how critical is the impact of underwater noise on marine mammals??
TRANSCRIPT
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How critical is the impact of underwater noise on marine
mammals??
Patrick MillerScottish Oceans InstituteUniversity of St Andrews, Scotland
1Dan McSweeney
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Over the past century, humans started producing sound in the ocean that may
interfere with marine mammals
Sou
rce
Leve
l (dB
)
100
150
200
250
300
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Earthquake
Blue Whale
Lightning
Frequency (kHz)
Sperm Whale
HumpbackDolphin Whistle
Dolphin ClickSnapping Shrimp
TNT Explosion
Air GunSonarLFA
ShipPile Drive Sonar
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Modes of Impact
Intense sounds can cause direct physical injury
In most other cases, it is assumed that hearing is the most sensitive organ and that effects are mediated through hearing
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Underwater Audiograms
Frequency (kHz)
Lobster Fish DolphinPorpoise
Whales? ??0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
40
60
80
100
120
140
160S
ound
Pre
ssur
e Le
vel (
dB re
1 µ
Pa)
Animals use a broad spectrum of frequencies
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Zones of Noise Influence
InjuryHearing LossAvoidanceBehavioral disturbanceAudibility (could occur whenever sound level above ambient noise)
Adapted from Richardson and Malme 1995
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acoustic criteria for injuryNeed method that is
u safe for subjectsu pre-cautionary as an indicator
During 1990s the US Office of Naval Research sponsored a major research program to measure levels of sound that reduce sensitivity to sound temporarily
– Temporary Threshold Shift
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Measuring Temporary Threshold Shift in Marine Mammals
Measure the threshold at which animal just detects a soundExpose animal to loud soundMeasure hearing again to see if threshold shifted
-0.25
-0.2
-0.15
-0.1
-0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Envelope Following
CourtesyP. Nachtigall
Nachtigall Univ of Hawaii
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Summary of TTS for captive odontocetesCourtesy J. Finneran
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Unexpected Source of Injury
Just as TTS data were becoming available…
Evidence (1998-2000) that beaked whales may strand during naval sonar exercises
Cause of sonar-related strandings is unknown
But likely to be caused by exposures below TTS levels
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Only known lethal effect of sound: mass strandings of beaked whales
coincident with sonar exercises
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0600
0900
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RUNS Strandings
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D’Amico 1998 Saclantcen M-133
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Mass strandings of Beaked Whales coincident with naval sonar exercises
>10 Beaked whales, especially Ziphius cavirostrisand Mesoplodon sp. strand within a few hours in dispersed groupings over tens of km of shore.
Reported to coincide with naval maneuvers off Greece (1), Canary Islands (7), Italy (2), Bahamas (1), Madeira (1) [US Marine Mammal Commission Beaked Whale Workshop Report]
All known cases involve ships with mid-frequency (MF: 2-10 kHz) military sonars
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Zones of Noise Influence
InjuryHearing LossAvoidanceBehavioral disturbanceAudibility (could occur whenever sound level above ambient noise)
Adapted from Richardson and Malme 1995
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Distribution of Blainville's Beaked Whale ClicksBefore, During, After Active Sonar Operations
Before During After
EFFECT RANGE ~10 KM. CORRESPONDING RECEIVED LEVEL ~ 155 dB (235 – 20 log (10000))
Tyack et al., 2011
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behavioural effects:what are the consequences?
Avoidance is particularly difficult to interpret as no life function is directly affected.
Avoidance may be most likely when consequences are negligible (Beale & Mohaghan, 2004; Frid & Dill, 2002).
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Behavioral Disruption of Biologically Significant activities that can be
Related to Adverse ImpactBasic issues are demographic – effects on
growth, survival, and reproductionGrowth: Feeding and energeticsSurvival: strandings
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Evaluating significance of disruption of foraging in a deep diving sperm whale
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Development of digital tag• Records: sound and 3-D movement• Suction-cup
attachment
Designed and built by Mark Johnson
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Dtag Attachment
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Whale depth (m)
StartExposure
Seismic Vessel Approaches Tagged Whale
Seismic Vessel
Min range between seismic vessel and whale = 8 km
3
45
1
2
WhaleTrack
ObservationVessel
6
7
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Echolocation buzzes indicate prey capture attempts
Clicks of diving sperm whales
creak (ICI ~ 0.3 to 0.02s) pause (2-10s)clicks (ICI ~ 0.4-1.5s)
regular clicking creakpause
Griffin, 1974
Miller et al., 2004
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Change in Buzz Rate with Range
Miller et al., 2009
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Zones of Noise Influence
InjuryHearing LossAvoidanceBehavioral disturbanceAudibility (could occur whenever sound level above ambient noise)
Adapted from Richardson and Malme 1995
What are the effect thresholds?
