how did the ideals of state buddhism inspire the creation ... · 1 "how did the ideals of...

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"How did the ideals of State Buddhism inspire the creation of Art?"

Win Myat Aung

Programme Officer, SEAMEO CHAT

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Introduction

"Religion prospers when the King prefers", is used to say in Burmese history. Indeed,

it is the duty of king to support and promote the religion. This tradition is based on the

concept of Dhamarmaraja. Many ancient kings regarded themselves as

Dhamarmaraja and try to legitimize their rules and King Asoka (ca. 273-232 BC) of

India during the Mauryan dynasty is most famous one. Kings of Myanmar is no

exception. In this essay, the main focus is the development of Theravada Buddhism

and its impact on the building of religious monuments during the reigns of King

Anawrathar (ca. 1044-1077 AD) and King Kyansitthar (ca. 1084-1113 AD). This period

is regarded as the Golden Age of Pagan and with the ardent support of kings, many

religious monuments appeared. Artists and architects of this period could display their

best or ideal art in building of those religious monuments. In other words, it is the

sponsorship of state that paves the way for the development of ideal art in the country.

This amount of construction never happens in history of Burma during such a period

of time. This essay is divided into three sections, (1) Development of Theravada

Buddhism as State Religion in Pagan, (2) Religious Activities of King Kyansitthar and

finally (3) Selected Religious Monuments during the reigns of King Anawrathar and

King Kyansitthar.

(A) Development of Thaeravada Buddhism as State Religion in Pagan

According to the Burmese Chronicles, Pagan was found in 1st century AD. The

Glass Palace Chronicle records that Pagan region was settled as early as 107 AD. It

was comprised of 19 adjacent Pyu villages. The most famous early ruler was

Pyusawhti who was son of a sun spirit and a snake princess. However, there is no

reliable historical and archaeological finding to prove it. The first recorded ruler at

Pagan is Anawrahta. He established Pagan based on agro-based economic policy on

controlling the rice producing regions in Kyaukse, 150 kilometres northeast of Pagan

and Minbu, 110 kilometres south of Pagan. (Stadtner , 2005, p. 23) Moreover, after

the conquest of Thaton, he could also open up maritime trade with other areas in the

region especially with India and Sri Lanka. Those relations have great impact on the

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development of religious art in Pagan. Pagan, during the reign of King Anwrathar,

rapidly developed and prospered.

Religions in pre-Anawrathar Pagan was complex. We can trace the practices of

both Mahayana and Brahmanism there. As John Guy pointed out that there were

traces of Mahayana practices in making the images of Bodhisattva in clay votive

tablets in Pagan. It is because of the important theological development of worshiping

the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshara and in locally it was known as Lokanatha. (Guy 2002,

p. 27) Moreover, there is substantial epigraphical and physical evidence of strong

Mahayana and Brahmanical practices prior to King Anawrathar's reign, but most of

them are over looked by scholars ( Galloway 2002, p. 45). Even Thaeravada Buddhism

was introduced; such beliefs and practices still existed. In King Kyansithar's palace

inscription, not only Buddhist rites, but also Hindu rituals were performed at the

ceremony of laying foundation stone for the new palace. In fact, Pagan is a place of

transition where the practice of Mahayana, Thaeravada and Brahmanism met.

However, with the conquest of Thaton in 1057 AD, a new spiritual value was

introduced and its transformed Pagan to more Thaeravada Buddhism based society.

This new era started during the reign of Anawrathar, however, gained momentum

during the reign of King Kyansitthar. ( Bautze-Picron 2003, p. 3) So that we can

assume that although Buddhism occurs in Burma early in the first millennium, the first

appearance of the distinct Burmese style and the oldest Buddhist structural remains

coincide with the Pagan period. In Robert E. Fisher's words, the assumption of the

throne by King Anawrathar began the unbroken dominance of Buddhism and although

Mahayana and Tantric practices did continue, the ultimate triumph belonged to the

Theravada. Ananda temple which was built during the reign of King Kyansitthar could

be viewed as the first indication of the shift to the Theravada, although influence from

the adjacent Pala kingdom ensured continued Mahayana activity. (Fisher 2005, p. 183)

