how are partnerships promoted in schools?

The 4 A’s: Creating The 4 A’s: Creating the Conditions for the Conditions for Enhancing Family-Enhancing Family-

SchoolSchool PartnershipsPartnerships

The Future of School Psychology Task The Future of School Psychology Task Force on Force on

Family-School PartnershipsFamily-School Partnerships

Andy Garbacz, Katie Black, Katie Magee, Laura Andy Garbacz, Katie Black, Katie Magee, Laura Mullaney, Susan SheridanMullaney, Susan Sheridan

University of Nebraska-LincolnUniversity of Nebraska-Lincoln

How are Partnerships How are Partnerships Promoted in Schools?Promoted in Schools?

Christenson & Sheridan (2001) provide a Christenson & Sheridan (2001) provide a heuristic for the process variables necessary heuristic for the process variables necessary to “develop constructive, productive family-to “develop constructive, productive family-school relationships to enhance the academic, school relationships to enhance the academic, social, and behavioral growth of children and social, and behavioral growth of children and adolescents” adolescents”

(p. 15). (p. 15).

The process variables included in this The process variables included in this heuristic are Approach, Attitude, Atmosphere, heuristic are Approach, Attitude, Atmosphere, and Actions and Actions (Christenson & Sheridan, 2001).(Christenson & Sheridan, 2001).

Developing Pathways to Developing Pathways to PartnershipsPartnerships

Prerequisite Conditions:Prerequisite Conditions:These “3 A’s” must be in place for Actions These “3 A’s” must be in place for Actions

to be accepted and effectiveto be accepted and effective

Approach

Atmosphere

Attitude

Actions

Communicating a tone of partnership through

bidirectional home-school communication and fostering

family involvement in learning at home

Successful learning

opportunities and outcomes for

children

See PV Handout 1See PV Handout 1

((Christenson & Sheridan, 2001; Sheridan & Kratochwill, Christenson & Sheridan, 2001; Sheridan & Kratochwill, in press)in press)

The Four A’s: ApproachThe Four A’s: Approach Approach refers to the framework for interaction with Approach refers to the framework for interaction with

families. families.

Rimm-Kaufmann and Pianta (1999) have argued that Rimm-Kaufmann and Pianta (1999) have argued that greater consideration should be given to the greater consideration should be given to the development of family-school relationships early and development of family-school relationships early and over time because parents are very helpful in the over time because parents are very helpful in the educational process. educational process.

Their work has demonstrated that the quality of the Their work has demonstrated that the quality of the parent’s relationship with the teacher and school parent’s relationship with the teacher and school personnel is as valid an indicator of a successful personnel is as valid an indicator of a successful transition to schooling as the child’s competence in transition to schooling as the child’s competence in kindergarten.kindergarten.

The Four A’s: ApproachThe Four A’s: Approach The quality of the family-school relationship The quality of the family-school relationship

predicts later school success, particularly for predicts later school success, particularly for situations where discontinuity between the situations where discontinuity between the systems is present systems is present (Christenson & Sheridan, 2001).(Christenson & Sheridan, 2001).

Support for children’s development is represented Support for children’s development is represented by “connections that occur whenever individuals by “connections that occur whenever individuals (e.g., parents, teachers) or systems (schools, (e.g., parents, teachers) or systems (schools, churches, families) have ongoing contact with each churches, families) have ongoing contact with each other that is organized around concern for the other that is organized around concern for the welfare of the child” welfare of the child” (Garbarino, 1982).(Garbarino, 1982).

An approach that takes these important An approach that takes these important connections into consideration, meaningful rolesconnections into consideration, meaningful roles will be established between families and educators.will be established between families and educators.