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management need
risk of negative outcome depends on sonar dose
“All substances are poisons...
The right dose differentiates a poison and a remedy.”
Paracelsus (1493-1541)
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Developing Acoustic Criteria for behavioural disturbance
Mid-frequency cetacean responses to non-pulses
Southall et al., 2007
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Application of Phase-I medical trial techniques to explore dose-response
relationships for behavioural effects of sonar on free-ranging whales
25Dan McSweeney
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The 3S dose-response study
Use experiments to help specify the likelihood of behavioural response as a function of sonar dose
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Experimental Methods
Socrates source
0.) Find whales
1.) Attach Dtagmovements & sounds
2.) Measure behaviourbeforeduring sonar and control exposuresafter
3.) Mitigation proceduresreduce risk of harm
11--2 kHz2 kHz 66--7 kHz7 kHzLFASLFAS MFASMFAS214 dB214 dB 199 dB re 1199 dB re 1PamPam
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Sonar dose-escalation: a tool to specify response thresholds
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3S program datasets
Dose-escalation species:- killer whales (N=4)- long-finned pilot whales (N=6)- sperm whales (N=4)- minke whales (N=1)- Northern bottlenose whales
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3S: report of experiments
Details outcome of each experiment:
- set of data plots- descriptive summary
Available at: http://soi.st-andrews.ac.uk/
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Focus on killer whale
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exposure 4-13S-09 oo09_144a,b
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phase I clinical trialsin medical research
Phase I trials seek to identify toxicity of drug1.) patient is given a dose2.) physician determines ‘grade of response’
‘update … dose-response relationship as observations …become available’*
- fit ongoing data to dose-response model(using Baysian or Maximum Likelihood approaches)
*O’Quigley et al. 1990 Biometrics 46:33-48#Simon et al., 1997 J Nat. Cancer Inst. 89: 1138-1147
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onset of avoidanceby killer whales
Avoidance during travel
Stopped feeding
Calf separated from group
Stopped feeding
Avoidance during travelDuring travel
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Thresholds:onset of avoidance
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4-14-2
4-3
1-1
2-1
3-13-3 3-2
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whale population has distribution of thresholds, each whale is a sample from population:
measured factors (frequency, order) influence thresholds:
unexplained variance of individual response thresholds
Bayesian dose-response model
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Dose-response curve
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50% likelihood of avoidance4km distance / 140 dB SPL
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Do such responses matter?
Ample data indicates that marine mammals can be affected by noise.
But,How serious is this problem, really???
A recent IWC report (Read et al., 2003) indicates that worldwide, fisheries kill several hundred thousand cetaceans as bycatch each year.
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Avoidance response is an indicator of habitat degradation
How much of the habitat is impacted?What proportion of the population is impacted?
Does avoidance interfere with use of resources that make habitat important?
Consider CONSEQUENCES for affected animals1.) social behaviour / care 2.) feeding rates body condtion
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Summary- Humans alter the acoustic environment of the sea- Some marine mammals may be killed or injured,- But, the most substantial impacts are likely to be
more subtle but pervasive effects on populations and ecosystems
- How to manage / mitigate this risk of impact?
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Thanks to:
Funded by:Funded by:
ALL ships’ crews and science teamsDtag: Mark Johnson, Tom Hurst, Alex Bocconcelli
PETER TYACK, Paul Wensveen, Ricardo Antunes, Ana Catarina Alves,Filipa Samarra, Sanna Kuningas, Petter Kvadsheim, Lars Kleivane, Frans-Peter Lam, Michael Ainslie, Len Thomas, Kagari Aoki, Yuuki Watanabe, Daniel Crocker, Patrick Robinson, Martin Biuw, Daniel Costa, Nobuyuki Miyazaki, Mike Fedak, and more
Norwegian Animal Research Authority (Permit No. 2004/20607 and S-2007/61201)U of St Andrews Animal Welfare and Ethics CommitteeWHOI Institutional Animal Care Use Committee