Another important reason of King Anawrathar and King Kyansitthar's effort to

promote religion was based on the traditional concept of the king as Champion of

Buddhism which based on Indian models that originate with the first Buddhist emperor,

and unifier of India, King Asoka. Like King Asoka, they viewed themselves as

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Cakkavatti or Universal Monarch. Another concept was they regard themselves as

Dhamarmaraja, a king who power is based on the accumulation of merit of past

existence. Finally, there was a concept of Sangaraja, a monk king who is the

embodiment of total scare and temporal power. (Strachan 1989, p. 11) It is also related

with the concept of esoteric Buddhism. According to Davidson,

"the central and defining metaphor for mature esoteric Buddhism is that

of an individual assuming kingship and exercising dominion. Thus the

understanding of such terms as tantra in Buddhist India would invoke,

first and foremost, the idea of hierarchical power acquired and exercised

through a combination of ritual and metaphysical means. Based on this

power, the varieties of understanding and of personal relationships

become subsumed to the purpose of the person metaphorically

becoming the overlord (rajadhiraja) or the universal ruler (cakravartin).

(Davidson 2002, p. 121)"

These conceptions of kingships were an integral part of contemporary

statecraft, and to prove the validity of such title and appellations, a king was required

to build stupas and temples. Kings together with the people build numerous

monuments decorated with marvelous religious art are undeniable evidence at Pagan.

Donating temples, stupas or monasteries were considered good works that

accumulated merit for specific religious aims that hinged on the concept of future

rebirths (Stadtner, 2005, p. 38) Moreover, the merit accumulated by royal temple

building activities was part of the national interest. Temple building secured the release

of the king's subjects as well as the king himself. The king was often style as a

bodhisattva, a future Buddha: incarnate in this world to assist mankind in their quest

for salvation. (Strachan 1989, p. 10)

In building religious monuments, Pagan gets the legacy of religious art from Pyu

which was much influenced by the India. There still exit the traces of Indian influence

on the remains in cities of Pyu. When Pyu fell to Nancho in AD 832-5, there was a

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power vacuum and Burman stepped in not only their political power, but also their

culture. It is no surprise that the early Pagan temple type is derived from the early brick

temples of the Pyu capital of Shri Kshetra, such as Be-be and Lei- myet-hna temples.

The architecture of those temples such as radiating arches and a voussoir type

brickwork are found in Pagan too. (Strachan 1989, p. 9) Another significant fact is,

though Mahayana Buddhism assumed to be tolerated at Pagan as we can see many

examples of Mahayana elements in Pagan art and architecture, the dominant religious

movement was Theravada Buddhism. However, Pagan Theravada Buddhism took

some elements of Mahayana, and then adapted such elements to suit their Theravada

context. Thus, as Paul Strachan pointed out, the religious art of pagan is a mixture of

Mahayana and Thaeravada. In other word, it is something like Mahayana temple forms

and designs, and even practices, were applied to magnify the rational of the orthodox

Theravara religion and state. (Strachan 1989, p. 10)

The style of religious art transformed to more distinctly Burmese artistic style

during the time of King Kyansittar. It is corresponds to a period when Buddhism was

taking on a particularly Burmese form. The building of Ananda temple is significant

example. It is the brain child of Kyansittar and he oversaw the building of it. The

dominance of the Ananda temple even today can lead us to believe that it embodies

the contemporary ideals of Buddhist thoughts during the times of its construction. The

depictions of the Jataka stories on tiles decorating the exterior were excellence.

(Galloway 2002, p. 48) Since King Kyansitthar's time, Burmese Buddhism has

consolidated as a Theravada tradition, and the iconography has become standardized

and far less variable. (Galloway 2002, pp.51-52)

(B) Religious Activities of King Kyansitthar

King Kyansitthar is very important for the development of state religion in

Pagan. If King Anawrathar is regarded as the one who planted the seed of Theravada

Buddhism in Pagan, King Kyansitthar is the one who nature and garden it. During his

reign, Burmese Buddhism has consolidated as a Theravada tradition, and many

religious monuments had been built. Among them, Ananda Temple is the most

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significant.

