how people learn donald p. buckley, ph.d. associate professor of biology director of instructional...
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How People LearnHow People Learn
Donald P. Buckley, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of BiologyDirector of Instructional Technology, School of Health Sciences
Quinnipiac University
Apple Distinguished EducatorComputerworld Smithsonian Laureate
Donald P. Buckley, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of BiologyDirector of Instructional Technology, School of Health Sciences
Quinnipiac University
Apple Distinguished EducatorComputerworld Smithsonian Laureate
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We Are HistoryThis is Our Revolution
We Are HistoryThis is Our Revolution
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIAC KnowingKnowing
The meaning of “knowing” has shifted from being able to repeat and remember information
to being able to find and use it
Herbert SimonNobel Laureate
The meaning of “knowing” has shifted from being able to repeat and remember information
to being able to find and use it
Herbert SimonNobel Laureate
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A Revolution in Education?A Revolution in Education?
1. Disappointing literacies have provoked soul-searching1. Disappointing literacies have provoked soul-searching 1. Disappointing literacies have provoked soul-searching1. Disappointing literacies have provoked soul-searching
Emergence of the Learning ParadigmEmergence of the Learning ParadigmEmergence of the Learning ParadigmEmergence of the Learning Paradigm
2. The Decade of the Brain:2. The Decade of the Brain: 2. The Decade of the Brain:2. The Decade of the Brain:
the cognitive development of learningthe cognitive development of learningthe cognitive development of learningthe cognitive development of learning
3. Computing tools facilitate3. Computing tools facilitate 3. Computing tools facilitate3. Computing tools facilitate
Simulation, data collection/analysis, & authoringSimulation, data collection/analysis, & authoring
CommunicationCommunication
Formative AssessmentFormative Assessment
Simulation, data collection/analysis, & authoringSimulation, data collection/analysis, & authoring
CommunicationCommunication
Formative AssessmentFormative Assessment
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But where do we start?
Bransford, Brown and Cocking, 2000.
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The core goal is:
Learning with Understanding
The core goal is:
Learning with Understanding
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Key Findings about LearningKey Findings about Learning
Learning is constructive
we must confront and build on theexperiences and beliefs that students
bring to their learning experiences
Students need knowledge to learn with understanding - our goal is making meaning
Students must develop metacognitive skills that are reflective and help them to gauge their progress toward making meaning …this is the gate to life-long learning
Learning is constructive
we must confront and build on theexperiences and beliefs that students
bring to their learning experiences
Students need knowledge to learn with understanding - our goal is making meaning
Students must develop metacognitive skills that are reflective and help them to gauge their progress toward making meaning …this is the gate to life-long learning
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Elements of Learning Environments
Elements of Learning Environments
FormativeAssessmentFormativeAssessment
KnowledgeCenteredApproaches
KnowledgeCenteredApproaches
LearningCentered
Approaches
LearningCentered
Approaches
Learning SituatedIn Social ContextLearning SituatedIn Social Context
Bransford, Brown and Cocking, 2000.
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Teaching So That StudentsLearn with UnderstandingTeaching So That StudentsLearn with Understanding
Learning is improved by being:
Learner-centered
Knowledge-centered
Assessment-centered
All situated within social context
Learning is improved by being:
Learner-centered
Knowledge-centered
Assessment-centered
All situated within social context
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Teaching So That StudentsLearn with UnderstandingTeaching So That StudentsLearn with Understanding
Learning is improved by being:
Learner-centered
Knowledge-centered
Assessment-centered
All situated within social context
Learning is improved by being:
Learner-centered
Knowledge-centered
Assessment-centered
All situated within social context
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National Training Laboratory, Bethel Maine
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACMemory for Words versus PicturesMemory for Words versus Pictures
How well do we remember?• Best: Pictures alone• Next best: Pictures and Words• Worst: Words alone
Different communication formats entail different learning opportunities, e.g. words
• Linear strings of concept elements• Limited to 5-7 elements• With overload, we loose the middle elements• Then an individualistic synthesis
How well do we remember?• Best: Pictures alone• Next best: Pictures and Words• Worst: Words alone
Different communication formats entail different learning opportunities, e.g. words
• Linear strings of concept elements• Limited to 5-7 elements• With overload, we loose the middle elements• Then an individualistic synthesis
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Gender DifferencesGender Differences
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACThe Biology of PersonalityThe Biology of Personality
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Where do brain-based learning principles begin?Where do brain-based learning principles begin?