The Four A’s: ApproachThe Four A’s: Approach Joyce Epstein (1995) has outlined six types of family-school Joyce Epstein (1995) has outlined six types of family-school

involvement, underscoring that families and schools can involvement, underscoring that families and schools can connect in many ways and that families can and do participate connect in many ways and that families can and do participate

both at school and at home.both at school and at home. 1)1) Parenting: schools assisting families with parenting skillsParenting: schools assisting families with parenting skills

2)2) Communication: developing effective home-school communication Communication: developing effective home-school communication proceduresprocedures

3)3) Volunteering: allowing families to be involved in supporting the Volunteering: allowing families to be involved in supporting the school and their childrenschool and their children

4)4) Enhance learning at home: educators are encouraged to work with Enhance learning at home: educators are encouraged to work with families to build on current learning opportunities at homefamilies to build on current learning opportunities at home

5)5) Decision-making: involving families in school and district decisionsDecision-making: involving families in school and district decisions

6)6) Collaborating with the community: allowing community Collaborating with the community: allowing community organizations to work with the family and school systems in organizations to work with the family and school systems in meaningful waysmeaningful ways

The Four A’s: ApproachThe Four A’s: Approach The national Parent Teacher Association (PTA) The national Parent Teacher Association (PTA)

has underscored the importance of Epstein’s six has underscored the importance of Epstein’s six types of involvement.types of involvement.

They have also created four keys roles families They have also created four keys roles families can play in comprehensive and inclusive family-can play in comprehensive and inclusive family-school partnership programs.school partnership programs. 1)1) teachers/nurturers teachers/nurturers 2)2) communicators/advisorscommunicators/advisors3)3) supporters/learnerssupporters/learners4)4) collaborators/decision makerscollaborators/decision makers

See Approach Folder for additional information, See Approach Folder for additional information, handouts, and discussion questions.handouts, and discussion questions.

ApproachApproach

The Four A’s: AttitudesThe Four A’s: Attitudes Whatever beliefs families and schools hold about each Whatever beliefs families and schools hold about each

other, they influence the kind of relationship they other, they influence the kind of relationship they develop. develop.

An attitude can be loosely defined as a value and/or An attitude can be loosely defined as a value and/or perception related to some person, place, structure, or perception related to some person, place, structure, or idea. idea.

As it relates to families and schools, an attitude As it relates to families and schools, an attitude reflects the belief one holds about the other, or the reflects the belief one holds about the other, or the way one thinks about the other way one thinks about the other (Christenson & Sheridan, (Christenson & Sheridan, 2001).2001).

Viewing families in a light that fosters partnerships Viewing families in a light that fosters partnerships and collaboration is one of the first steps in ensuring and collaboration is one of the first steps in ensuring those partnerships will develop.those partnerships will develop.

The Four A’s: AttitudesThe Four A’s: Attitudes A critical belief that must be held by A critical belief that must be held by

educators is that home educators is that home andand school can school can accomplish more than either home accomplish more than either home or or school school can accomplish alone can accomplish alone

(Christenson & (Christenson & Sheridan, 2001).Sheridan, 2001).

Pianta and Walsh (1996) described a Pianta and Walsh (1996) described a necessary belief system for educators:necessary belief system for educators: one where educators understand that children one where educators understand that children

develop and learn in the context of the family, anddevelop and learn in the context of the family, and thatthat system (i.e., child/family) must interface in a system (i.e., child/family) must interface in a

positive way with schooling issues for children’s positive way with schooling issues for children’s educational performance to be optimal.educational performance to be optimal.

The Four A’s: AttitudesThe Four A’s: Attitudes Perspective taking and win-win attitudes stand Perspective taking and win-win attitudes stand

out as important for connecting with parents.out as important for connecting with parents.

Constructive family-school partnerships are Constructive family-school partnerships are fostered when educators accommodate parents fostered when educators accommodate parents by beginning where they are, not where by beginning where they are, not where educators think parents should or could be. educators think parents should or could be.

As family members and school personnel work As family members and school personnel work together to identify shared goals, school together to identify shared goals, school personnel must be “willing to learn about a personnel must be “willing to learn about a family’s uniqueness but also learn with and from family’s uniqueness but also learn with and from them” them” (Christenson & Sheridan, 2001). (Christenson & Sheridan, 2001).

