity and transoceanic fiber

communication lines. &y ,00, an intercontinental networ' of ,20000 'm of submarinecommunications cablewith a capacity of ,.28 Tb@s was completed and although specific networ'capacities are privileged information telecommunications investment reports indicate that networ'capacity has increased dramatically since ,00.

History[edit]

$n 1;;0%le4ander raham &elland his assistantharles :umner Taintercreated a very earlyprecursor to fiber!optic communications the 5hotophone at &ellAs newly established Bolta*aboratoryin 3ashington ..&ell considered it his most important invention. The device allowedfor the transmissionof sound on a beam of light. (n Cune / 1;;0 &ell conducted the worldAs firstwireless telephonetransmission between two buildings some ,1/ meters apart.[][2]ue to its use ofan atmospheric transmission medium the 5hotophone would not prove practical until advances in

laser and optical fiber technologies permitted the secure transport of light. The 5hotophoneAs firstpractical use came in military communication systems many decades later.

$n 192 arold op'ins and ?arinder :ingh Dapanyshowed that rolled fiber glass allowed light to betransmitted. $nitially it was considered that the light can traverse in only straight medium. [clarification needed][citation needed]

$n 1988 harles D. Daoand eorge oc'hamproposed optical fibers at :T *aboratories E:T*at arlow


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(ptical fiber was successfully developed in 1970 by orning lass 3or's with attenuation lowenough for communication purposes Eabout ,0d&@'m and at the same time a%ssemiconductorlaserswere developed that were compact and therefore suitable for transmitting light through fiberoptic cables for long distances.

%fter a period of research starting from 1972 the first commercial fiber!optic communications systemwas developed which operated at a wavelength around 0.; Gm and used a%s semiconductorlasers. This first!generation system operated at a bit rate of 2 Hbpswith repeater spacing of up to10 'm. :oon on ,, %pril 1977 eneral Telephone and


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Technology[edit]

Hodern fiber!optic communication systems generally include an optical transmitter to convert anelectrical signal into an optical signal to send into the optical fiber acablecontaining bundles ofmultiple optical fibers that is routed through underground conduits and buildings multiple 'inds ofamplifiers and an optical receiver to recover the signal as an electrical signal. The information

transmitted is typically digital informationgenerated by computers telephone systems and cabletelevisioncompanies.

Transmitters[edit]

% &$module Eshown here with its cover removed is an optical and electrical transceiver.The electrical

connector is at top right and the optical connectors are at bottom left

The most commonly used optical transmitters are semiconductor devices such as light!emittingdiodesE*


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into single!mode fiber. The narrow spectral width also allows for high bit rates since it reduces theeffect of chromatic dispersion.Furthermore semiconductor lasers can be modulated directly at highfreLuencies because of short recombination time.

ommonly used classes of semiconductor laser transmitters used in fiber opticsinclude B:


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Hulti!mode optical fiber in an underground service pit

Main articles: Optical fiberand Optical fiber cable

%n optical fibercableconsists of a core cladding and a buffer Ea protective outer coating in whichthe cladding guides the light along the core by using the method of total internal reflection. The core

and the cladding Ewhich has a lower!refractive!inde4 are usually made of high!Luality silicaglassalthough they can both be made of plastic as well. onnecting two optical fibers is done by fusionsplicing or mechanical splicing and reLuires special s'ills and interconnection technology due to themicroscopic precision reLuired to align the fiber cores.[;]

Two main types of optical fiber used in optic communications include multi!mode opticalfibersand single!mode optical fibers.% multi!mode optical fiber has a larger core EQ 20 micrometersallowing less precise cheaper transmitters and receivers to connect to it as well as cheaperconnectors. owever a multi!mode fiber introduces multimode distortionwhich often limits thebandwidth and length of the lin'. Furthermore because of its higher dopantcontent multi!modefibers are usually e4pensive and e4hibit higher attenuation. The core of a single!mode fiber issmaller ER10 micrometers and reLuires more e4pensive components and interconnection methodsbut allows much longer higher!performance lin's.