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACA Neuron Firing - Cell Body and AxonA Neuron Firing - Cell Body and Axon
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Learning involves neurons communicating signals - the synapse
Learning involves neurons communicating signals - the synapse
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACSynaptic NetworksSynaptic Networks
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACHow does the brain learn?How does the brain learn?
Overproduction and cropping of synapses(early development …like sculpting a statue from rock)
Addition of new synapses(throughout life …like adding pieces to the complete statue)
Modification of synapses (Long Term Potentiation) (neurons fire easier after being modified by experience)
Overproduction and cropping of synapses(early development …like sculpting a statue from rock)
Addition of new synapses(throughout life …like adding pieces to the complete statue)
Modification of synapses (Long Term Potentiation) (neurons fire easier after being modified by experience)
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To a large extent…
the depth of learning depends on how
extensive a cognitive engagement is
...and how recurrent
To a large extent…
the depth of learning depends on how
extensive a cognitive engagement is
...and how recurrent
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QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACEmotionsEmotions
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACEmotions and LearningEmotions and Learning
Old view:
logic and emotions are incongruent
WRONG!
Old view:
logic and emotions are incongruent
WRONG!
emotionsemotions
thinkingthinking learninglearning
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACEmotions & LogicEmotions & Logic
Emotions and logic work together:
Logic sets the goal
Emotion creates the passion to act on the goal
therefore
Emotion Pervades Logic Processing
Emotions and logic work together:
Logic sets the goal
Emotion creates the passion to act on the goal
therefore
Emotion Pervades Logic Processing
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACEmotion Pervades LogicEmotion Pervades Logic
Evidence?
Remove frontal-lobe areas:
• most intelligence is re-learned
Remove the amygdala: devastating changes...
• loose creative play
• loose imagination
• loose key decision making processes
• loose nuances of emotion that drive:
Art Humor Love Music Altruism
Evidence?
Remove frontal-lobe areas:
• most intelligence is re-learned
Remove the amygdala: devastating changes...
• loose creative play
• loose imagination
• loose key decision making processes
• loose nuances of emotion that drive:
Art Humor Love Music Altruism
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Emotions OccupyThe Brain’s Super
Highway
Emotions OccupyThe Brain’s Super
Highway
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Emotions:
What kind of cognitive engagement?
Emotions:
What kind of cognitive engagement?
• Emotions get high priority in processing (occupying the brain’s super highway)
Therefore emotion-laden learning is well remembered
• Emotions heighten attention, activating & chemically stimulating the brain
• Emotions have own memory pathways
Therefore, emotions act as the glue in learning & cognition
• Emotions get high priority in processing (occupying the brain’s super highway)
Therefore emotion-laden learning is well remembered
• Emotions heighten attention, activating & chemically stimulating the brain
• Emotions have own memory pathways
Therefore, emotions act as the glue in learning & cognition
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACHow Does Memory Work?How Does Memory Work?
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACMemoryMemory
Old interpretation: memories are records of the past stored for later recall
New interpretation: memory is a process for reconstructing a tangible interpretation of the past
Memory uses the same process used to imagine or to anticipate the future …reconstruction based on learned models
Old interpretation: memories are records of the past stored for later recall
New interpretation: memory is a process for reconstructing a tangible interpretation of the past
Memory uses the same process used to imagine or to anticipate the future …reconstruction based on learned models
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What do we remember?What do we remember?
Even perception is an assembly processes …based on reconstruction
We build mental models of our experiences
We learn mostly patterns and themes
We usually don’t learn the details
So what are memories and where do the details go?
Even perception is an assembly processes …based on reconstruction
We build mental models of our experiences
We learn mostly patterns and themes
We usually don’t learn the details
So what are memories and where do the details go?