The Four A’s: AttitudesThe Four A’s: Attitudes Emphasizing a “win-win” orientation helps Emphasizing a “win-win” orientation helps

to circumvent blame and finger pointing to circumvent blame and finger pointing when students’ are having learning and when students’ are having learning and behavioral difficulties in school behavioral difficulties in school (Christenson & (Christenson & Sheridan, 2001). Sheridan, 2001).

Educators portray a “win-win” attitude when Educators portray a “win-win” attitude when they they state a desire to work toward resolution, avoid state a desire to work toward resolution, avoid

making attributions for problems (e.g., student is making attributions for problems (e.g., student is unmotivated or lacks home support)unmotivated or lacks home support)

discuss what can be done at home and school to discuss what can be done at home and school to achieve goals for the student.achieve goals for the student.

The Four A’s: AttitudesThe Four A’s: Attitudes To ensure your attitude has the best chance of To ensure your attitude has the best chance of

contributing to a healthy home-school relationship, begin contributing to a healthy home-school relationship, begin by being honest with yourself in assessing your attitudes.by being honest with yourself in assessing your attitudes.

Once you are aware of your own beliefs and feelings Once you are aware of your own beliefs and feelings towards families, decide how they might be helpful or towards families, decide how they might be helpful or harmful to developing a healthy family-school harmful to developing a healthy family-school relationship relationship

Discussions with other school personnel around these Discussions with other school personnel around these ideas may also be helpful to share with and encourage ideas may also be helpful to share with and encourage one another. one another.

Developing attitudes that will aid in developing healthy Developing attitudes that will aid in developing healthy family-school relationships is the first step in beginning to family-school relationships is the first step in beginning to partner across home and school.partner across home and school.

See Attitudes Folder for additional information, handouts, See Attitudes Folder for additional information, handouts, and discussion questions.and discussion questions.

AttitudeAttitude

The Four A’s: The Four A’s: AtmosphereAtmosphere

Approach and attitude are not sufficient to Approach and attitude are not sufficient to ensure that positive relationships will ensure that positive relationships will develop between families and schools. develop between families and schools. A school’s atmosphere must also be conducive A school’s atmosphere must also be conducive

to establishing effective partnerships between to establishing effective partnerships between home and school.home and school.

A home’s environment must be conducive to A home’s environment must be conducive to learning.learning.

At school:At school: An open, trusting, and inviting atmosphere can An open, trusting, and inviting atmosphere can

promote sharing attitudes and implementing promote sharing attitudes and implementing actions, which are critical in forming actions, which are critical in forming partnerships.partnerships.


At school:At school: Communication and feelings of trust and Communication and feelings of trust and

respect are significant characteristics of a respect are significant characteristics of a school’s atmosphere school’s atmosphere (Haynes, Ben-Avie, Squires, Howley, Negron, & Corbin, 1996).(Haynes, Ben-Avie, Squires, Howley, Negron, & Corbin, 1996).

The school’s culture and climate must be The school’s culture and climate must be welcoming for welcoming for all familiesall families and their input. and their input.

Physical and structural aspects of schools Physical and structural aspects of schools must also be welcoming and inviting for must also be welcoming and inviting for all familiesall families regardless of their background. regardless of their background.


At school:At school: Schools with high levels of parent Schools with high levels of parent

involvement have:involvement have: Strong leadership and administrative Strong leadership and administrative

support, and support, and They are responsive to families’ needs (e.g., They are responsive to families’ needs (e.g.,

provide transportation to school meetings provide transportation to school meetings and provide childcare for families).and provide childcare for families).

Trust and communication are essential Trust and communication are essential ingredients of atmosphere.ingredients of atmosphere.