According to the old Burmese inscription of Pagan period, Kyansitthar was

known as Hti-Hlaing Min or King of Hti-Hlaing. There are differences on placing where

Hti-Hlaing is, but Professor G. H. Luce assumed it is near Kyuk-se. Because he

thaught that though King Kyansitthar is a Burman, he loved Mons, and wrote old Mon

like a master. He must have been brought up in a Mon environment and that point to

Kyaukse. (Luce, April 1966, p. 54)

There is also controversial about his parents. Some Burmese Chronicles said

he was the son of King Anawrathar and the daughter of the King of Vesali. But there

is no concrete evidence about it. Anyway, Kyansitthar played very important role in the

unifying campaigns of King Anawrathar and became a right hand man for him. King

Anawrathar was succeeded by his son King Saw Lu (ca. 1077-1084 AD) and his reign

was ended up by rebellions led by some Mon chieftains. Kyansitthar crushed the

rebellion and conquered them. And finally, he ascended to throne in 1084 AD. But he

could only held Abhiseka ceremony1 after two years later in 1086 AD. May be he has

to pacify the country even after his conquest of the rebellions.

With King Kyansitthar lacking the legitimacy of royal descent, he used the FB

Inscription2 to legitimate his assumption of kingship. The legitimation takes the form of

the Buddha foretelling that; the ascetic Visnu would, in the future, become Kyansittha,

King of Pagan, the form having for its model the foretelling by the Dipankara Buddha

that the ascetic Sumedha would, in the future, become a Buddha. (Tun Aung Chain,

2011a, p. 1) Mentioning in the form of Visnu also indicates the strong influence of

Brahmanism at the Court and the effort to achieve legitimation in that aspect as well.

In his other inscription written by Sanskrit, he always called himself as Srī

Tribhuvanādityadhammarāja, "Fortunate Buddhist king, Sun of the Three Worlds" (of

men, devas and brahmiis). This kind of title becomes, with various amplifications, the

regal style of most of his successors in later period. (Luce 1969, Old Burma, p. 53)

Another significant aspect is the assertion of himself as King of Dhamma. It is

reinforced in the FB Inscription by the announcement:

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"A Lord Mahāthera who possesses virtue, who is the Charioteer of

Dhamma (dhammasārāthi), King Srī Tribhuvanādityadhammarāja shall

make his spiritual teacher. King Srī Tribhuvanādityadhammarāja shall

say in the presence of the Lord Mahāthera abounding in virtue, the

Charioteer of Dhamma, “Together with my Lord will I cleanse the Religion

of the Lord Buddha." (Translated from original inscription by Tun AUng

Chain, 2011a, p. 4)

Being a Dhammarājā, King Kyansittha protected and promoted the religion of

Buddha by revering and nourishing of the Three Gems3. The PR Inscription4 describes

Kyansittha’s undertakings:

"For the holy temple of Srī Bajrās [Vajrāsana, Site of Enlightenment, the

Mahābodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya] which had been destroyed by other

kings, King Srī Tribhuvanādityadhammarāja got together jewels of

various kinds and sent them in a ship to build again the holy temple of

Srī Bajrās, to buy land, to dig a tank, to irrigate arable land, to make

dams….

The Three Holy Pitakas which had become obscured, the King

proceeded to collect and purify….

All the Lord Sangha who dwelt in the City of Arimaddanapūr, King Srī

Tribhuvanādityadhammarāja presented with the four necessaries."

(Translated from original inscription by Tun Aung Chain, 2011a, p. 5)

According to Rajakumar5's stone inscriptions, engraved in duplicate in Pali, Pyu,

Mon and Burmese, King Kyansitthar was seriously ill before his dead. Rajakumar

recorded the death bed scene. In that stone inscription, it mentioned that:

"Remembering the great and many favours with which the king had

nourished him, he made a beautiful gold image of the Buddha, and

entering with ceremony presented it to the king, saying this golden

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Buddha I have made to help my lord. The three villages of slaves you

gave me, I give to this Buddha. May my lord approve!' And the king,

though his mind was troubled by disease, rejoiced and said well

done…well done (Translated from original inscription by Luce, April

1966, pp. 67-68)

(C) Selected Religious Monuments during the reigns of King

Anawrathar and King Kyansitthar

(i) Shwe Sandaw Stupa

King Anawrathar built this pagoda in 1057 after his conquest over Thahton. It is

believed that some sacred hairs of Buddha which was obtained from Thahton were

enshrined in it. Because of the presence of Hindu gods-Brahma, Vishnu and Siva at

the four corners of the Pagoda, it is also known as the Mahapeinne or Ganesha Pagoda.