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACMemory is InterpretiveMemory is Interpretive
Mind is not a passive recorder of events
Storing & recalling memories are constructive & reconstructive activities
• People presented with events in a random sequence will reorder them during recall
• Recall words in a list (yes or no): sour-candy-sugar-bitter-good-taste-tooth-knife-honey-chocolate-cake-tart-pie
…will remember sweet, but it's not on the list
The brain uses inference processing to relate events
Mind is not a passive recorder of events
Storing & recalling memories are constructive & reconstructive activities
• People presented with events in a random sequence will reorder them during recall
• Recall words in a list (yes or no): sour-candy-sugar-bitter-good-taste-tooth-knife-honey-chocolate-cake-tart-pie
…will remember sweet, but it's not on the list
The brain uses inference processing to relate events
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Memory of ExperiencesMemory of Experiences
When children are asked if a false event occurred…• Immediate response = "no"• Repeated discussions will change response• By 12 weeks, fully elaborated recounts
Repeatedly listing words with adults…• In repeated listings, words recalling non-experienced
events map to the same regions of the brain as words for experienced events
• MRI reveals that Q&A about true and false events light up same parts of the brain
Experiences are constructive and don't necessarily reflect reality - Learning builds on past experience
When children are asked if a false event occurred…• Immediate response = "no"• Repeated discussions will change response• By 12 weeks, fully elaborated recounts
Repeatedly listing words with adults…• In repeated listings, words recalling non-experienced
events map to the same regions of the brain as words for experienced events
• MRI reveals that Q&A about true and false events light up same parts of the brain
Experiences are constructive and don't necessarily reflect reality - Learning builds on past experience
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACKinds of MemoryKinds of Memory
Declarative memory• Facts and events
mostly in hippocampus
Procedural or nondeclarative memory• skills and other cognitive operations• can't be represented in declarative sentences
mostly in the neostriatum
Declarative memory• Facts and events
mostly in hippocampus
Procedural or nondeclarative memory• skills and other cognitive operations• can't be represented in declarative sentences
mostly in the neostriatum
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIAC Kinds of MemoryKinds of Memory
ExplicitExplicit ImplicitImplicit
SemanticSemantic EpisodicEpisodic ProceduralProcedural ReflexiveReflexive
ConditionedConditioned EmotionalEmotional
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Semantic (book-learning) MemorySemantic (book-learning) Memory
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Episodic (contextual) MemoryEpisodic (contextual) Memory
Ask yourself:
What were you doing when you learned that JFK had been shot?
What did you have for dinner last night?
Most of us can remember things that are situated in space or time ...Episodic Memory
Ask yourself:
What were you doing when you learned that JFK had been shot?
What did you have for dinner last night?
Most of us can remember things that are situated in space or time ...Episodic Memory
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Episodic (contextual) MemoryEpisodic (contextual) Memory
Episodic memory has:
• unlimited capacity,
• forms quickly and effortlessly, and
• is used naturally by everyone
Our visual memory records both
“what” and “where”
Problem: contamination (similar contexts for different memories)
Episodic memory has:
• unlimited capacity,
• forms quickly and effortlessly, and
• is used naturally by everyone
Our visual memory records both
“what” and “where”
Problem: contamination (similar contexts for different memories)
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How do we conduct critical inquiry?How do we conduct critical inquiry?
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study
understanding
defer judgement
collectevidence
BELIEF
study
understanding
Hypothesis
A
Hypothesis
B
Hypothesis
A
Hypothesis
B
The Process of Critical Inquiry
BELIEF
This is how the
brain seems to be wired!
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACWhy?Why?
The part of the brain that we use for critical inquiry seems to have evolved from part of the brain that we use for :
Perception
Which draws lots of assumptions and makes lots of snap decisions in order for us to navigate though our daily existence
The part of the brain that we use for critical inquiry seems to have evolved from part of the brain that we use for :
Perception
Which draws lots of assumptions and makes lots of snap decisions in order for us to navigate though our daily existence
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Teaching So That StudentsLearn with UnderstandingTeaching So That StudentsLearn with Understanding
Learning is improved by being:
Learner-centered
Knowledge-centered
Assessment-centered
All situated within social context
Learning is improved by being:
Learner-centered
Knowledge-centered
Assessment-centered
All situated within social context
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACComparison of Novices and ExpertsComparison of Novices and Experts
Novices versus Experts Novices versus Experts
Left -brain
Serial processing
Scanning possibilities
Superficial distracters
Abstraction
Left -brain
Serial processing
Scanning possibilities
Superficial distracters
Abstraction
Right-brain
Parallel processing
Recognizing useful patterns
Core concepts
Perception
Right-brain
Parallel processing
Recognizing useful patterns
Core concepts
Perception
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How Experts Differ From Novices:Experts Notice Meaningful Patterns Not Noticed by Novices
How Experts Differ From Novices:Experts Notice Meaningful Patterns Not Noticed by Novices
Early hypothesis: experts and novices both think through all possible solutions, but with different efficiencies
Results:
• Neither novices or experts consider all possibilities
• Experts consider possibilities that have more value …how?
