how and when socio-psychological and motivational …
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HOW AND WHEN SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL AND MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS TRANSLATE
INTO ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS
BY
MUHAMMAD ARSHAD
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
MARCH, 2019
ii
HOW AND WHEN SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL AND MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS TRANSLATE
INTO ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS
BY
MUHAMMAD ARSHAD
A dissertation submitted to Lahore Business School
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN
MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
March, 2019
iii
In the name of ALLAH,
The Most Beneficial,
The Most Merciful,
iv
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION
I, Muhammad Arshad here by Stated that my Ph.D. thesis titled “How
and When Socio-Psychological and Motivational Factors Translate into
Entrepreneurial Intentions” is my own work and has not been submitted
previously by me for taking any degree from this university “The University
of Lahore” or anywhere else in the country/world.
At any time if my statement is found to be incorrect even after my
graduate the university has the right to withdraw my Ph.D. degree.
MUHAMMAD ARSHAD
March, 2019
v
PLAGIARISM UNDERTAKING
I solemnly declare that research work presented in the thesis titled
“How and When Socio-Psychological and Motivational Factors Translate
into Entrepreneurial Intentions” is solely my research work with no
significant contribution from any other person. Small contribution/help
whenever taken has been duly acknowledged and that complete thesis has been
written by me.
I understand the zero-tolerance policy of the HEC and University
“The University of Lahore” towards plagiarism. Therefore, I as an Author of
the above-titled thesis declare that no portion of my thesis has been plagiarized
and any material used as a reference is properly referred/cited.
I undertake that if I am found guilty of any formal plagiarism in the
above title thesis even after the award of Ph.D. degree, the university reserves
the right to withdraw/revoke my Ph.D. degree and that HEC and the University
has the right to publish my name on the HEC/University Website on which
names of students are placed who submitted plagiarized thesis.
Muhammad Arshad
vi
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
This is to certify that research work presented in the thesis, entitled
“How and When Socio-Psychological and Motivational Factors Translate into
Entrepreneurial Intentions” was conducted by Mr. Muhammad Arshad under
the supervision of Dr. Naheed Sultana.
No part of this thesis has been submitted anywhere else for any other degree.
This thesis is submitted to the Lahore Business School in partial fulfillment of
requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the field of Management
Sciences, Lahore Business School, The University of Lahore.
Student Name: Muhammad Arshad Signature:
Examination Committee:
a) External Examiner 1:
Dr. Ghulam Hussain Signature:
Assistant Professor
COMSATS Institute of Information Technology
Lahore, Pakistan
b) External Examiner 2:
Dr. Muhammad Shoaib Farooq Signature:
Assistant Professor
University of Engineering Technology
Lahore, Pakistan
c) Internal Examiner:
Dr. Muhammad Akram Naseem Signature:
Associate Professor
Lahore Business School, The University of Lahore
Lahore, Pakistan.
Supervisor Name: Prof. Dr. Naheed Sultana Signature:
Name of HOD: Dr. Ramiz-Ur-Rehman Signature:
vii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this research work to my mentor Dr. Naheed Sultana,
Who supported me throughout the
process.
A special feeling of gratitude to my loving parents who
always prayed for my success.
I also dedicate this dissertation
to my wife Ms. Sadia Afzal who really encouraged
me to overcome the challenges during
the research process.
viii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
In the name of Allah, the Most Merciful, the Most Compassionate all
praise be to Allah, Lord of the worlds. Without the blessing of Almighty, I was
unable to complete this thesis. I will remain indebted for the efforts of those
helping hands who supported me throughout the research work of this
dissertation. I express my profound gratitude to my respectable supervisor
Prof. Dr. Naheed Sultana, for her constant encouragement, insightful
comments, and valuable guidance to get this study done. Whenever I needed
any help during this research project, she provided me her assistance with
immense patience and enhanced my learning skills and groomed me as a
researcher. I am also thankful to my respected mentor Dr. Omer Farooq as he
is a role model for me, his vast knowledge, guidance, and feedback always
remained a massive source of inspiration in all aspects. A warm thanks to Dr.
Faisal Qadeer who helped me in the finalization of this dissertation.
In addition, I also acknowledge the moral and social support of my
dearest one Sadia Afzal, my friend Nadeem Shareef and Sarfraz Zaman who
motivated me during all the challenges of this research work. I could not forget
about the humble escort of all family members during the completion of this
task. Their love, care, and altruistic behavior always raised my courage and
gave me immense confidence to stand firm in times of distress.
ix
ABSTRACT
Purpose – Entrepreneurial intentions were lower in Pakistan as
compared to other developing countries. Therefore this research was
conducted to identify the stimulating factors of entrepreneurial intentions in
Pakistan. This research has been completed in two studies. The first study
analyzed the effect of socio-psychological factors on the male and female
individuals’ entrepreneurial intentions via attitude toward entrepreneurship
(ATE). Study 1 integrated the theory of planned behavior with gender schema
theory to build the theoretical model. This study posits that social norms and
entrepreneurial self-efficacy influence entrepreneurial intentions through the
mediation of ATE. The investigator further stated the moderating role of
gender while studying the impact of social norms and self-efficacy on the
individuals’ ATE. The Study 2 aims to investigate the effect of intrinsic
(intrinsic interest & community feeling aspirations) and extrinsic (perceived
relative income and occupational prestige) rewards on male and female
individuals’ entrepreneurial intentions through the mediation of ATE. To
develop the theoretical model of the second study, the investigator integrates
the goal contents theory with the stimulus-response theory and demonstrates
that intrinsic interest, community feelings (intrinsic rewards), perceived
relative income and occupational prestige (extrinsic rewards) positively
influence the ATE that further helps in the development of individuals
entrepreneurial intentions. The investigator further proposes the moderations
of gender in the theoretical model of Study 2.
Design/methodology/approach – Data came from students of three
large universities in Lahore. These students were near to complete their degree
in the field of business, engineering and information technology. For model
testing, this research relied on structural equation modeling technique.
Investigator applied PROCESS macro (Hayes, 2011) to test the moderating
role of gender.
Findings –The findings of the first study elucidated that self-efficacy
and social norms have an indirect effect on EIs via ATE. The results also
revealed that self-efficacy has a more significant effect on the attitude of male
individuals toward entrepreneurship than on the attitude of females. The effect
x
of social norms on ATE of female individuals was stronger than male
individuals. ATE positively influences the individuals’ EIs. The findings of
study 2 suggest that intrinsic interest, community feelings (intrinsic rewards),
perceived relative income and occupational prestige (extrinsic rewards)
positively influence the ATE which in turn stimulate the EIs of students. In
addition, gender was found a significant moderator on the relationships of
intrinsic and extrinsic rewards with EIs in such a way, the effect of intrinsic
interest (intrinsic reward) and perceived relative income (extrinsic reward) on
ATE is higher for male individuals. Conversely, the entrepreneurial attitude of
female individuals is developed by the community feelings (intrinsic reward)
primarily. The findings of this research did not show any interaction of gender
in the relationship between occupational prestige and ATE.
Originality/value – This is the first research in its nature which has
explored the effect of the socio-psychological, intrinsic and extrinsic factors on
ATE of male and female individuals separately. In addition, this research also
established that ATE is an important mediator that explains the indirect effect
of these socio-psychological and motivational factors on EIs.
xi
ACRONYMS AND DEFINITIONS
Term Definition
EIs Entrepreneurial Intentions
ATE Attitude toward entrepreneurship
TPB Theory of Planned Behavior
SEM Structural Equation Modeling is an analysis technique that runs the
multiple regression equations simultaneously.
MLE
Maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) is a method that estimates
the parameters of a model by finding the values of the parameters
that maximize the likelihood of making the observations (Kline,
2011).
CFA Confirmatory Factor Analysis is used to test the measurement
model (Kline, 2011).
AVE The average variance extracted (AVE) is used to determine the
convergent validity of the construct (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).
Tolerance
Value
The tolerance value is used to determine the multicollinearity
among independent variables.
VIF The variance Inflation factor is used to test the multicollinearity
among independent variables.
Cronbach
Alpha
Cronbach Alpha value is used to measure the reliability/internal
consistency of a variable.
CFI The Comparative Fit Index describes that the proposed model is
better than the independent model.
TLI Tucker Lewis Index based on the degree of freedom a variance
among variables.
Df Degree of Freedom
X2 Chi-Square
RMSEA The Root Means Square Error of Approximation
SRMR Standardized root means square residual
Direct
Effect
The variance in the dependent variable caused by the independent
variable.
Indirect
Effect
The effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable
via the mediator.