At home:At home: The most accurate predictor of student The most accurate predictor of student

success is the family’s ability to:success is the family’s ability to: Create a home learning environmentCreate a home learning environment Communicate high and realistic Communicate high and realistic

expectations for children’s school expectations for children’s school performance and performanceperformance and performance

Become involved in children’s schoolingBecome involved in children’s schooling


At home:At home: Incorporate the “curriculum of the home,” Incorporate the “curriculum of the home,”

or activities to create a home learning or activities to create a home learning environmentenvironment

Informed, everyday parent/child conversations Informed, everyday parent/child conversations about daily eventsabout daily events

Encouragement and discussion of leisure readingEncouragement and discussion of leisure reading Deferral of immediate gratification to accomplish Deferral of immediate gratification to accomplish

long-term goalslong-term goals Expression of affection and interest in children’s Expression of affection and interest in children’s

academic and personal growthacademic and personal growth Occasional caprice and serendipity Occasional caprice and serendipity (Walberg, 1984)(Walberg, 1984)


Trust and communicationTrust and communication ““Bidirectional trust between families and schools is vital Bidirectional trust between families and schools is vital

to a healthy atmosphere and an essential feature of to a healthy atmosphere and an essential feature of productive home-school relationships” productive home-school relationships” (Christenson & (Christenson & Sheridan, 2001, pp. 114).Sheridan, 2001, pp. 114).

All communication from educators should strive to All communication from educators should strive to convey at least three consistent themes to families: convey at least three consistent themes to families:

the desire to develop a working partnership with families; the desire to develop a working partnership with families; the crucial nature of family input for children’s educational the crucial nature of family input for children’s educational

progress; and progress; and the importance of working together to identify a mutually the importance of working together to identify a mutually

advantageous solution in light of problems (Weiss & advantageous solution in light of problems (Weiss & Edwards, 1992).Edwards, 1992).


Trust and communication Trust and communication Miscommunication commonly occurs when blaming is Miscommunication commonly occurs when blaming is

involved in the interaction, during emotionally charged involved in the interaction, during emotionally charged situations, and when effective communication strategies are situations, and when effective communication strategies are not used.not used.

Parents prefer trust, open-communication, mutual respect, Parents prefer trust, open-communication, mutual respect, active listening, and honesty in partnerships active listening, and honesty in partnerships (Dunst, Johanson, (Dunst, Johanson, Rounds, Trivette, & Hanby, 1992).Rounds, Trivette, & Hanby, 1992).

The use of effective communication strategies is essential The use of effective communication strategies is essential when schools are communicating with families. when schools are communicating with families.

See PV Handout 2See PV Handout 2


Atmosphere is a necessary condition for Atmosphere is a necessary condition for promoting family-school partnerships and promoting family-school partnerships and students’ educational outcomes, but it is not students’ educational outcomes, but it is not sufficient in and of itself.sufficient in and of itself.

Atmosphere, combined with Approach and Atmosphere, combined with Approach and Attitudes lay the foundation for schools to engage Attitudes lay the foundation for schools to engage in Actions. When all four A’s are present in in Actions. When all four A’s are present in schools, partnerships can be built and student schools, partnerships can be built and student outcomes can be enhanced.outcomes can be enhanced.

See Atmosphere Folder for additional information, See Atmosphere Folder for additional information, handouts, and discussion questions.handouts, and discussion questions.

AtmosphereAtmosphere

The Four A’s: ActionsThe Four A’s: Actions Approach, Attitudes, and Atmosphere serve as the Approach, Attitudes, and Atmosphere serve as the

prerequisite conditions for schools to engage in prerequisite conditions for schools to engage in Actions.Actions.

Actions refer to what schools do to build Actions refer to what schools do to build partnerships and shared responsibility for partnerships and shared responsibility for education between families and schools.education between families and schools.

““The use of the word ‘actions’ implies that there is The use of the word ‘actions’ implies that there is no one activity or even a best set of activities, but no one activity or even a best set of activities, but instead important process-related variables that instead important process-related variables that together suggest unique pathways for the home-together suggest unique pathways for the home-school interface” school interface” (Christenson & Sheridan, 2001, p. 2).(Christenson & Sheridan, 2001, p. 2).

The Four A’s: ActionsThe Four A’s: Actions There is no one-size fits all approach to engaging in There is no one-size fits all approach to engaging in

Actions.Actions.