• Experts chunk the content differently
Early hypothesis: experts and novices both think through all possible solutions, but with different efficiencies
Results:
• Neither novices or experts consider all possibilities
• Experts consider possibilities that have more value …how?
• Experts chunk the content differently
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACLearning and Short Term MemoryLearning and Short Term Memory
Short term memory has a limited capacity
But the elements of short term memory can be:• A fact• Or an organized set of facts
Learning with expertise is a matter of• chunking - packaging information for learning• possession of previously built schema
Short term memory has a limited capacity
But the elements of short term memory can be:• A fact• Or an organized set of facts
Learning with expertise is a matter of• chunking - packaging information for learning• possession of previously built schema
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Chunking: Novice & Experti.e., n00b versus guy with mad skillzChunking: Novice & Experti.e., n00b versus guy with mad skillz
schemaschema schemaschema
schemaschema schemaschema
expertexpert
novicenovice
factfact
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How Experts Differ From Novices:
Experts Have Considerable Content Knowledge That Is Organized In Ways That Reflect Deep Understanding of Content Area
How Experts Differ From Novices:
Experts Have Considerable Content Knowledge That Is Organized In Ways That Reflect Deep Understanding of Content Area
We use short term memory for
Schema
This knowledge seems to have a hierarchical, highly organized structure that functions in retrieval
Learning and Encoding
We use short term memory for
Schema
This knowledge seems to have a hierarchical, highly organized structure that functions in retrieval
Learning and Encoding
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACChunking & Background KnowledgeChunking & Background Knowledge
Then same with letters …back to 7 again Then same with letters …back to 7 again
Train to remember digit strings
From 7 to over 70 within 30 days
Train to remember digit strings
From 7 to over 70 within 30 days
Break big strings into smaller number of elements (chunking)
Each chunked element was remembered with a trick: races (background knowledge)
94100 = 9.41 seconds for 100 yards 3591 = 3 minutes, 59.1 seconds for 1 mile
Break big strings into smaller number of elements (chunking)
Each chunked element was remembered with a trick: races (background knowledge)
94100 = 9.41 seconds for 100 yards 3591 = 3 minutes, 59.1 seconds for 1 mile
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examplesexamples
• Non-meaningful chess patterns:
Master = Class A …no schema
• Non-meaningful chess patterns:
Master = Class A …no schema
• Meaningful chess patterns:
Master > Class A
• Meaningful chess patterns:
Master > Class A
Remembering Chess Patterns:
Master versus Class A (good but not a master)
Remembering Chess Patterns:
Master versus Class A (good but not a master)
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACexamples: Remembering Chess Pieces:examples: Remembering Chess Pieces:
10-11 yr chess playersremember chess pieces better than
college students
because of their background learning
one doesn't have to be an expert to have expertise
10-11 yr chess playersremember chess pieces better than
college students
because of their background learning
one doesn't have to be an expert to have expertise
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACProblem Solving in PhysicsProblem Solving in Physics
Expert Explanations: Concepts, "Big Ideas"
Expert 2: conservation of energy
Expert 3: work-theory theorem…
Expert 4: these can be done from energy considerations. Either you should know the principle of conservation of energy…
Expert Explanations: Concepts, "Big Ideas"
Expert 2: conservation of energy
Expert 3: work-theory theorem…
Expert 4: these can be done from energy considerations. Either you should know the principle of conservation of energy…
Novice Explanations: Superficial Features
Novice 1: blocks on an inclined plane
Novice 2: inclined plane problems, friction
Novice 3: blocks on inclined planes w/ angles
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACUnderstanding and TransferUnderstanding and Transfer
Teaching principles:Learning with understanding
Teaching principles:Learning with understanding
Teaching rote application of memorized formula
Teaching rote application of memorized formula
Is the learning transferred to novel but analogous tasks?Is the learning transferred to novel but analogous tasks?