Interaction
Effect The coefficient of the product term of independent and moderator
xii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION .............................................................................................. iv
PLAGIARISM UNDERTAKING ........................................................................................... v
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL .......................................................................................... vi
DEDICATION ...................................................................................................................... vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ......................................................................................................viii
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ ix
ACRONYMS AND DEFINITIONS ...................................................................................... xi
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Statement of the Topic ................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Background of Research .............................................................................................. 2
1.3 Significance of Research ............................................................................................. 4
1.4 Gap in Existing Literature and Research Questions .................................................... 6
1.5 Rationale and Contribution of Study 1 and Study 2 .................................................... 7
1.5.1 Study 1: Theory of Planned Behavior ............................................................. 8
1.5.1.1 Objectives of Study ............................................................................. 9
1.5.2 Study 2: Goal Contents Theory ....................................................................... 9
1.5.2.1 Objectives .......................................................................................... 10
1.6 Methodology .............................................................................................................. 10
1.7 Analysis Strategy ....................................................................................................... 11
1.8 Findings ..................................................................................................................... 11
1.9 Outline of the Thesis ................................................................................................. 11
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................... 13
2.1 Entrepreneurial Intentions ......................................................................................... 13
2.2 Antecedents of Entrepreneurial intentions ................................................................ 13
2.3 Socio-Psychological Antecedents of Entrepreneurial Intentions .............................. 20
2.3.1 Theory of Planned Behavior .......................................................................... 20
2.3.2 Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy ........................................................................ 21
2.3.3 Perceived Social Norms ................................................................................ 22
2.4 Motivational Factors .................................................................................................. 22
2.4.1 Goal Contents Theory .................................................................................... 22
2.4.2 Intrinsic Goals ............................................................................................... 23
2.4.3 Extrinsic Goals .............................................................................................. 23
2.5 The Mechanism How and When ............................................................................... 24
2.5.1 Attitude toward Entrepreneurship as Mediator ............................................. 24
2.5.2 Gender as Moderator ..................................................................................... 24
2.6 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................... 25
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Chapter 3: RESEARCH MODEL AND HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT ............... 27
3.1 Study 1: Theory of Planned Behavior ....................................................................... 27
3.1.1 Impact of Self-Efficacy on Entrepreneurial Intentions via Attitude ............. 27
3.1.2 Impact of Social Norms on Entrepreneurial Intentions via Attitude ............. 28
3.1.3 Moderating Role of Gender ........................................................................... 29
3.2 Study 2: Goal Contents Theory ................................................................................. 31
3.2.1 The Impact of Intrinsic Goals on Individuals’ Entrepreneurial Intentions .... 31
3.2.2 The Impact of Extrinsic Goals on Individuals’ Entrepreneurial Intentions .. 32
3.2.3 Moderation of Gender ................................................................................... 34
Chapter 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................... 38
4.1 Research Philosophy ................................................................................................. 38
4.2 Research Design ........................................................................................................ 39
4.3 Survey Research Strategy .......................................................................................... 39
4.4 Survey Instrument ..................................................................................................... 39
4.4.1 Population and Target Population ................................................................. 40
4.4.2 Sampling Procedure ....................................................................................... 40
4.4.3 Personally Administered Questionnaire ........................................................ 41
4.4.4 Language of the Questionnaire ...................................................................... 41
4.4.5 Type and form of Questions .......................................................................... 41
4.4.6 Pretesting of Questionnaire ........................................................................... 41
4.4.7 Administration and Time Horizon ................................................................. 42
4.5 Measurement ............................................................................................................. 42
4.5.1 Adopted Measures ......................................................................................... 42
4.5.2 Self-Developed Measure ............................................................................... 42
4.5.3 Control Variables ........................................................................................... 42
4.6 Analysis Techniques .................................................................................................. 44
Chapter 5: DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS .............................................................. 45
5.1 Missing Value analysis and Data Screening ............................................................. 45
5.2 Demographics of the respondents ............................................................................. 46
5.3 Analysis Study 1 ........................................................................................................ 47
5.3.1 Normality Test ............................................................................................... 47
5.3.2 Multicollinearity Analysis ............................................................................. 47
5.3.3 Common Method Bias ................................................................................... 48
5.3.4 Confirmatory Factor Analysis ....................................................................... 48
5.3.5 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Matrix .............................................. 51
5.3.6 Model Testing ................................................................................................ 52
5.3.6.1 Direct and Indirect Effects ................................................................. 52
xiv
5.3.6.2 Moderation Effects ............................................................................ 54
5.4 Analysis Study 2 ........................................................................................................ 56
5.4.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis ....................................................................... 57
5.4.2 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Matrix .............................................. 60
5.4.3 Normality Test ............................................................................................... 62
5.4.4 Multicollinearity Analysis ............................................................................. 62
5.4.5 Common Method Bias ................................................................................... 63
5.4.6 Model Testing ................................................................................................ 63
5.5 Summary .................................................................................................................... 69
Chapter 6: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ............................................................. 71
6.1 Study 1: Theory of Planned Behavior ....................................................................... 71
6.1.1 Academic Contribution ................................................................................. 71
6.1.2 Implications for Public Policy ....................................................................... 74
6.2 Study 2: Goal Contents Theory ................................................................................. 74
6.2.1 Academic Contribution ................................................................................. 74
6.2.2 Implications for Public Policy ....................................................................... 76
6.3 Limitations and Research Directions ......................................................................... 78
6.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 78
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 80
Appendix A: Questionnaire ................................................................................................... 98
Appendix B: Common Latent Factor Analysis of Study 1 .................................................. 101
Appendix C: Single Factor CFA Study 1 ............................................................................ 102
Appendix D: Four Factor CFA Study 1 .............................................................................. 103
Appendix E: Seven-Factor CFA Study 2 ............................................................................ 104
Appendix F: Single Factor CFA Study 2 ............................................................................ 105
xv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 5.1 Demographics of the Respondents-------------------------------------------------- 46
Table 5.2 Normality Test------------------------------------------------------------------------- 47
Table 5.3 Multicollinearity Analysis----------------------------------------------------------- 48
Table 5.4 Model Fit of Single Factor CFA---------------------------------------------------- 49
Table 5.5 Model Fit of Four-Factor CFA------------------------------------------------------ 49
Table 5.6 Factor Loadings, AVE, and Reliability-------------------------------------------- 50
Table 5.7 Discriminant Validity for all Study Variables------------------------------------ 51
Table 5.8 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Matrix------------------------------------ 51
Table 5.9 Model Fit Indices of Hypothesized Model---------------------------------------- 52
Table 5.10 Model Fit of Alternative Model (IV>DV> Mediator) ------------------------- 53
Table 5.11 Hypothesized Model Plus Retained Effect of Self-Efficacy------------------- 53
Table 5.12 Direct Effects and Indirect Effects------------------------------------------------ 54
Table 5.13 Moderating Role of Gender-------------------------------------------------------- 55
Table 5.14 Effects of Social Norms and Self-Efficacy Across Gender-------------------- 56
Table 5.15 Moderated Mediation Results------------------------------------------------------ 56
Table 5.16 Model Fit Indices of 7 Factor CFA----------------------------------------------- 57
Table 5.17 Single Factor CFA Study 2--------------------------------------------------------- 57
Table 5.18 Factor Loadings of Variables------------------------------------------------------ 58
Table 5.19 Discriminant Validity Analysis---------------------------------------------------- 60
Table 5.20 Mean, Standard Deviation and Correlation Matrix----------------------------- 61
Table 5.21 Normality Test----------------------------------------------------------------------- 62
Table 5.22 Multicollinearity Analysis---------------------------------------------------------- 63
Table 5.23 Model Fit Indices of Hypothesized Model--------------------------------------- 64
Table 5.24 Model Fit of the Alternative Model (IV è DV è Mediator) ------------------- 64
Table 5.25 Direct and Indirect Effects--------------------------------------------------------- 66
Table 5.26 Moderation of Gender-------------------------------------------------------------- 67
Table 5.27 Effects of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Goals across Gender------------------------ 68
Table 5.28 Moderated Mediation Results------------------------------------------------------ 69
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Hypothesized Model Study 1-------------------------------------------------------- 31
Figure 2: Hypothesized Model Study 2-------------------------------------------------------- 37
Figure 3: Final Model with Standardized Regression Weights----------------------------- 53
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Chapter one states a recapitulation of this research by explaining the statement of the
topic and background of research. This research has been conducted to study the effect of
socio-psychological and motivational factors on entrepreneurial intentions (EIs) of male and
female individuals in Pakistan. This chapter explained the significance of EIs and specified
the topic by defining the gap in existing literature related to EIs. Rational
and contribution of this research have been demonstrated in two independent studies
(study 1 & 2). Lastly, the researcher explained the proposed methodology, data analysis
technique, and proposed findings.
1.1 STATEMENT OF THE TOPIC
The EIs is a key construct in the research of entrepreneurship. Research scholars are
keenly interested in exploring the determinants of EIs because the EIs is an imperative
antecedent of entrepreneurial behavior. The existing research has studied the effect of
demographical variables (gender, age, education, and experience), personality traits,
entrepreneurial role models, and entrepreneurship education on EIs. The existing studies
paid less attention to the socio-psychological and motivational factors as antecedents of EIs.
To test the effect of socio-psychological factors on EIs, this research applied the theory of
planned behavior (TPB) and proposed that self-efficacy and social norms positively
influence the EIs. In addition, to elucidate the effect of motivational factors on EIs, this
research integrated the motivational theory with stimulus-response theory and proposed that
intrinsic and extrinsic factors positively influence the EIs.
Many research studies have explained the linkage of ATE and EIs. However,
existing research scholars paid less focus on the role of attitude as a mediator in the studies
of EIs. Ajzen (1991) explains the series of the relationship between beliefs, attitude, and
intention. This assumption explains that different factors build the individuals’ ATE which
in turn develops the EIs. To test this theoretical assumption, the current research used the
TPB and examined the direct and indirect effect of ESE and social norms on EIs via ATE.
The stimulus-response theory explains that there is no action without any stimulus.
By the integration of goal contents theory with stimulus-response theory, this study
proposed that intrinsic and extrinsic factors can be the better predictors of ATE and EIs.
2
ATE can be considered as a mediator between the relationship of intrinsic and extrinsic
factors with EIs.
In addition, the role of gender has become imperative in the research of EIs. Male
and female individuals value the socio-psychological and motivational factors differently.
Therefore current research also proposed the moderation of gender in the relationship of
socio-psychological and motivational factors with ATE. This research contributes to the
literature of entrepreneurship in multiple ways. Firstly, that is the first research of its nature
which explained the socio-psychological and motivational factors as antecedents of ATE.
Secondly, this research also explained these socio-psychological and motivational factors
have different importance for male and female individuals while developing their ATE.
Thirdly this research explained the indirect effect of socio-psychological and motivational
factors on EIs through the mediation of ATE. This research will help the policymakers for
enhancement of ATE and EIs of individuals in Pakistan.
1.2 BACKGROUND OF RESEARCH
The understanding of entrepreneurial behavior is based on exploring the
determinants of EIs (Shane & Venkataraman, 2000). Entrepreneurship is defined as
“owning and managing a business on one’s own account and risk” (Sternberg &
Wennekers, 2005, p. 193). It is a complex process which starts with EIs and covers the steps
of opportunity identification, business idea generation and its implementation (Chell, 2013).
The entrepreneurship is also considered important because it has many advantages such as
new products development, poverty reduction, sustainable employment and economic
development (Shane & Venkataraman, 2000). As the EIs are the first step in the
entrepreneurial process, therefore, scholars have more interest in understanding the
antecedents of individuals’ EIs.
The economists and public administration of Pakistan are striving to find out the
ways of economic development. As the Entrepreneurship is the primary driver of economic
growth (Hustedde, 2018; Laukkanen & Tornikoski, 2018) therefore the government of
Pakistan is taking many initiatives for the promotion of entrepreneurship. For example,
Prime ministers of Pakistan provided interest-free loans to the people for the new business
startups in the duration of 2013-2018. Small Medium Enterprises Development Authority
(SMEDA) is a Pakistani institution that is also implanting the different strategies for the
impingement of entrepreneurship in Pakistan. Similarly, the universities in Pakistan are also
3
fostering the entrepreneurship by offering the courses of entrepreneurship to the students of
different disciplines (management, engineering, information technology). In addition, these
universities also have established the innovation and incubation centers which help the
students in developing new businesses with innovative ideas.
Qureshi and Sarfraz (2012) showed that the EIs of individuals in Pakistan are very
low as compared to developed countries. This report also showed the females in Pakistan
also have lower EIs as compared to male individuals whereas the prior research could not
pay the attention to the determinants of individuals’ EIs in Pakistan. The students at the
final stage of their qualification start to apply for a job. According to Tribune report on the
business of Pakistan stated that Pakistan had included in those countries where the
entrepreneurial activities are prostrate. People like to pursue the white-collar job in
multinational companies, public sectors, and international development agencies because
there is the lowest job security risk in such employment.
Secondly, the Pakistani society was classified as the risk-free society and individuals
are not encouraged to take risks (Iftikhar, 2016). The people are not ready to give money to
their children for the investment in personal businesses, whereas they agreed to pay bribery
for the acquisition of a white-collar job. Therefore, it is not encouraged in the society of
Pakistan to take a risk in new business development.
In addition, the education system of Pakistan does not align with the culture of new
business development. The education system only learns to its students how to achieve a
better career by getting a top-ranked job. The business environment is also unfavorable for
the youth of Pakistan. The uncertainty is high in the business environment at the early stage
of startups. Therefore, the innovative capabilities of individuals could not generate a
positive effect on business success. Thus, in such an uncertain environment, it has become
necessary to identify the factors which can increase the individual's EIs.
In this dissertation, the researcher proposed that different socio-psychological and
motivational factors influence the ATE which in turn develop the EIs. For this purpose, the
investigator conducted two independent studies. The first study relied on the framework of
the TPB and proposed that social norms and self-efficacy will positively influence the ATE,
subsequently, it will develop the EIs. Study 2 was based on the Goal contents theory, and it
explains that intrinsic and extrinsic goals will positively influence the ATE and as a result, it
will develop the EIs. In these both research models, the researcher further proposed the
moderation of gender which provided further insight into the differential effects of these
socio-psychological and motivational factors on ATE. Different existing research studies
4
have demonstrated that ATE is the major stimuli of EIs (Jebarajakirthy & Thaichon, 2015;
Kautonen et al., 2015; Koe, Sa’ari, Majid, & Ismail, 2012; Yurtkoru, Kuşcu, & Doğanay,
2014). Whereas, the existing research paid less attention to the antecedents of ATE. The
existing research on entrepreneurship could not provide a solution about how to foster the
EIs of female individuals in Pakistan. This study uncovered the factors which can be helpful
in fostering the EIs of male and female individuals.
In addition, the mainstream of research on the EIs were primarily held in the
different developed countries such as European Union (Schmutzler, Andonova, & Diaz-
Serrano, 2018), Spain (Ferreira, Fernandes, & Raposo, 2018) Australia (Schlaegel &
Koenig, 2014) and USA (Arranz, Ubierna, Arroyabe, Perez, & Fdez. de Arroyabe, 2017).
Pakistan falls in the list of developing states and it is culturally, economically and socially
different from the other developed countries (Abbasi, Tarhini, Elyas, & Shah, 2015).
Because of these differences, the factors of EIs suggested by the scholars of developed
countries cannot be equally applicable in Pakistan. Hence this study is an attempt to fill the
gap by demonstrating the determinants of individuals’ EIs in Pakistan.