$n order to pac'age fiber into a commercially viable product it typically is protectively coated byusing ultraviolet E>B light!cured acrylate polymers then terminated with optical fiber connectorsand finally assembled into a cable. %fter that it can be laid in the ground and then run through thewalls of a building and deployed aerially in a manner similar to copper cables. These fibers reLuireless maintenance than common twisted pair wires once they are deployed. [9]

:peciali"ed cables are used for long distance subsea data transmission e.g. transatlanticcommunications cable. ?ew E,0116,01/ cables operated by commercial enterprises E


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reLuires a wavelength division multiple4er in the transmitting eLuipment and a demultiple4erEessentially a spectrometer in the receiving eLuipment.%rrayed waveguide gratingsare commonlyused for multiple4ing and demultiple4ing in 3H. >sing 3H technology now commerciallyavailable the bandwidth of a fiber can be divided into as many as 180 channels [10]to support acombined bit rate in the range of 1.8 Tbit@s.

Parameters[edit]Bandwidthdistance product[edit]

&ecause the effect of dispersion increases with the length of the fiber a fiber transmission system isoften characteri"ed by its band!idth"distance product usually e4pressed in units of H"'m. Thisvalue is a product of bandwidth and distance because there is a trade off between the bandwidth ofthe signal and the distance it can be carried. For e4ample a common multi!mode fiber withbandwidth6distance product of 200 H"'m could carry a 200 H" signal for 1 'm or a 1000 H"signal for 0.2 'm.

niversity of :outhamptonhad achieved athroughput of 7/.7 Tbit per second with the signal traveling at 99.7M the speed of light througha hollow!core photonic crystal fiber.[18]

!ispersion[edit]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrometerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrayed_waveguide_gratinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrayed_waveguide_gratinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_note-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_note-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terabithttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fiber-optic_communication&action=edit&section=9https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fiber-optic_communication&action=edit&section=10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fiber-optic_communication&action=edit&section=11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dense_WDMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcatel-Lucenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_note-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nippon_Telegraph_and_Telephonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nippon_Telegraph_and_Telephonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_note-12https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlsruhe_Institute_of_Technologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlsruhe_Institute_of_Technologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_note-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_note-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corning_Inc.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corning_Inc.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corning_Inc.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_note-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Scientisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Southamptonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Southamptonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow-core_photonic_crystal_fiberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_note-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_note-16https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fiber-optic_communication&action=edit&section=12https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrometerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrayed_waveguide_gratinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_note-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terabithttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fiber-optic_communication&action=edit&section=9https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fiber-optic_communication&action=edit&section=10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fiber-optic_communication&action=edit&section=11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dense_WDMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcatel-Lucenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_note-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nippon_Telegraph_and_Telephonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_note-12https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlsruhe_Institute_of_Technologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_note-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_note-14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corning_Inc.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_note-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Scientisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Southamptonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow-core_photonic_crystal_fiberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_note-16https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fiber-optic_communication&action=edit&section=12


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For modern glass optical fiber the ma4imum transmission distance is limited not by direct materialabsorption but by several types of dispersion or spreading of optical pulses as they travel along thefiber. ispersion in optical fibers is caused by a variety of factors. $ntermodal dispersion caused bythe different a4ial speeds of different transverse modes limits the performance of multi!mode fiber.&ecause single!mode fiber supports only one transverse mode intermodal dispersion is eliminated.

$n single!mode fiber performance is primarily limited by chromatic dispersionEalso called groupvelocity dispersion which occurs because the inde4 of the glass varies slightly depending on thewavelength of the light and light from real optical transmitters necessarily has non"ero spectralwidth Edue to modulation.5olari"ation mode dispersion another source of limitation occurs becausealthough the single!mode fiber can sustain only one transverse mode it can carry this mode with twodifferent polari"ations and slight imperfections or distortions in a fiber can alter the propagationvelocities for the two polari"ations. This phenomenon is calledfiber birefringenceand can becounteracted by polari"ation!maintaining optical fiber.ispersion limits the bandwidth of the fiberbecause the spreading optical pulse limits the rate that pulses can follow one another on the fiberand still be distinguishable at the receiver.

:ome dispersion notably chromatic dispersion can be removed by a Adispersion compensatorA. Thiswor's by using a specially prepared length of fiber that has the opposite dispersion to that inducedby the transmission fiber and this sharpens the pulse so that it can be correctly decoded by the

electronics.