Learning with understanding group: YESLearning with understanding group: YES
Rote memorization group: "we haven't had that yet"Rote memorization group: "we haven't had that yet"
PedagogyPedagogyPedagogyPedagogy
Transfer?Transfer?Transfer?Transfer?
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Word problem asked:
"There are 26 sheep and 10 goats. How old is the captain?"
Word problem asked:
"There are 26 sheep and 10 goats. How old is the captain?"
Results of learners:
Experts: Recognized that the problem is not solvable
Novices (children): not a coherent sense of core concept
e.g., 36 "…well, you need to add or subtract or multiply in a problem like this, and this one seemed to work best if I add" (Bransford and Stein, 1993)
Results of learners:
Experts: Recognized that the problem is not solvable
Novices (children): not a coherent sense of core concept
e.g., 36 "…well, you need to add or subtract or multiply in a problem like this, and this one seemed to work best if I add" (Bransford and Stein, 1993)
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Reaching Students: Teaching HamletReaching Students: Teaching Hamlet
Steve' Pedagogy: Connecting with student emotions, asking:• How would you feel if your father died all of a sudden?• …and then your mother immediately remarried?• …and her new husband took over the family business?• …and the new guy may have murdered your Dad?• …and your Mom might have helped him to do it?
How would your feel? How desperate would you be?What would you do? Would you be yourself?What circumstances might drive someone to murder?
Steve' Pedagogy: Connecting with student emotions, asking:• How would you feel if your father died all of a sudden?• …and then your mother immediately remarried?• …and her new husband took over the family business?• …and the new guy may have murdered your Dad?• …and your Mom might have helped him to do it?
How would your feel? How desperate would you be?What would you do? Would you be yourself?What circumstances might drive someone to murder?
Jake and Steve are both Shakespearean teacher/scholars Jake and Steve are both Shakespearean teacher/scholars
Jake's pedagogy: Passion for formal literary scholarship• Linguistic flexivity• Modernism• In-depth analysis of soliloquies• Memorization of long passages
Jake's pedagogy: Passion for formal literary scholarship• Linguistic flexivity• Modernism• In-depth analysis of soliloquies• Memorization of long passages
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TransferTest
TransferTest
PossiblePredictions
(%)
5025
Group 3Group 3
Group 2Group 2
Group 1Group 1
Effectiveness of Preparation for Learning with UnderstandingEffectiveness of Preparation for Learning with Understanding
Studied aResearchPaper
Studied aResearchPaper
XXXX
Lecture Designed toOrganize Knowledge &
Learn with Understanding
Lecture Designed toOrganize Knowledge &
Learn with Understanding
XXXX
XXXX
Experimental TreatmentsExperimental Treatments
from Schartz et al., 1999from Schartz et al., 1999
Preface:Studied
Data Sets
Preface:Studied
Data Sets
XXXX
X XX XX XX X
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What is Learning?What is Learning?
Memorizing Facts Is Necessary, But Inadequate
Learn for Understanding
Application to Solve New Problems
Memorizing Facts Is Necessary, But Inadequate
Learn for Understanding
Application to Solve New Problems
Students Need to Build Their Own MeaningStudents Need to Build Their Own Meaning
TransferTransfer
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Teaching So That StudentsLearn with UnderstandingTeaching So That StudentsLearn with Understanding
Learning is improved by being:
Learner-centered
Knowledge-centered
Assessment-centered
All situated within social context
Learning is improved by being:
Learner-centered
Knowledge-centered
Assessment-centered
All situated within social context
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACMajor Kinds of AssessmentMajor Kinds of Assessment
Summative Assessment - measuring learning outcomes
Formative Assessment - a pedagogical steering wheel
• Communicate learning goals to students
• Provide timely feedback to students
• Collect diagnostic clues about student needs
• Build an incentive system for competency standards
Summative Assessment - measuring learning outcomes
Formative Assessment - a pedagogical steering wheel
• Communicate learning goals to students
• Provide timely feedback to students
• Collect diagnostic clues about student needs
• Build an incentive system for competency standards
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACTechnology assessment tools…Technology assessment tools…
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Assessment StylesAssessment Styles
Open-endedassessment styles
Structured assessmentstyles
Open-endedassessment styles
Structured assessmentstyles
Utility ofUtility ofCompetingCompeting
AssessmentAssessmentStylesStyles
Utility ofUtility ofCompetingCompeting
AssessmentAssessmentStylesStyles
LearnFacts
LearnInquiry
LearnConcept
s
main learning goal
foundational information
main learning goal
foundational information
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Open-ended AssessmentA Contradiction?