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
There is the immense importance of entrepreneurship in the economic progress of
developed and developing countries. The scholars have identified that EIs are the first step
in entrepreneurship and global entrepreneurship monitoring report has stated that
individuals’ EIs are low in Pakistan as compared to other developing countries. Therefore,
scholars should pay more attention to explore the causal factors of individuals ’EIs in
Pakistan. The study of EIs has brought with it different challenges for management
scientists, and it has enormous significance in the research of entrepreneurship. The
policymakers and scholars of the academic field have started giving vital attention to
individuals’ EIs (Shane & Venkataraman, 2000) because behavioral intentions predict
human behaviors (Rauch & Hulsink, 2015). Similarly, when individuals have high EIs, they
spend more time in developing new business ideas. These individuals will more tend toward
opportunity identification and then opportunity exploitation (Gielnik, Krämer, Kappel, &
Frese, 2014; Gielnik, Frese, Graf, & Kampschulte, 2012). In recent reports on
entrepreneurship developed by the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM), Global
Entrepreneurship and Development Institute (GEDI) showed that there are major and
continuous variations in private business activities in various countries. GEM also reported
5
that entrepreneurial activities are low in those countries where the EIs are low (Amorós &
Niels Bosma, 2014). Therefore, it was essential to highlight the foundations of EIs. Many
existing research works have explored the drivers of individuals’ EIs. This research is
exploring the significance of socio-psychological and motivational factors for studying the
EIs which is an attractive topic because it is contributing to solving the grand challenge of
entrepreneurship. This topic is also a current topic because today the entrepreneurship is
appearing as the change agent in societies. The business schools, policymakers all are
working to boost up the entrepreneurship as well as individuals’ EIs. Therefore, this topic is
an interesting topic for the academicians as well as for the policymakers.
This research is offering a novel perspective by explaining the effect of socio-
psychological and motivational factors on the EIs of male and female individuals through
the mediation of ATE. The existing research paid less attention to the socio-psychological
and motivational factors with the perspective of mediation of attitude and moderation of
gender. In this way, this research will change the discussion in the area of EIs. This research
will make an enormous contribution to the field of entrepreneurship in multiple ways. The
first study relies on TPB (Ajzen, 1991) and contributed to the literature of TPB by including
the role of attitude as a mediator between the relationship of social norms and ESE with
individuals’ EIs. In addition, this research also proposed the boundary condition of gender
in the hypothetic model that was theorized with the help of TPB. That is the first study of its
nature which explained the moderation of gender in the relationship of social norms and
self-efficacy with ATE. The investigator elaborated that the effect of self-efficacy on ATE
is higher for male individuals, whereas the effect of social norms on ATE is higher for
female individuals. The study 2 was developed by using the goal contents theory
(Vansteenkiste, 2006) that first time proposed the role of attitude as a mediator between the
relationship of intrinsic and extrinsic goals with EIs. This study suggested that community
feelings, intrinsic entrepreneurial interest (intrinsic goals), develop the ATE which in turn
stimulates the individual's EIs. Similarly, the perceived monetary rewards and occupational
prestige (extrinsic goals) will positively influence the ATE which in turn develops the EIs.
The study 2 contributed to the literature of goal contents theory by developing the
relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic goals with attitude and then EIs. Furthermore,
this study also introduced the bounding condition of gender in the goal contents theory and
explained that these different intrinsic and extrinsic goals have a different effect on male
and female behavioral intentions. Community feelings and occupational prestige are the
primary factors for the female which affect their attitude and then EIs. Whereas the intrinsic
6
interest and monetary rewards are the major stimulating factors that may foster the ATE of
male individuals and as a result, their EIs can be developed.
The scope of this dissertation is broadened in multiple ways. First, it is applying the
TPB and goal contents theory in the theory of EIs. Secondly, it is introducing the role of
attitude as a mediator to explain the process or mechanism by which the socio-
psychological and motivational factor may influence the EIs. Thirdly it also answers the
question “WHEN” by emphasizing the role of gender as a moderator in the whole research.
This research also considered the actionability of the research. This research will
provide many policy-related implications for the policymakers. Policy makers in Pakistan
are interested to know how to boost the EIs of students. The researchers needed to explain
how to boost up the EIs of students. This research proposes that policymakers should focus
on the socio-psychological factors and motivational factors to promote entrepreneurship in
Pakistan. With the help of these factors, ATE of individuals can be developed. As a result,
these individuals can build their EIs. In addition, the researcher also proposed that these
socio-psychological and motivational factors play their differential role in the development
of ATE of male and female individuals. Policymakers may understand the reasons by which
they can stimulate the attitude and intention of male and female individuals toward
entrepreneurship.
1.4 GAP IN EXISTING LITERATURE AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Literature review reveals that the existing research in the entrepreneurship has
identified numerous factors as determinants of EIs in developed countries (Arranz et al.,
2017; Ferreira et al., 2018; Schlaegel & Koenig, 2014; Schmutzler et al., 2018). These
studies tested different models in developed countries. The theorizing of research models in
a cultural setting of developing countries may differ from the research conducted in the
developed world. In addition, some reputed journals (Administrative Science &
Management Decision) also issued the call for papers on the topic of EIs. Therefore this
research attempted to identify the factors which can foster the individuals’ EIs in developing
countries. Existing research has ignored the effect of socio-psychological and motivational
factors on ATE. The investigator filled the gaps mentioned above by applying the TPB and
goal contents theory and demonstrated the role of socio-psychological and motivational
factors in the development of ATE and EIs. To develop the overarching frameworks, it was
needed to conduct two independent studies. Therefore this research was classified into two
7
studies. Study 1 identifies the role of self-efficacy and social norms in the development of
EIs of male and female individuals. Study 2 determines the impact of extrinsic (monetary
rewards, occupational prestige) and intrinsic factors (intrinsic interest, community feelings)
on the EIs of male and female individuals. Furthermore, existing studies examined the direct
effect of different factors on EIs and ignored the role of attitude as mediator. EIs provide the
insight of cognition system. It is necessary to study the cognition, attitude and intention
linkage (Ajzen, 1991). According to Bono and McNamara (2011), the mediation
mechanism is important and provides an opportunity for the contribution in literature.
Therefore, this research filled the gap in the existing literature by introducing the attitude as
a mediator between the relationship of different stimulating factors and individuals’ EIs.
Moreover, the role of gender in the relationship of socio-psychological and motivational
factors with ATE has also been ignored. The role of gender is essential in entrepreneurship
(Brush, Edelman, Manolova, & Welter, 2018; Chandran & Aleidi, 2018; Klyver, Nielsen, &
Evald, 2013). This research proposed the role of gender as a moderator in the theoretical
models of study 1 and study 2. The researcher developed the following research questions
based on the findings from existing research:
RQ1: What is the effect of different socio-psychological and motivational factors
on individuals’ ATE?
RQ2: Is there any role of attitude as a mediator between the relationship of Socio-
psychological and motivational factors with EIs?
RQ3: How the effect of these socio-psychological and motivational factors on
individuals’ ATE varies across male and female individuals?
1.5 RATIONALE AND CONTRIBUTION OF STUDY 1 AND STUDY 2
This research studied the effect of socio-psychological and motivational factors on
individuals’ EIs. This research was completed into two independent studies due to multiple
reasons. Firstly, research needs to be conducted in a parsimonious way. In explaining a
research problem, simplicity is preferable as compared to presenting the complex models. If
the researcher integrates all socio-psychological and motivational factors in one research
model, it becomes a complex theoretical framework which was difficult to understand for
the audience of this research. Secondly, in management research, it is preferred to explain a
research problem by using the single theoretical framework. For developing the overarching
framework, it was necessary to conduct two independent studies. Therefore, this dissertation
8
is classified into two studies. Study 1 explained the effect of socio-psychological factors
(social norms, self-efficacy, and ATE) on individuals’ EIs by using the framework of TPB.
Study 2 demonstrated the role of motivational factors (intrinsic interest, community
feelings, perceived relative income, and occupational prestige) in the development of
individuals EIs by using the framework of goal contents theory.
1.5.1 Study 1: Theory of Planned Behavior
TPB explains the link between beliefs, attitude, and intentions. The current study
applied TPB and proposed the effect of socio-psychological factors on the EIs. Self-efficacy
is an individual belief to do something (Bandura, 1997) which can be proposed as an
antecedent of ATE nor the EIs. Whereas the social norms are the stimuli and the external
pressures on the individuals to do something. This study also proposed that social norms
can also influence attitude. This proposition can also be supported by the research studies
conducted in the area of social psychology (Bang, Ellinger, Hadjimarcou, & Traichal,
2000). With the help of TPB, this study hypothesized that social norms and self-efficacy
will positively influence the ATE which in turn will affect the EIs (Bang, Ellinger,
Hadjimarcou, & Traichal, 2000). In this way, the ATE can play its role as mediator between
socio-psychological factors (self-efficacy & social norms) and individuals EIs.
Furthermore, gender differences have gained vital importance in the research of EIs.
Due to gender paradox, male and female individuals have different preferences. Behind the
reasons for the male and female preferences are their different areas of interest. For
example, some studies demonstrated that male individuals have higher interest and tendency
toward entrepreneurship as compare to female individuals (Amorós & Niels Bosma, 2014).
Because male individuals like to remain independent and rely more on their own
confidence. Whereas, the females are communal in their nature, value more the opinions of
others (Sidanius & Pratto, 2001). Particularly, when they are to take any career-related
decision, they rely more on the suggestions coming from the social circle because of their
social embeddedness. Because of these reasons, this study posited that the attitude of male
and female can be transformed differently from the social norms (communal factor) and
self-efficacy (self-confidence/ belief). The current study proposes that self-efficacy and
social norms will affect the ATE of male and female individuals differently. This study is
different from the existing studies in such a way that its first time studied the moderation of
gender on the relationship of social norms and self-efficacy with the ATE. On the other
9
hand, the prior studies on the EIs were explaining the moderation of gender while studying
the direct effect of social norms and self-efficacy on the EIs nor on ATE (Leroy, Maes,
Meuleman, Sels, & Debrulle, 2009; Maes, Leroy, & Sels, 2014) and these studies also
ignored the role of attitude as mediator in their theoretical models.
This study established its novelty from the existing literature in multiple ways.
Firstly, this study elaborates that socio-psychological factors help individuals in building
positive ATE that ultimately plays an important role in the development of EIs. In this way,
social norms and self-efficacy will have an indirect effect on the EIs via ATE. Secondly,
this study proposed that social norms and self-efficacy have not a similar effect on the ATE
of male and female individuals. With the help of gender schema theory (Bem, 1981), this
study proposed that social norms have a higher effect on the ATE of female individuals. On
the other hand, self-efficacy will have a higher effect on the ATE of male individuals.
1.5.1.1 Objectives of Study
a) To study the impact of socio-psychological (social norms and self-efficacy)
factors on ATE.
b) To study the impact of ATE on EIs.
c) To study the indirect effect of socio-psychological (social norms and self-
efficacy) on EIs via ATE.
d) To study the differentiated effect of socio-psychological (social norms and self-
efficacy) on the attitude of male and female individuals toward entrepreneurship.
1.5.2 Study 2: Goal Contents Theory
Study 2 aimed to examine the effect of intrinsic and extrinsic goals/rewards one the
EIs of male and female individuals. Literature shows that intrinsic and extrinsic goals,
which might be significant stimuli in developing the entrepreneurial attitude and intentions,
are still to be explained in the research of entrepreneurship. When individuals think to start
their own business, their primary concern might be to get comparatively better rewards from
business as compared to a job. It is further argued from the perspective of goal contents
theory, that if individuals feel better about extrinsic rewards (monetary rewards and
occupational prestige) and intrinsic rewards (intrinsic interest, community feelings) from
their own business, they may develop their attitude towards entrepreneurship, which in turn
can stimulate EIs. Furthermore, gender differences are becoming significant in
10
entrepreneurial research, and many scholars have studied the differential effect of various
factors for males and females in deriving the intentions toward starting a new venture
(Cañizares & García, 2010). Due to the different importance of monetary reward
(Griskevicius et al., 2012), external prestige (Duguid, 2011), intrinsic interest and
community feelings for males and females, the current study investigated the differential
effect of these factors on entrepreneurial attitude and intention of male and female
individuals.