Attenuation[edit]

Fiber attenuation which necessitates the use of amplification systems is caused by a combinationof material absorption )ayleigh scattering Hie scatteringand connection losses. %lthough materialabsorption for pure silica is only around 0.0/ d&@'m Emodern fiber has attenuation around0./ d&@'m impurities in the original optical fibers caused attenuation of about 1000 d&@'m. (therforms of attenuation are caused by physical stresses to the fiber microscopic fluctuations in densityand imperfect splicing techniLues.[17]

Transmission windows[edit]


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L band l&n( aelen(ts 1565 t& 1625 nm

band ult'al&n( aelen(ts 1625 t& 165 nm

?ote that this table shows that current technology has managed to bridge the second and thirdwindows that were originally dis#oint.

istorically there was a window used below the ( band called the first window at ;00!900 nmUhowever losses are high in this region so this window is used primarily for short!distancecommunications. The current lower windows E( and

E%verage )evenue 5er >ser mar'ets within its e4isting territory. The other ma#or surviving $*


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first rolled out their FTT EFiber to the ome in ,01, with speeds offerings of ,0@0@80@100megabits per second. Their service is referred to as reen*ight.

:ome other small cities in the >: such as Horristown T? have had their local utility companyHorristown >tility :ystems in this case deploy FTT offering symmetric gigabit speeds to eachsubscriber Ethough most are 20@20 or 100@100 mbit. $tAs called H>: Fibernet. %TKT and others haveaggressively sought legislation at the state level to prevent further competition from municipalitiesdespite their low investment in rural areas.

The globally dominant access networ' technology is !T standardsorgani"ations under their control.

Comparison with electrical transmission[edit]

% mobile fiberoptic splicelab used to access and splice underground cables

%n underground fiber optic splice enclosure opened up

The choice between optical fiber and electrical Eor copper transmission for a particular system ismade based on a number of trade!offs. (ptical fiber is generally chosen for systems reLuiringhigher bandwidthor spanning longer distances than electrical cabling can accommodate.

The main benefits of fiber are its e4ceptionally low loss Eallowing long distances between

amplifiers@repeaters its absence of ground currents and other parasite signaland power issuescommon to long parallel electric conductor runs Edue to its reliance on light rather than electricity fortransmission and the dielectric nature of fiber optic and its inherently high data!carrying capacity.Thousands of electrical lin's would be reLuired to replace a single high bandwidth fiber cable.

%nother benefit of fibers is that even when run alongside each other for long distances fiber cablese4perience effectively nocrosstal' in contrast to some types of electricaltransmission lines. Fibercan be installed in areas with highelectromagnetic interferenceE


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For comparison while single!line voice!grade copper systems longer than a couple of 'ilometersreLuire in!line signal repeaters for satisfactory performanceU it is not unusual for optical systems togo over 100 'ilometers E8, mi with no active or passive processing. :ingle!mode fiber cables arecommonly available in 1, 'm lengths minimi"ing the number of splices reLuired over a long cablerun. Hulti!mode fiber is available in lengths up to 'm although industrial standards only mandate, 'm unbro'en runs.

$n short distance and relatively low bandwidth applications electrical transmission is often preferredbecause of its

*ower material cost where large Luantities are not reLuired

*ower cost of transmitters and receivers

apability to carry electrical poweras well as signals Einappropriately designed cables


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(ptical fiber cables can be installed in buildings with the same eLuipment that is used to installcopper and coa4ial cables with some modifications due to the small si"e and limited pull tension andbend radius of optical cables. (ptical cables can typically be installed in duct systems in spans of8000 meters or more depending on the ductAs condition layout of the duct system and installationtechniLue. *onger cables can be coiled at an intermediate point and pulled farther into the ductsystem as necessary.

Governing standards[edit]

$n order for various manufacturers to be able to develop components that function compatibly in fiberoptic communication systems a number of standards have been developed. The $nternationalTelecommunications >nionpublishes several standards related to the characteristics andperformance of fibers themselves including

$T>!T .821 Jharacteristics of a 20@1,2 Gm multimode gradedinde4 optical fibre cableJ

$T>!T .82, Jharacteristics of a single!mode optical fibre cableJ

(ther standards specify performance criteria for fiber transmitters and receivers to be usedtogether in conforming systems. :ome of these standards are-

100 igabit


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$nformation theory

5assive optical networ'

References[edit]

1. #ump up $&'uture Trends in 'iber Optics Communication&()*'+.WC, %ondon /. 0uly 1 1234.5$6#789-799-3711-8-.