Open-ended AssessmentA Contradiction?
Perhaps some structured formative assessment
Portfolio model …report authoring
Epsitemological scaffolding …e.g., 3 P's
Iterative, analogous scenarios
Path analysis …monitor decision making
Perhaps some structured formative assessment
Portfolio model …report authoring
Epsitemological scaffolding …e.g., 3 P's
Iterative, analogous scenarios
Path analysis …monitor decision making
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Teaching So That StudentsLearn with UnderstandingTeaching So That StudentsLearn with Understanding
Learning is improved by being:
Learner-centered
Knowledge-centered
Assessment-centered
All situated within social context
Learning is improved by being:
Learner-centered
Knowledge-centered
Assessment-centered
All situated within social context
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACLearning is a social activityLearning is a social activity
Recent review of 400 teaching reform projects:
Mixture of teaching innovations:
• Active learning• Active and cooperative learning
Cooperative learning invariably improved learning outcomes, even with powerful pedagogies
Recent review of 400 teaching reform projects:
Mixture of teaching innovations:
• Active learning• Active and cooperative learning
Cooperative learning invariably improved learning outcomes, even with powerful pedagogies
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Learning: Best with Social Interaction and Environmental Richness Combined
Learning: Best with Social Interaction and Environmental Richness Combined Treatment: activity of rat brains
• Environmental complexity (cages were complex and changed often)
• Social interactions (caged individually or in groups)
Measured: ratio of astrocytes per neuron (brain activity)
Results:
• Environmental richness inevitably increased brain activity, whether alone or interacting socially
• Greatest effects when environmental richness and social interactions are combined
Treatment: activity of rat brains
• Environmental complexity (cages were complex and changed often)
• Social interactions (caged individually or in groups)
Measured: ratio of astrocytes per neuron (brain activity)
Results:
• Environmental richness inevitably increased brain activity, whether alone or interacting socially
• Greatest effects when environmental richness and social interactions are combined
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIAC
Why do social interactions matter?Why do social interactions matter?
One possible reason…
When we articulate our thoughts …make words
We turn on a part of the brain involved with:
• Communication
• Synthesis
• Long term memory formation
One possible reason…
When we articulate our thoughts …make words
We turn on a part of the brain involved with:
• Communication
• Synthesis
• Long term memory formation
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIAC
TeachingTeaching
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACTeaching ExpertiseTeaching Expertise
Good teaching requires more than a set of general teaching principles
Good teaching requires more than a set of general teaching principles
Teaching requires well organized knowledge:• Concepts• Inquiry methods
Teaching requires well organized knowledge:• Concepts• Inquiry methods
This knowledge is discipline specific This knowledge is discipline specific
But is content knowledge is not enough But is content knowledge is not enough
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Content Knowledge Is Not EnoughContent Knowledge Is Not Enough
ContentKnowledge
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIAC
PedagogicalKnowledge
Content Knowledge Is Not EnoughContent Knowledge Is Not Enough
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIAC
PedagogicalContent
Knowledge
Content Knowledge Is Not EnoughContent Knowledge Is Not Enough
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACExpert TeachersExpert Teachers
Know the structure of their disciplines• Foundational information• Important concepts• Methods of inquiry
Possess cognitive roadmaps that guide the assignments that they give students
Employ formative assessments to communicate goals and to gauge student progress
Have examples & narratives that bring the content to life for the student
Know the structure of their disciplines• Foundational information• Important concepts• Methods of inquiry
Possess cognitive roadmaps that guide the assignments that they give students
Employ formative assessments to communicate goals and to gauge student progress
Have examples & narratives that bring the content to life for the student
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACBarbara Johnson is a master teacherBarbara Johnson is a master teacher
Starts course by asking students
• What questions do you have about yourself?
• What questions do you have about the world?
She lists the answers and organizes students into groups
Each group discusses the questions to prioritize and seek themes
Starts course by asking students
• What questions do you have about yourself?
• What questions do you have about the world?