In addition, the previous research on EIs was conducted in developed countries and
had ignored the context of developing countries. Study 2 also brings a fresh perspective in
this stream of research by conducting this study in Pakistani context which is high at
collectivism.
1.5.2.1 Objectives
a) To study the role of extrinsic goals (monetary rewards, occupational prestige) on
ATE.
b) To find out the impact of intrinsic goals (intrinsic interest, community feelings)
on ATE.
c) To study the indirect effect of intrinsic and extrinsic goals on EIs via ATE.
d) To study the differentiated effect of intrinsic goals on the attitude of male and
female individuals toward entrepreneurship.
e) To study the differentiated effect of extrinsic goals on the attitude of male and
female individuals toward entrepreneurship.
1.6 METHODOLOGY
For data collection, this research targeted the students of universities of Pakistan
who were studying in the last semester of their degree programs (business, information
technology, and engineering). University students were selected to collect the data because
these students were about to take initiatives for their careers by acquiring a job or by
establishing their business venture. To test the model of study 1 and study 2, the data were
collected by the same questionnaire. The measurements of study 1 and study 2 were
included in the questionnaire and data were collected in time series. The data of all
independent and mediating variables were collected in time 1, and the data of the dependent
variable were collected in time 2.
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1.7 ANALYSIS STRATEGY
This research used a structural equation modeling technique for the confirmatory
factor analysis and model testing. To measure the indirect effect, bootstrapping was applied.
The PROCESS macro was also used for moderation testing.
1.8 FINDINGS
This study has explored the determinants of individuals EIs. By using the
hypothetic-deductive approach, this research developed two theoretical models based on
TPB and goal contents theory. Two independent studies were conducted in this dissertation.
The findings of study 1 showed that social norms and self-efficacy has a positive effect on
EIs through the mediation of ATE. In addition, the relationship of social norms and self-
efficacy with ATE was moderated by gender in such a way, the effect of social norms on
attitude is higher for female individuals whereas the effect of self-efficacy on ATE was
higher for male individuals.
The results of study 2 demonstrated that intrinsic (intrinsic interest, community
feelings) and extrinsic goals (perceived relative income and occupational prestige) have a
positive effect on EIs via ATE. The results also avowed that the effect of these intrinsic and
extrinsic goals on ATE was moderated by the gender in such a way, the attitude of male
individuals toward entrepreneurship was primarily influenced by the intrinsic interest
(intrinsic factor) and perceived relative income (extrinsic factor), whereas the attitude of
female individuals toward entrepreneurship was primarily developed by community feelings
(intrinsic factor). There is no significant moderation of gender in the relationship between
occupational prestige and ATE. That shows in the career selection of individuals as
entrepreneurs, they equally value the occupation prestige driven from the entrepreneurship.
The findings of this research can be generalized only in Pakistan. These results provided
many implications for the researchers and policymakers.
1.9 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS
There are six chapters of this dissertation. Chapter 1 provides the overview,
background, research questions, objective, the rationale of the study and proposed
methodology. Chapter 2 is related to the literature review. This dissertation reviewed the
studies from the 1980s to 2019 and tried to cover the maximum literature available on the
EIs. Chapter 3 is related to the theoretical framework and hypotheses development. This
12
research developed two independent models on EIs which were based on TPB and goal
contents theory. Study 1 based on TPB and gender schema theory. Study 2 explained the
role of motivational factors in generating the notions of EIs. Research methodology of both
studies has been described in Chapter 4 that explained the research design, data collection
procedures, and analysis techniques of this research. Chapter 5 is related to the data analysis
and findings of study 1 and study 2. The data analysis was performed in two steps, first is
the testing the measurement scales and second is testing the hypothesized models.
Measurement model established the reliability and validity of the data. In the model testing,
the direct, indirect and moderation effects were calculated. Chapter 6 is about the discussion
and implications of study 1 and study 2. The results of both studies were discussed with the
perspective of existing studies in the final chapter. In addition, this part also demonstrated
the limitations and future research directions for future studies. At the end of the final
chapter, a conclusion has been drawn based on the findings of the research.
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CHAPTER 2:
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter explained the concept of EIs and its antecedents. In the antecedents of
EIs, this chapter covered the literature on EIs available from 1980-2019. After highlighting
the gap in the research of EIs, this chapter explained the socio-psychological and
motivational factors which are the part of hypothesized models. Socio-psychological factors
are explained by using the TPB, whereas motivational factors have been discussed with the
perspective of goal contents theory. Following that, the role of attitudes as mediator and
moderation of gender have been also explained. Finally, the chapter summary has been
provided.
2.1 ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS
In the mainstream of research in entrepreneurship, the intention of individuals to
become an entrepreneur is taken as a major determinant of entrepreneurial behavior (Ajzen,
1991, 2001). To become an entrepreneur, the individuals need time (Kyrö & Carrier, 2005)
and EIs are viewed as the first step in entrepreneurship (Lee & Wong, 2003). According to
the framework of the TPB, the EIs are operationalized as the effort of an individual that
he/she put to become an entrepreneur. The current research also used the construct
operationalized by the TPB, and it refers to “A state of mind directing a person’s attention
and action toward self-employment as opposed to organizational employment” (Souitaris et
al., 2007, p. 570). The EIs is cognitive variable, and it plays a vital role in personal career
decisions (Baron-Cohen, & Wheelwright, 2004). In the complicated process of
entrepreneurship, the EIs provide cognitive insight (Liñán & Chen, 2009). The research has
stated, the individuals’ needs, values, habits, and their desires affect the individuals’ EIs
(Lee & Wong, 2003). Researchers have also used different theories such as the TPB and
expectancy theory to understand the individuals’ EIs.
2.2 ANTECEDENTS OF ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS
Entrepreneurial actions are the individuals’ intentional activities (Lerner, Hunt, &
Dimov, 2018), and EIs are taken as a basic move towards entrepreneurship (Kautonen et al.,
2011). Therefore, EIs are vital for understanding entrepreneurial behaviors.
14
Different scholars have demonstrated the role of various demographic factors such
as gender (Camelo-Ordaz, Diánez-González, & Ruiz-Navarro, 2016; Santos, Roomi, &
Liñán, 2016), age (Sahut, Gharbi, & Mili, 2015), prior experience (Zapkau, Schwens, &
Kabst, 2017; Zapkau et al., 2015), role of parents (Chlosta, Patzelt, Klein, & Dormann,
2012), and education (Matlay, Marques, Ferreira, Gomes, & Gouveia Rodrigues, 2012) in
the development of EIs. Some other scholars stated that entrepreneurial education (Karimi,
Biemans, Lans, Chizari, & Mulder, 2016; Maresch, Harms, Kailer, & Wimmer-Wurm,
2016; Sondari, 2014) is also a significant element in the growth of EIs. Passoni and Glavam
(2018) validated the relationship between entrepreneurship education and EIs among
management, engineering, and accounting graduates. Hasan, Khan, and Nabi (2017) found
the effect of generalized, motivational and augmented entrepreneurship education on the
individuals’ EIs at the university level. According to the findings of Herman and
Stefanescu, (2017) business students primarily develop their EIs from entrepreneurship
education whereas the engineering students primarily develop their EIs from their family
background. Passaro, et al., (2018) demonstrated that universities should offer the training
and practices oriented entrepreneurship course to enhance the EIs of graduates. According
to the findings of Guerrero, Urbano, Cunningham, and Gajón (2018) sports education has a
positive effect on individuals’ EIs. Psychological traits (Altinay, Madanoglu, Daniele, &
Lashley, 2012; Fuller, Liu, Bajaba, Marler, & Pratt, 2018; Mustafa et al., 2016), risk
preferences (Dawson & Henley, 2015), autonomy (Al-Jubari, Hassan, & Hashim, 2017) and
self-fulfillment (Segal, Borgia, & Schoenfeld, 2005) influence the individuals’ EIs. Some
studies demonstrated that personality and anticipation cognition shape the individual's EIs
(Espíritu-Olmos & Sastre-Castillo, 2015; Fuller, et al., 2018; Karabulut, 2016; Sarah, 2016).
Mortan, Ripoll, and Carvalho (2014) demonstrated that emotional intelligence positively
influences the EIs. Yıldırım, Trout, and Hartzell, (2019) found the positive effect of
emotional intelligence and creativity on the individuals EIs.
TPB is considered as a focal theory to explain the determinants of EIs of individuals.
Many studies used the framework of the TPB and found the positive effect of perceived
behavioral control, subjective norms and ATE on EIs (Jebarajakirthy & Thaichon, 2015;
Kautonen et al., 2015; Koe, Sa’ari, Majid, & Ismail, 2012; Yurtkoru, Kuşcu, & Doğanay,
2014). Similarly, Lee-Ross (2017) found that factors in the TPB positively influence the
individuals’ EIs in the Australian context. In a meta-analysis study, the TPB is also
validated to explain the EIs (Schlaegel & Koenig, 2014). Munir, Jianfeng, and Ramzan
(2019) found the positive effect of TPB and personality traits on the entrepreneurial
15
intentions of Chines students. Al-Shammari (2018) conducted research in Bahrain and
found that behavioral control, social norms, and ATE are important determinants of
individuals’ EIs. Feola, Vesci, Botti, and Parente (2017) tested the model of TPB in the
context of young researchers. They found psychological variables of the TPB have a
positive effect on EIs of young researchers. In addition, governmental, industrial and
financial support also has a direct effect on the academic EIs. Carey, Flanagan, and Palmer
(2010) studied the effect of different beliefs on EIs. They also classified the business into
three types, small and lifestyle ventures, small and high-income ventures, and High growth
ventures. They explored the role of behavioral, normative and control beliefs on EIs.
Walker, Jeger, and Kopecki (2013) examined the impact of behavioral control, subjective
norm and ATE on EIs by using the cross-country data of Global entrepreneurship
monitoring (GEM) report. According to their findings, the TPB framework was validated by
the data of multi-country collection by GEM.
Ellen (2010) explored the mediating role of self-efficacy between entrepreneurship
education, experience, proactive personality, and EIs. Mwiya, Wang, and Kaulungombe
(2018) studied the role of EIs as a mediator between the relationship between self-efficacy
and nascent entrepreneurial behavior. Jin (2017) found the positive effect of hope,
resilience, and self-efficacy on individuals’ EIs in a cross-cultural study. Byabashaija and
Katono (2011) conducted a study in which they discussed the role of perceived feasibility,
perceived desirability, and self-efficacy in owning a new business. Although, these studies
discussed the role of self-efficacy with different perspectives.
Universities play an essential role to shape the EIs of students (Trivedi & Matlay,
2016). Guerrero et al. (2018) found the positive effect of individual factors such as prior
experience, skills and abilities, and aspirations on the EIs. They also found that university-
related factors such as incubation center, research parks, and accelerators also positively
influence the individuals’ EIs. University support plays an important role in shaping the EIs
(Barral, Ribeiro, & Canever, 2018; Shirokova, Tsukanova, & Morris, 2018). Oftedal,
Iakovleva, and Foss (2017) studied the effect of university regulative and normative context
on the graduates’ EIs. The findings of Baluku, Leonsio, Bantu, and Otto (2019) revealed
that entrepreneurial monitoring and autonomy positively influence the EIs among youths in
Germany, Kenya, and Uganda. In addition, Padilla-Angulo, Díaz-Pichardo, Sánchez-
Medina, and Ramboarison-Lalao, (2019) explained that classroom interdisciplinary
diversity is an important factor which fosters the students’ EIs. They also found that
16
classroom interdisciplinary diversity has an indirect effect on the EIs via social norms, ATE,
and perceived behavioral control.
Laguía, Moriano, and Gorgievski (2019) found that self-perceived creativity is
important in the development of students EIs. Family support for creativity also fosters the
EIs. University support for creativity has an indirect effect on the EIs via self-perceived
creativity. In addition, ATE, subjective norms and self-efficacy play their role as mediator
between the relationship of self-perceived creativity and EIs. They also found the gender
and educational level differences in EIs.