,. #ump up $&ell *abs brea's optical transmission record 100 5etabitper second 'ilometer barrier 5hys.org ,9 :eptember ,009

/. #ump up $&;uide To 'iber Optics < )ermises Cabling&. The 'iberOptics =ssociation. >etrieved *ecember 11 123.

. #ump up $Mary /ay Carson (1228+.=leander ;raham 6ell: ;iving?oice To The World. $terling 6iographies. #e! @ork: $terling)ublishing. pp. 8A"89. 5$6#789-3-4218-B1B2-2.

2. #ump up $=leander ;raham 6ell(October 3992+. &On the)roduction and >eproduction of $ound by %ight&.=merican 0ournal of$cienceThird $eries XX(339+: B2"B14.also published as J:eleniumand the 5hotophoneJ in #ature :eptember 1;;0.

8. #ump up $)$&S 5. E,01. Three decades of innovation. *ightwave/1E1 8!10.

7. #ump up $&34 Tbits over a single optical fiber: successfuldemonstration of !orldDs largest capacity&. #e!s release (#TT+.$eptember 17 122A. >etrieved 0une 38 1233.

;. #ump up $%n optical fiber will brea' if it is bent too sharply.=l!ayn?ivek (1224-24-1B+.&$plicing&.'iber-Optic Technologies. Cisco$ystems. >etrieved 122A-31-B3.

9. #ump up $&WhatDs in a *omain #ameE&.*omainMarket.

10. #ump up $$nfinera $ntroduces ?ew *ine :ystem$nfinera orp pressrelease )etrieved ,009!0;!,8

11. #ump up $&=lcatel-%ucent 6ell %abs announces ne! opticaltransmission record and breaks 322 )etabit per second kilometerbarrier&()ress release+. =lcatel-%ucent. 1227-32-19.

1,. #ump up $&World >ecord A7-Terabit Capacity for OpticalTransmission over a $ingle Optical 'iber&()ress release+. #TT. 1232-2B-1. >etrieved 1232-24-2B.

1/. #ump up $&%aser puts record data rate through fibre&. 66C. 1233-2-11.