It is a cylindrical solid stupa with five terraces, while others have only three. (Lu Pe Win

1955, p. 45) It is probably because of the influence of Mahayana in early Pagan period

that is the coming of the fifth Buddha, Maitrera Buddha. Some scholar assumed that it

the first stupa on a massive scale at Pagan. It is being composed of a pyramidal

arrangement; with steeply climbing that sharply recede at corners, and a tall elegant

superstructure.( Strachan 1989, p. 57)

3 . Three Gems: Buddha, Dharma and Sangha

4 . The PR Inscription mean Promotion of the Religion Inscription made during the reign of King

Kyansitthar 5 Son of King Kyansitthar

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Figure-1: Shaw Sandaw Stupa

(ii) Shwe Zigon Stupa

The building was started by King Anwrathar and completed by King Kyansitthar.

There is no concrete record about the date of construction and finishing. It is probably

round about late 11th centrury A.D. King Kyasitthar constructed his palace near Shwe

Zigon and named "Jayabumi", or land of victory. Professor Luce assumed that the

modern name Shwe Zigon is a corruption of this Pali word. (Strachan 1989, p. 57) It is

solid, cylindrical structure quite distinct in style of architecture from other and it is a

prototype of similar structure in Burma. Around the terraces of Pagoda, there are, set

in panels, enameled plaques illustrating scenes in the previous lives of the Buddha. It

is believed to contain the frontal bone and a tooth of the Buddha. (Lu Pe Win 1955, p.

22)

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Figure-2: Shwe Zigon Stupa

There are three terraces rising steeply to an octagonal band from which bell-

shaped anda rises. This is the standard arrangement in Burmese stupa. The terraces

are all tall and thickly moulded with panels intended to hold Jataka plaques and are

crenellated. There are medial stairways and the terraces carry a blend of the kalasa

pot and miniaturized stupa at its four corners. (Strachan 1989, p. 57) Shwe Zigon tells

the story of the development of Theravada Buddhism initiated by King Anwrathar and

accomplished by King Kyansithar, in Paul Strachan words, it is the ultimate symbol of

the triumph of the purified Buddhism propagated by the early Pagan Kings.

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Figure-3: Glazed stone jataka plaque, ground floor terrace, Shwe Zigon Stupa

(iii) Ananda Temple

It is one of the finest and most venerated temples at Pagan. It was built by King

Kyansitthar in 1091 AD. According to the Burmese chronicles, it was built according to

the plan furnished by Indian Buddhist monks, which purported to be their cave-temple

in the Nandamula Mountain in Himalaya. (Lu Pe Win 1955, p. 27)

The ground plan of Ananda Temple is based on a perfect Greek cross. The

vestibules are lower than the main building. The lower half of spire is adapted from

temples of India and the upper half is based on the bell-shaped pagodas of Pagan.

The interior consists of two vaulted and high but narrow corridors running parallel to

each other along four sides of the temple. In the centre, there are four colossal

standing Buddhas of the present world who have appeared and entered

mahaparinirvana. Of these images, only North and South are original and the others

two in East and West are added later to replace the original ones which had been

destroyed. ( Lu Pe Win 1955, pp. 27-29)

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Figure-4: Ananda Temple

There are also numerous glazed terracotta tiles ornamenting the base and the

receding terraces which represent the Jataka stories and the temptation of Mara. The

inner walls are honey-combed with niches in which are set small stone Buddhas in

various postures. The most notable sculptures are a series of eighty reliefs in two lower

tiers of niches in the outer corridor, illustrating the life of the Buddha from his birth to

the attainment of enlightenment. (Lu Pe Win 1955, p. 29) It is easy for the devotees to

understand the life of Buddha by creating such images. Image is undoubtedly of

primary importance in the Jataka narratives, especially in the context of Pagan in which

the rate of literacy cannot be supposed to have been high. (Tun Aung Chain 2011, p.