Rather, schools are encouraged to examine their Rather, schools are encouraged to examine their current practices for partnering with families and their current practices for partnering with families and their willingness to include families and their input when willingness to include families and their input when conceptualizing the Actions in which they will engage. conceptualizing the Actions in which they will engage.

When conceptualizing Actions and promoting shared When conceptualizing Actions and promoting shared responsibility in partnerships, it is essential that responsibility in partnerships, it is essential that families are included in the decision making process, families are included in the decision making process, have meaningful involvement throughout the process, have meaningful involvement throughout the process, and agree with and contribute to action plans that and agree with and contribute to action plans that affect them affect them (Osher, 1997).(Osher, 1997).

Actions: Evidence-Based Actions: Evidence-Based InterventionsInterventions

Numerous evidence-based models have been Numerous evidence-based models have been identified which utilize and promote family-identified which utilize and promote family-school partnerships.school partnerships.

These models have been separated into the These models have been separated into the following areas:following areas:

1. Family-School Interventions with 1. Family-School Interventions with Preschool Children Preschool Children 2. Parent Consultation2. Parent Consultation3. Parent Education, Training, and Intervention3. Parent Education, Training, and Intervention4. Family-School Collaboration4. Family-School Collaboration5. Parent Involvement Interventions 5. Parent Involvement Interventions

Examples of Examples of Evidence-Based Evidence-Based InterventionsInterventions Within the Within the Family-School Interventions with Family-School Interventions with

Preschool ChildrenPreschool Children domain the following domain the following have been identified as have been identified as strong or promising strong or promising evidence-basedevidence-based models: models:

StrongStrong evidence-based models include evidence-based models include The Incredible Years Training Series The Incredible Years Training Series (Webster-(Webster-

Stratton, Reid, & Hammond, 2001) See PV Handout 3Stratton, Reid, & Hammond, 2001) See PV Handout 3 Parent Child Interaction Therapy (Parent Child Interaction Therapy (Hembree-Kigin Hembree-Kigin

& McNeil, 1995) See PV Handout 4& McNeil, 1995) See PV Handout 4 Dialogic Reading See PV Handout 5Dialogic Reading See PV Handout 5

A A promising promising evidence-based model evidence-based model includesincludes

PARTNERS parent education program PARTNERS parent education program (Webster-(Webster-Stratton, 1998) See PV Handout 6 Stratton, 1998) See PV Handout 6

Examples of Examples of Evidence-Based Evidence-Based InterventionsInterventions

Within the Within the Parent Consultation Parent Consultation domain domain the following have been identified as the following have been identified as strong or promising evidence-basedstrong or promising evidence-based models:models:

Conjoint Behavioral Consultation Conjoint Behavioral Consultation (Sheridan, (Sheridan, Kratochwill, & Bergan, 1996) See PV Handout 7Kratochwill, & Bergan, 1996) See PV Handout 7

Parent Behavioral Consultation Parent Behavioral Consultation (Cavell & (Cavell & Hughes, 2000; Doll & Kratochwill, 1992; Loitz & Hughes, 2000; Doll & Kratochwill, 1992; Loitz & Kratochwill, 1995; Rhoades & Kratochwill, 1998) See Kratochwill, 1995; Rhoades & Kratochwill, 1998) See PV Handout 8PV Handout 8


Within the Within the Parent Education, Training, and InterventionParent Education, Training, and Intervention domain domain the following have been identified as the following have been identified as strong or strong or promising promising evidence-based evidence-based models:models: StrongStrong evidence-based models include evidence-based models include

Problem-Solving Skills Training plus Parent Management Training Problem-Solving Skills Training plus Parent Management Training (Kazdin, Esveldt-Dawson, French, & Unis, 1987; Kazdin, Siegel, & Bass, (Kazdin, Esveldt-Dawson, French, & Unis, 1987; Kazdin, Siegel, & Bass, 1992) See PV Handout 91992) See PV Handout 9

Promising Promising evidence-based models includeevidence-based models include Aware Parenting Model (Bronstein, Duncan, Clauson, Abrams, Aware Parenting Model (Bronstein, Duncan, Clauson, Abrams,