1. #ump up $&ltrafast fibre optics set ne! speed record&.#e!$cientist. 1233-24-17. >etrieved 1231-21-1A.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_optical_networkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fiber-optic_communication&action=edit&section=20https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-1http://www.iaeng.org/publication/WCE2014/WCE2014_pp438-442.pdfhttp://www.iaeng.org/publication/WCE2014/WCE2014_pp438-442.pdfhttp://www.iaeng.org/publication/WCE2014/WCE2014_pp438-442.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-988-19252-7-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-988-19252-7-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-2http://phys.org/news/2009-09-bell-labs-optical-transmission-petabit.htmlhttp://phys.org/news/2009-09-bell-labs-optical-transmission-petabit.htmlhttp://phys.org/news/2009-09-bell-labs-optical-transmission-petabit.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-3http://www.thefoa.org/tech/ref/appln/transceiver.htmlhttp://www.thefoa.org/tech/ref/appln/transceiver.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-4https://books.google.com/books?id=a46ivzJ1yboChttps://books.google.com/books?id=a46ivzJ1yboChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4027-3230-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4027-3230-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Sciencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Sciencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Sciencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-ntt14_7-0http://www.ntt.co.jp/news/news06e/0609/060929a.htmlhttp://www.ntt.co.jp/news/news06e/0609/060929a.htmlhttp://www.ntt.co.jp/news/news06e/0609/060929a.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-8http://www.ciscopress.com/articles/article.asp?p=170740&seqNum=9&rl=1http://www.ciscopress.com/articles/article.asp?p=170740&seqNum=9&rl=1http://www.ciscopress.com/articles/article.asp?p=170740&seqNum=9&rl=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-9http://observernews.com/stories/current/news/021105/fiber.shtmlhttp://observernews.com/stories/current/news/021105/fiber.shtmlhttp://observernews.com/stories/current/news/021105/fiber.shtmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-10http://www.infinera.com/j7/servlet/NewsItem?newsItemID=108http://www.infinera.com/j7/servlet/NewsItem?newsItemID=108http://www.infinera.com/j7/servlet/NewsItem?newsItemID=108https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-11http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/wps/portal/newsreleases/detail?LMSG_CABINET=Docs_and_Resource_Ctr&LMSG_CONTENT_FILE=News_Releases_2009/News_Article_001797.xmlhttp://www.alcatel-lucent.com/wps/portal/newsreleases/detail?LMSG_CABINET=Docs_and_Resource_Ctr&LMSG_CONTENT_FILE=News_Releases_2009/News_Article_001797.xmlhttp://www.alcatel-lucent.com/wps/portal/newsreleases/detail?LMSG_CABINET=Docs_and_Resource_Ctr&LMSG_CONTENT_FILE=News_Releases_2009/News_Article_001797.xmlhttp://www.alcatel-lucent.com/wps/portal/newsreleases/detail?LMSG_CABINET=Docs_and_Resource_Ctr&LMSG_CONTENT_FILE=News_Releases_2009/News_Article_001797.xmlhttp://www.alcatel-lucent.com/wps/portal/newsreleases/detail?LMSG_CABINET=Docs_and_Resource_Ctr&LMSG_CONTENT_FILE=News_Releases_2009/News_Article_001797.xmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-12http://www.ntt.co.jp/news2010/1003e/100325a.htmlhttp://www.ntt.co.jp/news2010/1003e/100325a.htmlhttp://www.ntt.co.jp/news2010/1003e/100325a.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-13http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-13469924http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-13469924https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-14http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21028095.500-ultrafast-fibre-optics-set-new-speed-record.htmlhttp://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21028095.500-ultrafast-fibre-optics-set-new-speed-record.htmlhttp://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21028095.500-ultrafast-fibre-optics-set-new-speed-record.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_optical_networkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fiber-optic_communication&action=edit&section=20https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-1http://www.iaeng.org/publication/WCE2014/WCE2014_pp438-442.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-988-19252-7-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-2http://phys.org/news/2009-09-bell-labs-optical-transmission-petabit.htmlhttp://phys.org/news/2009-09-bell-labs-optical-transmission-petabit.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-3http://www.thefoa.org/tech/ref/appln/transceiver.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-4https://books.google.com/books?id=a46ivzJ1yboChttps://books.google.com/books?id=a46ivzJ1yboChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4027-3230-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Sciencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Sciencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-ntt14_7-0http://www.ntt.co.jp/news/news06e/0609/060929a.htmlhttp://www.ntt.co.jp/news/news06e/0609/060929a.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-8http://www.ciscopress.com/articles/article.asp?p=170740&seqNum=9&rl=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-9http://observernews.com/stories/current/news/021105/fiber.shtmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-10http://www.infinera.com/j7/servlet/NewsItem?newsItemID=108https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-11http://www.alcatel-lucent.com/wps/portal/newsreleases/detail?LMSG_CABINET=Docs_and_Resource_Ctr&LMSG_CONTENT_FILE=News_Releases_2009/News_Article_001797.xmlhttp://www.alcatel-lucent.com/wps/portal/newsreleases/detail?LMSG_CABINET=Docs_and_Resource_Ctr&LMSG_CONTENT_FILE=News_Releases_2009/News_Article_001797.xmlhttp://www.alcatel-lucent.com/wps/portal/newsreleases/detail?LMSG_CABINET=Docs_and_Resource_Ctr&LMSG_CONTENT_FILE=News_Releases_2009/News_Article_001797.xmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-12http://www.ntt.co.jp/news2010/1003e/100325a.htmlhttp://www.ntt.co.jp/news2010/1003e/100325a.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-13http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-13469924https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#cite_ref-14http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21028095.500-ultrafast-fibre-optics-set-new-speed-record.html


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12. #ump up $,C and Corning achieve petabit optical transmission&.Optics.org. 123B-23-11. >etrieved 123B-23-1B.

18. #ump up $J&ig data now at the speed of lightJ#e! $cientist Harch/0 ,01/ p. 1. :ee J$nformation superhighway approaches lightspeedJ.

17. #ump up $[1]

1;. #ump up $othF T. ;. lmerF C. ?. Cryan(122A+. &The 'iber 'use )henomenon in )olariGation-Maintaining'ibers at 3. m&()*'+. Conference on %asers and ,lectro-OpticsIuantum ,lectronics and %aser $cience Conference and)hotonic =pplications $ystems Technologies. paper 0W6AA (Optical$ociety of =merica+. >etrievedMarch 34 1232.


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Fiber (ptics ! $nternet able and Telephone ommunication

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