94)

Because of its finest art and style, it has been worshiped continuously and

regarded as the religious and cultural prestige of Pagan. For that reason, the numerous

temples built throughout Burma closely base on its ground plan and elevation.

(Stadtner 2005, p.115). Moreover, Ananda represents the Pagan's development of her

own architectural style from a combination of indigenous prototypes and the latest

Northern Indian artistic fashions. It is the culmination of prevalent architectural currents

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in early Pagan and is not a direct imitation of a North Indian model (Strachan 1989, p.

66).

Figure-5: Standing Buddha in central niche, gilded wood, south side, Ananda Temple

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Figure-6: Mahosadah decides the case of bull, Mahosadah jataka, glazed tile

number 671, Ananda Temple

Figure-7: Birth of Buddha, lower tier, north, Ananda Temple

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Figure-8: Buddha departing from the palace, top tier, west, Ananda Tempe

(iv) Nagayon Temple

It is an important temple not only because of the architectural style, but also for

its story related to King Kyansitthar. When there was a royal displeasure between

Kyansitthar and the then King Saw Lu, son of King Anawrathar, Kyansitthar had to flee

for his life. In the course of his flight he fell asleep on a spot, and according to a

tradition, a serpent shielded him with his hood as protection. In order to commemorate

this event, Kyansitthar had built a temple on the spot where the serpent gave him

protection, when he had become king. (Lu Pe Win 1955, p. 53). In fact such story might

be the interpretation of local believes in nature gods during that time. Similar stories

could be seemed in other Southeast Asian countries. Nagayon temple is a square

structure with a vestibule on the north where only entrance is provided. The dark

corridors within are lighted by perforated windows. The architecture of temple is

typically Mon. The external form of the temple is elegant and is assumed to be

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prototype of the Ananda Temple. (Lu Pe Win 1955, p. 53)

Figure-9: Nagayon Temple's compound wall and gats

Figure-10: Geometric design of glazed tiles on the terraces of Nagayon Temple

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(v) Abeyadana Temple

It is very peculiar temple in Pagan for keeping both Theravada, Mahayana and

Tantric paintings and sculptures. It was assumed to be built by the chief queen of

Kyansitthar, Abeyadana. Even though there is no record from Pagan period, an

inscription from 15th-16th century, states that this temple was built by the chief queen

of Kyansitthar. The temple faces north and consists of a square basement surrounded

by a stupa. The basement is ornamented with perforated stone windows, and there is

a vaulted corridor inside running round the central block. In the latter there is a deep

recess forming a sanctum to the north, and in it is enshrined a large image in brick of

a seated Buddha.

Figure-11: Rear view of Abeyadana Temple

The chief interests of the temple lies in the paintings with which the inner faces

of its walls are decorated. These mural paintings represent divinities of the Mahayana

Buddhism ( Lu Pe Win 1955, p. 54) However, as Paul Strachan pointed out that despite

the presence of Mahayana, Tantric and Brahmanic deities, the essential Thaeravada

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texts remains prominent in the painting cycles and the bumisparsamudra Buddha, the

most sacred of Thaeravada Buddhist icons remains the primary object of worship.

(Strachan 1989, p. 59) In fact Abeyadana reflects the co-existence of Mahyana and

Thaeravada Buddhism in Pagan.

Figure-12: Bodhisattva holding sword, upper row, outer corridor, Abeyadana Temple

Figure-13: Hindu god Shiva upon his bull, shrine wall, west, Abeyadana Temple

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Figure-14: Two tantric deties in caves, outer corridor, rear, Abeyadana Temple

Conclusion

Bagan is the centerpiece of religious and cultural heritage of Myanmar. Nearly three

thousand brick monuments dot the landscape along the banks of Ayarwaddy. With the

ardent support of their rulers, local architectural creativity shone in their masterpieces

of complex brick vaulting techniques, while mural painters and stone carvers fashioned

a distinct style of art. Religious monuments in Bagan tell how the State

sponsorship of religion supported the creation of an innovative and unique heritage,

an ideal art of that time.