Liu, Ma, and Li (2019) studied the effect of role models on the EIs of students. They
found that successful stories have more effect on the EIs of students via entrepreneurial
passion. There was a lower effect of failure stores on the EIs via entrepreneurial passion. In
addition, the self-efficacy plays its role as a moderator between the relationship of role
models and EIs. In another study, Nowiński and Haddoud (2019) demonstrated that role
model and ATE are helpful in developing the self-efficacy. As a result, self-efficacy
positively influences the EIs.
Similarly some other studies examined the effect of proactive behavior (Paul &
Shrivatava, 2016; Usaci, 2015), dark triad (Do & Dadvari, 2017) risk aversion, corruption
(Costa & Mainardes, 2016), risk propensity, self-regulation (Gu, Hu, Wu, & Lado, 2018) on
EIs. Some recent studies demonstrated the role of job identification (Rokhman & Ahamed,
2015), and emotional competencies in the development of EIs. Bellò, Mattana, and Loi
(2018) examine the effect of creativity on EIs. Miranda, Chamorro-Mera, & Rubio, (2017)
found the moderating role of peer support for entrepreneurship in the relationship of
creativity and EIs. Acheampong and Tweneboah-Koduah (2018) examined the relationship
between past entrepreneurial failure and future EIs. Esfandiar, Sharifi-Tehrani, Pratt, and
Altinay, (2019) demonstrated that entrepreneurial intentions can be developed by the
individuals’ entrepreneurial goal intentions. Among the feasibility and desirability, the
individuals value more their desirability while developing their EIs, whereas, self-efficacy
and collective efficacy play their role in the entrepreneurial goals intentions. This research
was conducted in Iran and targeted the Tourism sector.
Bazzy, Smith, and Harrison (2019) examined the effect of abstract thinking on the
individuals’ EIs. They also found that abstract thinking influences EIs via perceived
desirability. Whereas the effect of abstract thinking on the EIs was moderated by the self-
efficacy in such a way, this effect became stronger when the individuals were feeling a
lower level of self-efficacy. The data came for this study from the MBA students of USA.
17
In a recent study, Padilla-Angulo (2019) found student associations play a significant role in
their EIs development. They found the students involved in the extracurricular activities had
a higher level of EIs. In addition, the effect of students’ association on EIs was mediated by
the ATE.
Pérez-Macías, Fernández-Fernández, and Rua Vieites (2019) conducted a study in
Spain and found that social capital, trust, and networking ties played an important role in the
development of EIs. Their findings also showed that trust positively influences the network
ties which in turn affect the components of TPB (perceived behavioral control, attitude
toward behavior and subjective norms). As a result, these TPB factors affect individuals’
EIs. Ruiz-Alba, Soares, Rodríguez-Molina, and Banoun (2019) studied the impact of
gamification experience on the EIs.
Nascent entrepreneurship is also important in the field of entrepreneurship
(Hmieleski & Lerner, 2016). Vuorio, Puumalainen, and Fellnhofer (2018) demonstrated that
attitude toward sustainability has a positive effect on individuals’ EIs. In addition, some
studies discussed the role of perceived capabilities, fear of failure (Tsai, Chang, & Peng,
2016a), corruption (Allini, Ferri, Maffei, & Zampella, 2017; Costa & Mainardes, 2016), and
entrepreneurial identity aspiration (Pfeifer, Šarlija, & Zekić Sušac, 2016) in the
development of EIs. The studies have also shown the effect of social capital (Buttar, 2015),
and regulatory fit (Johnson, Monsen, & MacKenzie, 2017; Simmons, Carr, Hsu, & Shu,
2016) on EIs. Solesvik, Westhead & Matlay, (2014) examined the impact of cultural factors
on individuals’ EIs (Adekiya & Ibrahim, 2016; Siu & Lo, 2013). A study conducted by
Yasir, Majid, and Yasir (2017) showed that environmental turbulence positively influenced
the EIs via alertness to a business idea and entrepreneurial opportunities. Ghosh (2017)
found that stricter credit market regulation has a negative effect on individuals’ EIs.
Ostapenko (2017) demonstrated the role of the informal institution in the development of
individuals’ EIs. He found that the informal institution has an indirect effect on EIs via
person satisfaction with the government. Fini, Grimaldi, Marzocchi, & Sobrero (2012) had a
debate on the micro-foundations of EIs in the context of newly founded firms. They
measured the impact of situational specific motivation and individual skills on attitude
toward entrepreneurial behavior. Their findings also suggested that market openness,
governmental policies, entrepreneurship support programs, education, R&D transfer,
physical and legal infrastructure availability for entrepreneurship are also the determinants
of EIs.
18
Some studies showed the effect of individual socio-cultural factors (Solesvik
Westhead & Matlay, 2014; Singh, Verma, & Rao, 2017) in the development of EIs. Park
(2017) found the positive effect of individuals’ enterprising spirit, networking and learning
with the firm on the individuals’ EIs. Watchravesringkan et al. (2013) found the positive
effect of entrepreneurial knowledge on the EIs.
Some theorists classified the motivations of entrepreneurship as push and pull
factors (Kirkwood, 2009). Perceived opportunity (Marhamat, Zali, & Rezvani, 2018), the
desire of independence (Wilson, Marlino, & Kickul, 2004), and financial motives (Dawson
& Henley, 2012) are the pull factors that motivate the individuals to intend to start their own
business. On the other hand, the push factor includes unemployment (Lawrence &
Hamilton, 1997) and individuals’ perceived dissatisfaction with the current employment
status (Schjoedt & Shaver, 2007). Due to these push factor individuals also tilled to opt the
self-employment. In a study, Orhan and Scott (2001) explained the different push factors
such as forced entrepreneurship, compliance to the family (Sieger & Minola, 2017), and no
other choice that influences the women to opt entrepreneurship as their career. Hechavarria,
Ingram, Justo, and Terjesen (2012) demonstrated that male individuals were more
concerned to the economic goals while female individuals are more concerned to social
value and environment value (pull factors) during the pursuing their own business.
In the research of EIs, many scholars conducted cross-cultural studies. For example,
Schmutzler et al. (2018) studied the moderation of individualism/collectivism in the
relationship between self-efficacy and EIs. The findings of this study showed that there is a
stronger effect of self-efficacy on EIs in the case of individuals having individualism
orientation than collectivism. Atitsogbe, Mama, Sovet, Pari, and Rossier (2019)
demonstrated that along with self-efficacy, career adaptability is also important in the
development of individuals EIs.
In another study, Teixeira, Casteleiro, Rodrigues, and Guerra (2018) explored the
determinants of EIs in European countries. The results of this study revealed that perceived
capability and perceived opportunities are important determinants of EIs. Conversely, there
was no significant effect of government support and policies, education and training,
research and development on the EIs. Ferreira et al. (2018) conducted a study in Portugal
and Spain to study the psychological effects of EIs. They found that perceived ease of
launching a company has a positive effect on the individuals’ EIs.
After the analysis of existing literature on entrepreneurship, it can be assumed that
most of the studies examined the factors, which have a direct impact on the EIs and
19
conducted in developed countries. These studies have paid less attention to the effect of
socio-psychological factors on ATE. The research scholars also ignored the role of attitude
as a mediator. Furthermore, there are few studies which examined the role of gender as a
moderator in the studies of EIs, especially in South Asia. The study one is an attempt to
examine the differential impact of different factor across male and female by integrating
gender schema theory with the TPB framework. This study proposed social norms and self-
efficacy develop the ATE which in turn develop the EIs. Furthermore, it was also argued
that self-efficacy is an important factor which develops the attitude of male individuals
toward entrepreneurship because it is considered as an internal factor. whereas the social
norms may have a higher effect on the attitude of female individuals toward
entrepreneurship because it is the external factor and females are more influenced by the
external factors (Entrialgo, & Iglesias, 2018).
According to motivational theories, the extrinsic and intrinsic rewards are also
imperative for flourishing the individual’s behavior (Pfeffer & Lawler, 1980) whereas the
existing research paid less attention to the intrinsic and extrinsic factors while studying the
EIs. Extrinsic factors include the accumulative wealth, fame and reputation (Vansteenkiste,
et al, 2006), while the intrinsic interest, community feeling aspiration are the intrinsic
factors which influence the individuals’ behaviors (Lopes & Galletta, 2006). Different
studies suggest that people of different cultures value the extrinsic and intrinsic factors
differently (Tang, Furnham, & Davis, 2003; Tung & Baumann, 2009). Therefore, they also
show different behaviors. For example, Tang et al. (2003) reported that the people in
Taiwan have the highest respect for money and the lowest value for the intrinsic job
satisfaction, while the Americans consider money just good. Furnham, Kirkcaldy, and Lynn
(1994) reported that European nations had a lower score at the attitude toward money as
compare to non-European nations. The people of middle eastern countries reported the
highest score on the acquisitiveness for money. It is identified that people have a different
attitude toward money in different cultures (Tung & Baumann, 2009). In addition, the
importance of monetary rewards for male and female is also different (Griskevicius et al.,
2012) in their routine life. These studies demonstrated that individuals have different
attitudes toward extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. Therefore, they also show different
behaviors.
The intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are the stimuli which affect the individuals’
attitudes and intentions. By the integration of goals contents theory with stimulus-response
theory, this study proposes here; the extrinsic and intrinsic rewards may influence the
20
individuals’ EIs. In this study, the researcher tried to identify the role of relative income,
entrepreneurial prestige (extrinsic factor) and intrinsic interest and community feeling
aspiration in the development of EIs by using the framework of goal content theory. As the
context is important, when the individuals are valuing the intrinsic and extrinsic factors,
therefore researcher also incorporated the role of gender in studying the impact of intrinsic
and extrinsic factors on individuals’ EIs.
2.3 SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF ENTREPRENEURIAL
INTENTIONS
2.3.1 Theory of Planned Behavior
The TPB explains that individuals’ behavioral intentions are developed by the three
socio-psychological factors such as perceived behavioral control, social norms, and attitude
(Kolvereid, 1996). The theoretical framework of Study 1 was developed with the help of
TPB. This study proposed that social norms and self-efficacy positively influence
individuals’ EIs via attitude. ATE was defined as “the degree to which individuals value
themselves as entrepreneurs” (Ajzen, 1991). In the framework of TPB, perceived behavioral
control is considered as similar to the self-efficacy (Ajzen, 1991). Self-efficacy refers to the
faith of individual on his own capabilities to achieve goals (Bandura, 1977). Social norms
also influence individuals’ behavioral intentions. Social norms are the pressures which are
exerted by the referent people to opt and show any behavior. These referent people can be
friends and family. When the individuals feel pressure from their friends and family, they
feel it as their obligation to do it. Similarly, in this study, the social norms are
operationalized that individuals receive the recommendation from their friends and family
about to start their own business (Ajzen, 2001). The individuals who receive approval from
their friends and family about the new venture startup, they develop their EIs. This study
demonstrated that social norms are helpful in building positive ATE and then EIs.
Unlike the previous studies (Engle et al., 2010), this study explained that the social
norms and self-efficacy have a positive effect on the ATE and as a result, the individuals’
positive ATE develops the EIs. In this way, ATE may play its role as mediator between the
relationship of socio-psychological factors (social norms & self-efficacy) and EIs. TPB
suggests that beliefs positively influence the attitudes and then it leads toward the
behavioral intention (Bang et al., 2000; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). In this study, the self-
21
efficacy is a belief which is proposed to positively influence the ATE, as a result, it has an
indirect effect on the EIs via ATE.
In this study, social norms are the pressures exerted by the friends and family on the
individuals regarding start their own business (Ajzen, 2001). Paicheler (1976) suggested
that attitude toward a behavior is the function of social norms which regulate the attitude.