Yannett, Ginsburg, & Milne, 1998) See PV Handout 10Yannett, Ginsburg, & Milne, 1998) See PV Handout 10 Reading Made Easy Reading Made Easy (Harrison, 1981; Mehran & White, 1998) See PV (Harrison, 1981; Mehran & White, 1998) See PV

Handout 11Handout 11 Family Behavioral Therapy (Azrin, Donahue, Teichner, Crum, Family Behavioral Therapy (Azrin, Donahue, Teichner, Crum,

Howell, & DeCato, 2001)Howell, & DeCato, 2001) Multi-Systemic Therapy (Brown, Henggeler, Schoenwald, Brondino, Multi-Systemic Therapy (Brown, Henggeler, Schoenwald, Brondino,

& Pickrel, 1999; Henggeler et al., 1999; Scherer, Brandino, & Pickrel, 1999; Henggeler et al., 1999; Scherer, Brandino, Henggeler, Melton, & Hanley, 1994)Henggeler, Melton, & Hanley, 1994)


Within the Within the Family-School Collaboration Family-School Collaboration domain domain the following have been identified as the following have been identified as strong or strong or promising evidence-promising evidence-based models:based models:

StrongStrong evidence-based models include evidence-based models include School-based Literacy Program/Family Literacy School-based Literacy Program/Family Literacy

Program Program (Morrow & Young, 1997) See PV Handout 12(Morrow & Young, 1997) See PV Handout 12 PromisingPromising evidence-based models include evidence-based models include

Parent-Teacher Action Research Teams plus Social Parent-Teacher Action Research Teams plus Social Skills Instruction Skills Instruction (Forest & Pearpoint, 1992; McConaughy, (Forest & Pearpoint, 1992; McConaughy, Kay, & Fitzgerald, 1999; O’Brian, Forest, Snow, & Hasbury, Kay, & Fitzgerald, 1999; O’Brian, Forest, Snow, & Hasbury, 1989) See PV Handout 131989) See PV Handout 13

A home-school note program with home A home-school note program with home reinforcements and a family problem-solving board reinforcements and a family problem-solving board game game (Blechman, Taylor, & Schrader, 1981) See PV (Blechman, Taylor, & Schrader, 1981) See PV Handout 14Handout 14

Examples of Examples of Evidence-Based Evidence-Based InterventionsInterventions Within the Within the Parent Involvement Interventions Parent Involvement Interventions

domain the following have been identified as domain the following have been identified as promising evidence-basedpromising evidence-based models: models:

In the In the single-participant single-participant category category Parent Tutoring (Duvall, Delquadri, Elliot, & Parent Tutoring (Duvall, Delquadri, Elliot, &

Hall, 1992; Hook & DuPaul, 1999) Hall, 1992; Hook & DuPaul, 1999) See PV See PV Handout 15Handout 15

In the In the group-participantgroup-participant category category Parents Encourage Pupils (Shuck, Ulsh, & Platt, Parents Encourage Pupils (Shuck, Ulsh, & Platt,

1983) 1983) See PV Handout 16See PV Handout 16 Reciprocal Peer Tutoring and Parent Reciprocal Peer Tutoring and Parent

Involvement (Heller & Fantuzzo, 1993) See Involvement (Heller & Fantuzzo, 1993) See PV PV Handout 17Handout 17

Key PointsKey Points The aforementioned strategies may not work The aforementioned strategies may not work

equally for all students, families, and educators.equally for all students, families, and educators.

The development of effective atmosphere, The development of effective atmosphere, approach, attitudes, and actions takes time.approach, attitudes, and actions takes time.

As such, individual schools may want to discuss As such, individual schools may want to discuss what type(s) of programs will best meet their needs.what type(s) of programs will best meet their needs.

Committing the time and resources while Committing the time and resources while developing and implementing effective strategies developing and implementing effective strategies will allow the process and outcomes to be most will allow the process and outcomes to be most effective.effective.

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