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References:

1. Bautze-Picron, Claudine (2003), The Buddhist Murals of Pagan: Timeless

vistas of the cosmos, Orchid Press, Bangkok.

2. Brown, R. Grant (June 30, 1921), The Pre-Buddhist Religion of the Burmese,

Folklore, Vol. 32, No. 2, Taylor & Francis on behalf of Folklore Enterprises Ltd.

(JSTOR)

3. Davidson, Ronald M. (2002), Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the

Tantric Movement, Columbia University Press, NewYork

4. Fisher, Robert E. (2005), Buddhist Art and Architecture, Thames and Hudson, London

5. Galloway, Charlotte (2002), "Relationships between Buddhist texts and images

of the enlightenment during the early Pagan period", in Alexandra Green and

T. Richard Blurton (edit.), Burma: Art and Archaeology 2002, The British

Museum Press, London

6. Guy, John (2002), "Offering up a rare jewel: Buddhist merit-making and votive

tablets in early Burma", in Alexandra Green and T. Richard Blurton (edit.),

Burma: Art and Archaeology 2002, The British Museum Press, London

7. Houtart, Francois (October, 1976), Buddhism and Politics in South-East Asia:

Part One, Social Scientist, Vol. 5, No. 3, Social Scientist Stable (JSTOR)

8. Kitagawa, Joseph M. (July 1962), Buddhism and Asian Politics, Asian Survey

Vol. 2, No.5, University of California Press. (JSTOR)

9. Klokke, Marijke J. & Degroot Véronique (edit.) (2013), Materializing Southeast

Asia's Past: Selected papers from the 12th International Conference of the

European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, Volume 2, NUS

Press, Singapore

10. Lu Pe Win, U (1955), Pictorial Guide to Pagan, Ministry of Union Culture, Myanmar

11. Luce, G. H. (April, 1966), The Career of Htilaing Min (Kyanzittha). The Uniter of

Burma, fl. A.D. 1084-1113, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great

Britain and Ireland, No. 1/2 (Apr., 1966), Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain

and Ireland (JESTOR)

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12. Luce, G. H. (1969), Old Burma-Early Pagan, Artibus Asiae and The Institute of

Fine Art, New York University.

13. Stadtner, Donald M. (2005) (Photography Michael Freeman), Ancient Pagan:

Buddhist Palin of Merit, River Book, Bangkok, 2005, p. 234

14. Strachan, Paul (1989), Pagan: Art and Architecture of Old Burma, Kiscadale

Publication, Singapore

15. Tun Aung Chain (2011), Texts and Images: Glimpses of Myanmar History,

SEAMEO Regional Centre for History and Tradition, Yangon

16. Tun Aung Chain (2011a), Kyansitthar in His Inscriptions, Lecture Series,

SEAMEO Regional Centre for History and Tradition, Yangon

List of Figures

Figure-1: Shwesandaw Stupa

From: Donald M. Stadtner, Ancient Pagan (Photography Michael Freeman): Buddhist

Palin of Merit, River Book, Bangkok, 2005, p. 234

Figure-2: Shwe Zigon Stupa

From: Private Collection, Courtesy of Saw Tun Lin

Figure-3: Glazed stone jataka plaque, ground floor terrance, Shwe Zigon Stupa



Figure-4: Ananda Temple



Figure-5: Standing Buddha in central niche, gilded wood, South side, Ananda Temple.


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Figure-6: Mahosadah decides the case of bull, Mahosadah jataka, tiles number 671,

Ananda Temple



Figure-7: Birth of Buddha, lower tier, north at Ananda Temple



Figure-8: Buddha departing from the palace, top tier, west at Ananda Tempe



Figure-9: Nagayon Temple's compound wall and gats



Figure-10: Geomatric design of glazed tiles on the terraces of Nagayon

Temple From: From: Private Collection, Courtesy of Saw Tun Lin

Figure-11: Rear view of Abeyadana Temple



Figure-12: Bodhisattva holding sword, upper row, outer corridor, Abeyadana Temple



Figure-13: Hindu god Shiva upon his bull, shrine wall, west, Abeyadana Temple


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Figure-14: Two tantric deties in caves, outer corridor, rear, Abeyadana Temple



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