She lists the answers and organizes students into groups
Each group discusses the questions to prioritize and seek themes
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACLearning with Understanding…Learning with Understanding…
They all create an agenda of investigations together
At a late stage in the investigations, they reviewed where they were in the context of the curriculum
Students are surprised to discover that their interests were intermeshed with formal disciplines and that so many disciplines had been engaged
Students have• engaged emotions• reconstructed previous knowledge• constructed new knowledge from previous foundations• developed their critical inquiry skills• assumed the authority of knowledge making• built a community of learners and team mates
They all create an agenda of investigations together
At a late stage in the investigations, they reviewed where they were in the context of the curriculum
Students are surprised to discover that their interests were intermeshed with formal disciplines and that so many disciplines had been engaged
Students have• engaged emotions• reconstructed previous knowledge• constructed new knowledge from previous foundations• developed their critical inquiry skills• assumed the authority of knowledge making• built a community of learners and team mates
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIAC
What makes Barbara successful?She has pedagogical-content knowledge
What makes Barbara successful?She has pedagogical-content knowledge
She could map content and curricular agendas onto student identified interests and projects and communicate to the students the scholarly nature of their activity
A general strategy for holding this kind of class would not work without content knowledge
Knowing the content alone would not prepare a teacher to support a learner-centered experience like this
She could map content and curricular agendas onto student identified interests and projects and communicate to the students the scholarly nature of their activity
A general strategy for holding this kind of class would not work without content knowledge
Knowing the content alone would not prepare a teacher to support a learner-centered experience like this
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACSummarySummary
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Key Findings about LearningKey Findings about Learning
Learning is constructive and reconstructive
we must confront and build on the
experiences and beliefs that students bring
Students need knowledge to learn with understanding - our goal is making meaning
To become life-long learners, students must develop metacognitive skills that are reflective and help them to gauge their progress toward making meaning
Learning is constructive and reconstructive
we must confront and build on the
experiences and beliefs that students bring
Students need knowledge to learn with understanding - our goal is making meaning
To become life-long learners, students must develop metacognitive skills that are reflective and help them to gauge their progress toward making meaning
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Elements of Learning Environments
Elements of Learning Environments
FormativeAssessmentFormativeAssessment
KnowledgeCenteredApproaches
KnowledgeCenteredApproaches
LearningCentered
Approaches
LearningCentered
Approaches
Learning SituatedIn Social ContextLearning SituatedIn Social Context
Bransford, Brown and Cocking, 2000.
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Learning, Understanding, and TransferLearning, Understanding, and Transfer
Memorizing Facts Is Necessary, But Inadequate
Learn for Understanding
Application to Solve New Problems
Memorizing Facts Is Necessary, But Inadequate
Learn for Understanding
Application to Solve New Problems
Students Need to Build Their Own MeaningStudents Need to Build Their Own Meaning
TransferTransfer
QQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACQQUINNIPIACUINNIPIACLearning with UnderstandingLearning with Understanding
The Third International Mathematics and
Science Survey (TIMSS; Schmidt, 1997)
"criticized curricula that are a mile wide and an inch deep"
and argued that this is more of a problem in
the U.S. than in other countries.
"The fact that expert's knowledge is organized
around important ideas or concepts suggests that
curricula should also be organized in ways
that lead to conceptual understanding"
The Third International Mathematics and
Science Survey (TIMSS; Schmidt, 1997)
"criticized curricula that are a mile wide and an inch deep"
and argued that this is more of a problem in
the U.S. than in other countries.
"The fact that expert's knowledge is organized
around important ideas or concepts suggests that
curricula should also be organized in ways
that lead to conceptual understanding"NRC, 2000
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Teaching Reform First Principles
Teaching Reform First Principles
Learning with Understanding
Balancing Learning and Coverage
Formative Assessment
Learning with Understanding
Balancing Learning and Coverage
Formative Assessment
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QQUINNIPIAC UINNIPIAC UUNIVERSITYNIVERSITY
How People LearnHow People Learn
Donald P. Buckley, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of BiologyDirector of Instructional Technology, School of Health Sciences
Quinnipiac University
Apple Distinguished EducatorComputerworld Smithsonian Laureate
Donald P. Buckley, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of BiologyDirector of Instructional Technology, School of Health Sciences
Quinnipiac University
Apple Distinguished EducatorComputerworld Smithsonian Laureate