Different exiting studies in the field of social psychology elaborated that individuals’
personal beliefs and external factors are affecting the EIs via attitude (Bang et al., 2000,
Davis, 1993). Similarly, in another study, De Roeck, (2014) explained that perceptions and
external beliefs develop the individuals’ attitude. Bang et al. (2000) found the positive effect
of belief on the individuals’ intention to use renewable energy through the mediation of
attitude toward renewable energy. In another study, Davis (1993) demonstrated that ease of
use and usefulness (beliefs) positively influence the behavioral intention via attitude. The
findings of Pi-Tzong, Hsi-Peng, and Tzu-Chuan (2012) showed that coercive, normative
and mimetic pressures (external pressures) positively influence the technology acceptance
intention via the attitude toward new technology. These pressures are also similar to the
social norms and exert on the individuals from the external referent people (friends and
family). Because of these reasons, this study proposed the role of attitude as a mediator
between the relationship of socio-psychological factors and EIs.
2.3.2 Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is the individual’s belief to do something, and the Bandura, (1997)
introduced this variable in management research. According to TPB, self-efficacy is an
important determinant of an individual’s behavioral intention (Ajzen, 1991). Self-efficacy
was contextualized in different fields in the form of computer efficacy, ethical efficacy, and
entrepreneurial efficacy. Many research scholars have found the positive effect of self-
efficacy on the individuals’ EIs (Arranz et al., 2017; Brändle, Berger, Golla, & Kuckertz,
2018; Ferreira et al., 2018; Schlaegel & Koenig, 2014; Schmutzler et al., 2018). However,
the existing research ignored the effect of self-efficacy on ATE. Self-efficacy is
operationalized as “A person’s belief in their ability to successfully launch an
entrepreneurial venture” (McGee et al., 2009, p. 965).
22
2.3.3 Perceived Social Norms
Social norms are the perceived peer pressure from the friends and family of
individuals to indulge in any behavior (Ajzen, 1991). Social norms is also a predictor of EIs
(Jebarajakirthy & Thaichon, 2015; Kautonen, Gelderen, & Fink, 2015). Social norms are
unwritten rules of conduct in any society, and these rules affect individual behaviors (Elster,
1989). When the individuals share about their future EIs with others, actually they are
seeking approval from their family friends and other relatives. These approvals appear in
the form of social norms, and it may influence the ATE.
2.4 Motivational Factors
2.4.1 Goal Contents Theory
Intrinsic interest, community feeling aspirations are the intrinsic motivational factors
which influence the individuals’ behavior (Johnson, 2002). Extrinsic motivational factors
include those factors which are not directly linked to the activity itself. Study 2 used the
framework of goal contents theory.
From the intrinsic and extrinsic factors, the current study examined the impact of
intrinsic interest, community feeling aspirations (intrinsic factors), financial success and
fame (extrinsic factors) on EIs because these factors are most important and relevant with
the entrepreneurship. For example, when students are in the final year of their graduation,
they are more concerned about financial success or earning money (extrinsic goal contents)
(Vansteenkiste et al., 2006). Similarly, at the end of their business degree, the business
graduate also has developed an interest in business activities (Peterman & Kennedy, 2003).
In addition, the people at an early age also want to do something by which they can
contribute to society and has a desire to be famous (Furlong & Cartmel, 2006). In the
current study, we operationalized financial success as perceived relative income from
entrepreneurship, and fame as occupational prestige. The intrinsic interest is operationalized
as intrinsic entrepreneurial interest and community contribution as community feelings
(Kasser & Ryan, 1993; Kasser & Ryan, 2001). To operationalize these construct in the field
of entrepreneurship, we used the focus group technique.
23
2.4.2 Intrinsic Goals
Intrinsic interest refers to the individuals’ “valuing of the task skill for its own
merits” (Zimmerman, 2002, p. 68) and it is basically, the importance that an individual is
giving to one activity or thing (Zimmerman, 2002). This study operationalized the intrinsic
interest in the field of entrepreneurship as: “how much an individual feels the
entrepreneurship itself is interesting and important for him.” This construct is also
discriminated against the other entrepreneurial constructs, for example, self-efficacy, Social
Norms, and ATE, entrepreneurial education, experience, and family background.
Community feelings refer to “the individual concern to make the world a better place
through one’s action” (Kasser & Ryan, 1993, p. 411). Community feelings come in the
heading of intrinsic goals (Kasser & Ryan, 2001). The community feeling is a motivational
factor which influences human behaviors (Jones, 2010; Jones & Chant, 2009; Kasser &
Ryan, 2001). This study assumes the individuals may also develop their attitude and
intention to start their own business due to their community feelings.
2.4.3 Extrinsic Goals
Perceived Relative Income: Herein, this study introduced the construct of perceived
relative income which is defined as the expected present value of profit from
entrepreneurship exceeding that of being an employee (Campbell, 1992). That theoretically
discriminates against the existing determinants (perceived behavioral control, social norms,
entrepreneurial education, family background, and experience) of individuals’ EIs.
Perceived occupational prestige: The term prestige itself refers to the admiration
and respect that an occupation holds in a society (Najafimoghadamnejhad &
Kharazmirahimabadi, 2014). Prestige is operationalized as the perceived value of personal
prestige from entrepreneurship or doing a job under someone. Here, I argue that the
perceived relative occupational prestige that is an extrinsic motivation may develop the
entrepreneurial attitude and intentions. This construct also discriminated against other
determinants (self-efficacy, social norms, entrepreneurial education, family background,
and experience) of EIs.
24
2.5 THE MECHANISM HOW AND WHEN
2.5.1 Attitude toward Entrepreneurship as Mediator
The framework of TPB reveals that individuals ATE is the major stimulating factor
in the development of EIs (Ajzen, 1991) and many studies also have validated the same
connection in various countries including developed and developing both. (Arranz et al.,
2017; Ferreira et al., 2018; Schlaegel & Koenig, 2014; Schmutzler et al., 2018). ATE is
defined as “the degree to which the individual holds a positive or negative personal
valuation of being an entrepreneur” (Ajzen, 2001; Liñán & Chen, 2009, p-596). There are
many other studies which used the attitude as the independent variable and examined its
impact on EIs (Engle et al., 2010; Kolvereid, 1996). According to the findings of Chen and
Lai (2010), the building of ATE is primarily based on personality traits and environmental
cognition. In another study, Lee and Wong (2003) demonstrated that demographic factors
(gender, entrepreneurship education, income, and role model) and psychological factors
which are based on need for achievement and independence of work, locus of control and
risk-taking propensity) affects the ATE which in turn develop the EIs (Mat, Maat, & Mohd,
2015). Liñán & Chen, (2009) found that social norms has an indirect effect on the EIs via
ATE, but the ignored the indirect effect of self-efficacy on the EIs via ATE. Therefore we
used here attitude as a mediator between the relationship of attitude and EIs. On the other
hand, there was no study found which discussed the effect of SELF-EFFICACY on ATE.
self-efficacy is a belief of individuals that could not sufficiently affect the entrepreneurial
intention without building the attitude. We argue from the theory of Ajzen (1991) who
established the linkage between beliefs, attitude, and intention. Therefore, this study used
the ATE as a mediator between the relationship between self-efficacy and social norms with
EIs. The literature review also revealed that there was no study which found the effect of
intrinsic and extrinsic goals on the ATE. Study 2 of this research also examined the effect of
intrinsic and extrinsic goals on the individuals’ EIs through the mediation of ATE.
2.5.2 Gender as Moderator
Entrialgo and Iglesias, (2018) stated that male and female individuals develop their
EIs by the different stimulating factors. They found external factors are more important for
the women such as role model who has a more significant effect on the EIs of female
individuals, whereas the internal factor such as entrepreneurship education has a higher
effect on the EIs of male individuals. Similarly, Cañizares and García (2010) studied the
25
gender differences in entrepreneurial attitudes by using the data set of Spain students. They
concluded that females are less prone to initiate new business due to the fear of failure of
the new firm. Derera, Chitakunye, and Neill (2014) studied the fund-raising problems of
women in the startup of their new venture. This study was conducted in South Africa, and
its results revealed that women are facing difficulties in raising startup capital and the
majority of the women use personal savings, family savings and bank loans for the
establishment of new small business. A study conducted by Rico and Cabrer-Borrás (2018)
examined the gender difference in individuals while opting for their own business in Spain.
They stated the characteristics of male and female individual influence their career selection
choice. In another study, Dahalan, Jaafar, and Rosdi (2013) explored the gender difference
at the idea generation stage in entrepreneurship. They concluded in some aspects the
females are different from male to find new business opportunities. Bhardwaj (2018) stated
that education is important for women to understand the entrepreneurship process. Lago,
Delgado, and Castelo Branco (2018) demonstrated that risk-taking propensity is an
important factor which influences the women entrepreneurial behavior. Mehtap, Pellegrini,
Caputo, and Welsh (2017) conducted a student on the EIs of young Women from the Arab
world and indicated that robust supportive education system is an important factor in the
development of EIs.
Although different studies have discussed the gender difference in the research of
EIs, researchers paid less attention to the role of gender as a moderator. Male and female
individuals may consider the different importance of socio-psychological and motivational
factors while developing their EIs. Therefore this research used the gender as a moderator in
study 1 and 2 both.
2.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY
Literature review reveals that the majority of the studies on EIs have used the
framework of the TPB (Ajzen, 1991). The findings of numerous studies showed that the
TPB has high validity in the context of entrepreneurship. social norms, self-efficacy, and
ATE are the essential determinants of EIs (Jebarajakirthy & Thaichon, 2015; Kautonen et
al., 2015). Study 1 contributes to the literature by explaining the mediational process
between the relationship of social norms and self-efficacy with EIs. This study proposed
that social norms is stimulating factor that is the part of the external environment and self-
efficacy is the personal stimulating factor in term of personal belief and confidence to do
26
something, influence the EIs through the mediation of ATE. In addition, it is also proposed
that for male individuals, self-efficacy is a primarily vital factor and for female individuals,
the social norms are essential while developing their ATE. The theoretical framework of
study 1 has been explained in chapter 3.
As earlier discussed the majority of the studies were using the framework of the
TPB to study the EIs. In study 2, the researcher used another framework of goal contents
theory and proposed that intrinsic (intrinsic interest, community feelings) and extrinsic
goals (monetary rewards, occupational prestige) may influence the individual's EIs. By
considering the gender differences, it is further argued that for the male individuals, intrinsic
interest and monetary rewards are the main driving factors which positively influence their
attitude and EIs. Whereas for the female individuals, community feelings and occupational
prestige can be the primary predictors of their attitude and EIs. The theoretical model of
study 2 along with its hypotheses is available in the next chapter.
27
CHAPTER 3:
RESEARCH MODEL AND HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT
This chapter explained the theoretical frameworks of study 1 and study 2. Study 1
uses the framework of the TPB and hypothesizes that social norms and self-efficacy
positively influence the ATE which in turn positively develops the individuals’ EIs. In
addition, the effect of these factors on ATE varies across male and female in such a way, the
effect of self-efficacy on ATE is higher in the case of male individuals. Whereas the
positive effect of social norms on ATE varies across both genders in such a way, its effect is
higher for female individuals.
Study 2 uses the framework of the goal contents theory and proposes that intrinsic
and extrinsic goals positively influence the ATE which in turn develops the EIs. In addition,
the effect of monetary rewards (extrinsic goal) and intrinsic interest (intrinsic goal) on ATE
may be higher in the case of male individuals, whereas the effect of community feelings
(intrinsic goal) and occupational prestige (extrinsic goal) on ATE might be greater for
female individuals as compared to their counterpart male.
3.1 STUDY 1: THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOR
3.1.1 Impact of Self-Efficacy on Entrepreneurial Intentions via Attitude
The individuals’ perception of their own ability helps the individuals for the
accomplishment of different tasks. Self-efficacy is the individuals’ confidence that they can
do or complete the referred task. Markman et al., (2002) demonstrated that individuals seek
their motivation from their self-efficacy throughout their lives. Perceived self-efficacy is
also an important factor while determining human behavior (Bandura & Wood, 1989). In
the existing research, the scholars have explained the different types of self-efficacy such as
managerial efficacy (Robertson & Sadri, 1993) and moral efficacy (May, Luth, &
Schwoerer, 2009). This study posits that when individuals feel entrepreneurial self-efficacy,
they value the activity of starting a business positively, therefore they may develop their
entrepreneurial intentions. In addition, they also see them as an entrepreneur and feel good
to become an entrepreneur (Kolvereid, 1996). Ajzen (1991) reported that the belief of
individuals about any object or activity is helpful in developing their attitude.
28
Entrepreneurship is a procedural activity, in which the entrepreneurs are to perform
the different types of management such as opportunity identification, risk management,
resources management, team management, products and services management, and
marketing management. When entrepreneurs have not knowledge about all these things,
they cannot develop their self-efficacy and ATE. When people feel a higher level of self-
efficacy, they have more interest in the entrepreneurship (Chen, Greene, & Crick, 1998).
This interest is also a positive form of attitude (Crano & Prislin, 1995). Schifter and Ajzen,
(1985) conducted a laboratory experiment and empirically proved that self-efficacy is
directly linked with attitudes.
Similarly, the link between self-efficacy and attitude also been established in the
different domains of research. When individuals feel a positive attitude toward any activity,
they develop their intention to do that activity (Ajzen & Fishbein,1980). It is argued that
self-efficacy can be helpful in the development of ATE. Based on these arguments, it is
hypothesized:
H1: The individuals’ self-efficacy will positively influence their EIs via ATE.
3.1.2 Impact of Social Norms on Entrepreneurial Intentions via Attitude
Social norms play an important role in shaping human behavior. In the area of
entrepreneurship, it is the perception of individuals about the pressures exerted on them
from their friends and family regarding routine life actions. Social Norms explain the
desires and suggestion of the people (friends and family) that they want to be followed by
you regarding any decision (Liñán & Chen, 2006). In the economic decisions, social norms
influence at the individual level and group level both (Meek et al., 2010; Sherif, 1936;
Lipset, 2000). For survival, human always opts those practices which follow the SOCIAL
NORMS (Sherif, 1936). Entrepreneurship is the human survival activity that human opt for
the betterment of economic conditions, and growth (Carree & Thurik, 2003). Giannetti and
Simonov, (2004) found the positive association between social norms and entrepreneurial
entry. Individuals want to adopt those practices which are socially acceptable therefore they
develop a positive attitude about those actions which are socially embedded (Paicheler,
1976). Therefore, when the entrepreneurship appears as a social norm, it may lead toward
the ATE. It is argued that when the individuals feel pressures from their family, friends, and
others regarding the starting of a new venture, they will build a positive ATE. If they do not
follow those pressures, it may cause social conflict and increase the anti-normative behavior
29
(Paicheler, 1976). Lapinski and Rimal (2005) explained that human behaviors need the
approval of social groups. Similarly, Lee (1991) stated that the individuals highly motivated
by the group norms like the actions/behaviors which are prestigious and valuable in the
social groups. In some studies of social psychology, it is observed that subjective norms
have a positive effect on the attitudes of individuals.
Entrepreneurship has appeared as a prestigious career in society. In some families,
the entrepreneurship has emerged in such a way, the parents, and family enforces their
offsprings to opt entrepreneurship only as a career (Edwards, 1990). In family businesses,
this tendency already has been increased. Whereas in some other families, doing a job is
preferred as compared to starting a new business or involving in already a business.
Therefore, it is posited that:
H2: Social norms will positively influence individuals’ EIs via ATE.
3.1.3 Moderating Role of Gender
Gender schema theory (Bem, 1981) explains that male and female individuals have
preexisting schemas in their mind, whenever they receive any information from their
external environment, they match the information with their pre-existing schemas and save
the information which falls in their interest or relevant to their schemas (Kohlberg, 1966).
Male and females have different gender schemas and their selection of clothes, occupation
based on their gender schema. During their career choice, male and female individuals also
care about their prescriptive schema. Male individuals feel the entrepreneurship is relevant
to their domain (Pernilla, 1997; Winn, 2005) and they show a higher level of self-efficacy
(Wilson et al., 2007). Male individuals are keenly observing the successful entrepreneurs
and master their entrepreneurial skills (Qureshi & Sarfraz, 2012). Entrepreneurial self-
efficacy is higher in male individuals as compared to females (Qureshi & Sarfraz, 2012).
Regarding their career choice, male individuals more care about their own beliefs. Male
individuals like to remain independent and assertive (Sidanius & Pratto, 2001), dominant,
and adventurous in their nature (Ahl, 2006), therefore, they may develop their ATE
primarily from their self-efficacy. On the other hand, female individuals are communal and
nurturing and do not much rely on their own beliefs (Sidanius & Pratto, 2001), they care
more about the opinion of others as compare to their self-efficacy. Therefore, they may less
rely on their self-efficacy while developing their ATE.
30
H3: The effect of self-efficacy on ATE is moderated by gender in such a way; the
male individuals value higher their self-efficacy in developing their ATE.
Social norms are important in the development of ATE, but it depends upon how
much importance individuals give to these social norms. In the same way, in the career
choice decision, individuals do not always care about social norms. The research has shown
that women have fewer tendencies toward entrepreneurship (Jonathan & Mark, 2011)
because of their prescriptive gender schema. Women are more dependent while deciding to
start a job or business and they perceive that entrepreneurship falls in the male domain
(Winn, 2005). Because of gender schemas, women have a limited choice of occupations.
When they are to opt entrepreneurship as a career, firstly they think about the social norms.
If they expect that their family will allow them to start a business, they develop a positive
ATE. On the other hand, male individuals highly involved in the entrepreneurship (Delmar
& Davidsson, 2000), they do not much care about social norms while developing their ATE.
On the other hand, women are more concerned about the harmonious functioning of the
groups, and they have a tendency to maintain the interpersonal relationships (Skitka &
Maslach,1996; Miller, 2012), therefore they seek social acceptance (Eagly, 1978) while
thinking about entrepreneurship. Different existing studies also demonstrated that subjective
norms have a higher effect on women intentions toward a specific behavior (Venkatesh and
Morris, 2000). The research has also revealed that social cues are more important for
women (Garai & Scheinfeld, 1968) because they are more communal (Sidanius & Pratto,
2001). Based on these arguments, the following hypothesis has been proposed:
H4: The effect of social norms on ATE is moderated by gender in such a way; the
female individuals value higher social norms in developing their ATE.
31
Figure 1: Hypothesized Model Study 1
3.2 STUDY 2: GOAL CONTENTS THEORY
3.2.1 The Impact of Intrinsic Goals on Individuals’ Entrepreneurial Intentions
Goal contents theory explains the intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors
influence the individuals' behaviors. Community feeling aspiration and intrinsic interest are
the intrinsic factors which influence individual behavior (Kasser & Ryan, 1993). The
community feeling is the concept of helpfulness, and it is a concern for individuals to
improve the world through activism (Kasser & Ryan, 1996). Entrepreneurship is the process
of new products and services creation, and it provides the solution to the society (Ward,
2004). Entrepreneurship is the sources of innovation (Schumpeter, 2000). Entrepreneurship
is important for sustainable employment and new job creation for the people (Shane &
Venkataraman, 2000). For the individual who has goals related to community feelings and
helpfulness, entrepreneurship may be the sources, by which they can work for the
betterment of the world. Community feelings are the intrinsic motivation factor and source
of self-actualization (Kasser & Ryan, 1993). It is observed that entrepreneurs also see their
business as the source of self-actualization (Carland, Carland, & Carland III, 2015), and
entrepreneurship may provide them with the autonomy to serve the community. Kasser &
Ryan (2001) recommended while pursuing the business or any social ethics, human
consider more its intrinsic aspirations (community feelings) as compare to extrinsic
aspiration (money and wealth) because intrinsic aspirations are more related to personal
well-being (Vega & Primeaux, 2014). This study proposes here, the individuals who value
Attitude toward
Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurial
Intentions
Self-
Efficacy
Social
Norms
Gender
H1
H2
H3
H4
32
more the community feelings goals and want to serve the community; they have more
tendency toward the entrepreneurship.
According to Gist (1987), human behaviors persist over the long-term due to
intrinsic interest. The individuals who are more concerned to the intrinsic interest, they are
more concerned to their skills improvement and like to enjoy the entrepreneurial activity
itself (Kim-Soon, Ahmad, Saberi, & Tat, 2013). In entrepreneurship, there is more learning
opportunity (Bonesso, Gerli, Pizzi, & Cortellazzo, 2018), self-recognition, and enjoyment
(Kim-Soon et al., 2013). Therefore, when the individuals are concerned with their intrinsic
goals, they will have more tend toward their own business creation as compared to doing
the job under someone. Intrinsic goals are essential for sustaining entrepreneurship (Auken,
Stephens, Fry, & Silva, 2006). Krueger and Brazeal (1994) demonstrated that when
individuals feel an intrinsic interest in entrepreneurship, they will show their positive ATE.
Phan, Wong, and Wang (2002) found intrinsic interest has a positive effect on the
propensity for new venture creation. These findings show that intrinsic interest and
community feeling aspiration stimulate the individuals’ ATE. Many studies demonstrated
that ATE has a positive effect on behavioral intentions (Ajzen, 1991; Arshad, Ashraf, &
Raoof, 2015; Kolvereid, 1996). These findings suggest that the attitude developed by the
intrinsic interest will develop the individuals’ EIs. Therefore, this research proposes here:
H1a: Community feelings aspiration has a positive effect on ATE, which in turn
develops the Individuals’ EIs.
H1b: Intrinsic interest in entrepreneurship has a positive effect on ATE, which in
turn develops the individuals’ EIs.
3.2.2 The Impact of Extrinsic Goals on Individuals’ Entrepreneurial Intentions
According to the goal contents theory, the extrinsically motivated behaviors are
characterized by some separable consequences which can be instrumental and monetary
(Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Individuals indulge in extrinsically motivated behaviors for the
achievement of instrumental values attached to that activity. For example, wealth and
reputation attached to activity can extrinsically motivate the people. It also recommends that
accumulated wealth and individual reputation are stimuli, which influence individual
behavior. In recent neuro-economics approaches, it is described that humans are influenced
by financial as well as social benefits (Fehr & Camerer, 2007). Also, their mind is sensitive
33
to both rewards, including money, and social stimuli (Nitschke et al., 2004), for instance,
occupational prestige. Based upon previous findings, which indicate a linear relationship
between reward value and striatal activation for monetary rewards (Knutson, Adams, Fong,
& Hommer, 2001), the anticipation of increasing financial compensation selectively recruits
nucleus accumbent (Knutson et al., 2001). Occupational selection is considered essential for
individuals due to its influence on their earning and social status (Vansteenkiste et al.,
2006). In Goal contents theory (Vansteenkiste et al., 2006), this social status is described as
reputation or prestige that is the form of extrinsic motivation which affects individual
behavior. While selecting the occupation, a key aspect is prestige (Walker & Tracey, 2012).
When the students are near to complete their education, and when they plan to start a new
business or job, occupational may direct their behavior. That is, once the individuals
perceive occupational prestige in starting their own businesses, they may develop attitude
and intention towards entrepreneurship. Wong (2006) demonstrated that people perceive
more prestige and financial rewards in their own businesses.
According to Kuratko et al. (1997), wealth is the essential factor in for the sustained
entrepreneurship. In another study (Baumol, 1990), it revealed that the reward structure in
the economy determines how much time an entrepreneur gives to his entrepreneurial
activity. Similarly, Campbell (1992) demonstrated that people decide to become
entrepreneurs depends upon their perceived value of monetary rewards from
entrepreneurship as compared to being employed. Finally, Burmeister and Schade (2007)
suggest that financial rewards are an important motivation tool for entrepreneurs.
Perceived extrinsic benefits, which include both perceived relative income and
relative occupational prestige are the human beliefs of expectations from their own
business. These beliefs may influence the individual attitude towards entrepreneurship,
which consequently develops their EIs. TPB develops the link between belief, attitude, and
intention. By assimilating the goal contents theory with the TPB, this study also suggests
that perceived relative occupational prestige and perceived relative income from
entrepreneurship may impact the individual attitude towards entrepreneurship. Moreover, it
leads to EIs. Therefore, here the researcher proposes:
H2a: Perceived relative income from entrepreneurship has a positive effect on
ATE, which in turn develops the individuals’ EIs.
34
H2b: Perceived occupational prestige from entrepreneurship has a positive effect
on ATE, which in turn develops the individuals’ EIs.
3.2.3 Moderation of Gender
Existing research explains that there are specific differences between males and
females due to their gender role in society (Eckes, & Trautner, 2000). It also explains that
women are considered to be communal, i.e., “nurturing and socially oriented” (Eckes, &
Trautner, 2000). As the females are more socially oriented, that is the reason; they like to
indulge in those behaviors which can fulfill their innate need of helping others (Eckes, &
Trautner, 2000). According to the findings of Sheldon (2007), it is observed that female
rated higher on helping others as compared to their counterpart male individuals. According
to the findings of Kasser and Ryan (1993) women rated the importance of affiliation and
community feeling as higher than did men. These findings suggest women are more
concerned about the community feel and they want to serve the community more as
compare to male individuals. Entrepreneurship provides more autonomy and opportunity to
serve the community (Seelos & Mair, 2005), that might be the reason which may influence
female individuals to develop their ATE to full their innate need and desire of community
feelings. Therefore, the investigator posits here:
H3a: The impact of community feeling aspiration on ATE will be higher in female
individuals as compared to male members.
Gender schema theory explains that individual’ perceptions develop by their
incoming information and their pre-existing schemas (Bem, 1981). Individuals learn things
that are relevant to their schemas. Bem (1981) also explained that the selection of clothes,
hobbies, and occupation depends upon the individual's pre-existing schema. Therefore, the
occupation selection also depends upon gender (Arshad et al., 2015). It seems male are
more conscious of the information related entrepreneurship, because they may have a more
intrinsic interest in entrepreneurship. It is further argued that women are less inclined
toward entrepreneurship due to their prescribed social developed gender schema which
confines them to select just a few selected occupations. Therefore, they did not develop
their intrinsic interest in entrepreneurship. According to Gupta et al. (2009),
entrepreneurship is associated with the characteristics of risk-taking, challenging, and
independence. Therefore, it more linked to the interest of male individuals. Due to all these
35
reasons, the male also has a higher ATE (Gupta et al., 2009). Therefore, the study proposes
here:
H3b: The impact of perceived intrinsic entrepreneurial interest on ATE will be
higher in males as compared to females.
According to Gottfredson, (1981), people select occupations based on their
masculinity-femininity and social desirability. According to Martin and Kirkcaldy (1998),
gender is a determinant of occupation choice. Men tilled toward those activities which are
helpful for the achievement of their desired end states (Deci, 1972). Furnham (1984)
conducted a study to identify the relationship between demographics and peoples’ attitude
towards money; it was observed that in comparison to women, men are more inclined
towards money. It was further described that “Females believed significantly more than
males that money was unimportant to their mother, siblings, and self” (Furnham, 1984). The
study conducted by Martin and Kirkcaldy (1998) also support that in the valuation of money
as a status symbol, males significantly scored higher than their counterpart females. These
findings are also in-line with the findings of Torrubia, Avila, Moltó, and Caseras (2001)
who found that men are more sensitive for monetary rewards as compare to females (Li,
Huang, Lin, & Sun, 2007). When people are selecting entrepreneurship as their occupation,
it seems like that; the males are more interested in money. That is, the relationship of
perceived relative income will be stronger in males than in females. When males perceive
more relative income in starting their own business, they will be more willing towards
entrepreneurship due to their desired end state in the form of monetary rewards. Therefore,
this study proposes the following:
H4a: The impact of perceived relative income on ATE will be higher in males as
compared to females.
Women are considered more conscious and sensitive to social signals as compare to
male individuals (Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright, 2004; Proverbio, Zani, & Adorni, 2008).
Entrialgo and Iglesias, (2018) also stated that females are more influenced by external
factors such as role model while developing their EIs. In another study (McClure, 2000) it
was described that female have more capability to feel the external cues such as facial
expression. In the studies of personality, Cloninger, Przybeck, and Svrakic (1991) found
that women are more reward dependent as compared to men (Cloninger et al., 1991; Otter,
36
Huber, & Bonner, 1995). Male dominance is the phenomena of western as well as eastern
culture; South Asia is a dominant male society (Kabeer, 2005). Besides, in male dominant
societies, the males are considered distinctive and have high authority over females, and the
females are undermined (Kabeer, 2005). According to Acker (1973), females have less
prestige in society as compared to males. When females are feeling shortage of prestige,
they may be more concerned towards the prestige. If females perceive more prestige in
entrepreneurship, they may more tend towards entrepreneurship as compared to males. Here
in, the researcher proposes:
H4b: The impact of perceived occupational prestige from entrepreneurship on
ATE will be higher in females as compared to males.
37
Figure 2: Hypothesized Model Study 2
H1a&b
H2a&b
Intrinsic Factors
Extrinsic Factors
Attitude toward
Entrepreneurship
Community
Feelings
Intrinsic
Interest
Perceived
Relative
Income
Perceived
Occupational
Prestige
Entrepreneurial
Intentions
Gender
Control Variables:
▪ Social Norms
▪ Self-Efficacy
▪ Age
▪ Education
▪ Entrepreneurship
education
▪ Family Business
▪ Role Model
H3a
H3b
H4a
H4b
38
CHAPTER 4:
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter provides in-depth detail about the research method adopted for this
research. The current research was conducted under the paradigm of positivism. The current
study adopted a survey research design and developed a questionnaire by using the already
established instruments. This chapter also explained the data collection procedure and data
analysis techniques. The data were collected from the students of engineering, business and
information technology. Before data collection, the pilot testing helped to test the reliability
of the adopted instrument. This research used a structural equation modeling technique to
test mediation by using the analysis of moment structures technique (AMOS) 22. To test the
moderation analysis, the dissertation used a macro developed by Hayes (2011).
4.1 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY
Research is a scientific tool for the investigation of reality in the world. By applying
this tool, the researchers try to understand the different social and organizational
phenomena. There are different paradigms which see the reality from different perspectives.
Every paradigm has its logic and explanation about the existence of reality. The current
study was conducted under the positivism paradigm (Giddens, 1974). Positivists see reality
as something 'out there,' as a law of nature just waiting to be found. In addition, according to
positivism, the researcher should be external to the knowledge, because they think
knowledge is the law of nature and their approach is objective (Giddens, 1974). In
positivism, quantitative method is deployed, and there is more focus on the robustness of
the method having high validity and reliability. According to Sanders (2011), knowledge in
the social realm can be extended by testing the hypotheses based on existing theories. The
objective of the positivism is to introduce the general laws from the behavioral prediction.
Similarly, as a positivist, this research also believes the EIs are the measurable phenomena,
and the factors can be identified which may influence in the EIs by developing the
theoretical model based on the existing theories. There are many other studies which
adopted the positivism approach and tested the existing theories in the mainstream of
research on EIs (BarNir, Watson, & Hutchins, 2011; Biraglia & Kadile, 2017; De Janasz,
De-Pillis, & Reardon, 2007).
39
The present study tested the TPB and goal contents theory in the field of
entrepreneurship. Furthermore, this study also contextualized and mobilized these theories
in the context of Pakistan and described how the gender difference in Pakistan could add
knowledge and challenge the previous finding of the determinants of EIs.
4.2 RESEARCH DESIGN
The research design is the plan of data collection, measurement, and analysis of data
for addressing the research questions. This research addressed the research question of how
and when the socio-psychological and motivational factors affect the EIs. This research
deployed the survey research strategy (Jann & Hinz, 2016). In this research, there is not any
interference of the researcher in the data collection process. The research settings were
natural and data were collected from the university students to determine their EIs.
Therefore this research used the non-contrived settings in which the data were collected in
the natural environment as compared to the artificial environment. Unit of analysis was
individual. The time horizon for this study was longitudinal. The data of independent and
mediating variables were collected in Time 1, whereas the data of EIs were collected in time
2. Statistical analysis was performed for hypotheses testing.
4.3 SURVEY RESEARCH STRATEGY
Among the different research strategies, this research used the survey research
strategy. Survey design is preferable over other designs due to its higher external reliability
and validity (Moser & Kalton, 2017). In addition, most of the existing studies on EIs were
also using the survey research design (BarNir et al., 2011; Biraglia & Kadile, 2017; De
Janasz et al., 2007). In addition, the self-reported survey also has many advantages for
researchers such as it is cost-effective and provides flexibility to researchers and
respondents in the data collection process (Moser & Kalton, 2017). This design is also
preferable because, the respondents can rate their own responses on the questionnaire very
easily (Jann & Hinz, 2016).
4.4 SURVEY INSTRUMENT
The survey instrument was classified into two parts. First, part was related to the
demographics such as University, Field of education, Gender, Age, Education level,
40
Entrepreneurship Course, Role Model. The second part of the questionnaire is related to the
focal study related variables which were administered at the Likert scale.
4.4.1 Population and Target Population
The population of this study was the university students. Among the university
students, we further targeted to last year students of BS and Masters. The Lahore was
selected for this study because it is the hub of universities. The Majority of the universities
exists in Lahore. In addition, in the universities of Lahore, the students are enrolled from all
the provinces (Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, KPK, and Gilgit Baltistan). Because of the
availability of the students from different regions, the data collection from Lahore covers
the population across Pakistan. We selected private sector universities because in these
universities the merit of admission is not too much strict. The students having different
grades can get admission in private sector universities. On the other hand, in the public
sector universities, the merit of admission is higher, only selected students can get
admission. Therefore the students of the diverse background are available in the private
sector university. The private sector universities offer a diverse context for this study. With
the perspective of number students, there are only 3 large universities in Lahore which are
offering the admission in the Business, IT and Engineering; therefore we selected only 3
private sector universities. The current research was classified in two studies; however, the
respondents for both studies were the same.
4.4.2 Sampling Procedure
This research used purposive sampling technique and targeted final year students as
they are supposed to be future entrepreneurs (Fitzsimmons & Douglas, 2011) and they have
the capacity to start a job or initiate their own private right after the completion of their
education. To determine the sample size for study1 and study 2, this research used the
technique proposed by Kline (2011). According to Kline (2011), to test a hypothesized
model, it is recommended to collect data from a minimum of ten respondents per observed
variable. The theoretical model of study 1 comprised of four latent variables which are
measured by 25 observed items. According to respondents. The hypothesized model of
study 2 is based on six focal latent variables which are measured by 26 items. By applying
the technique proposed by Kline (2011), this research needed 260 sample size to test the
model of study 2. Therefore, the researcher collected data from 400 respondents to test the
41
model of both studies. The researcher personally visited the classrooms at the starting of a
student lecture. With the permission of the teacher, the researcher distributed the surveys
among the respondents and received back the filled questionnaire at the end of the lecture.
The whole data collection procedure took four weeks’ time period.
4.4.3 Personally Administered Questionnaire
The personally administered questionnaire is helpful for the collection of data from
local and accessible respondents. The target population of this research is the university
students who are easily accessible. The researcher can motivate and make aware the
respondents about the purpose of the study. The respondents may ask questions for the
clarity of question items. Due to these multiple advantages, this study collected data by a
personally administered questionnaire.
4.4.4 Language of the Questionnaire
Following Raja, Johns, and Ntalianis (2004), the questionnaire was monitored
closely and the survey was conducted in the English Language on the basis that the medium
of instruction of these students was English in Pakistan. Hence there was no need to
translate the document in the local language. (Raja et al., 2004).
4.4.5 Type and form of Questions
The questionnaire of this research was comprised of the closed-ended questions.
Demographics and study related variables were measured by using the closed-ended
responses. Closed questions are helpful for the respondents to reach the appropriate
response among the several alternatives.
4.4.6 Pretesting of Questionnaire
Before the data collection, it is important to pretest the questionnaire. The pretesting
was performed to ensure that respondents can understand the questions. Pretesting is helpful
to identify the problems of the wordiness of questions. To determine the appropriateness
and comprehension of the question, the researcher distributed the questionnaire among 20
MBA students. These students were asked to highlight the issues and problems in the
42
questionnaire related to statements’ clarity. There was not any major issue found in the
questionnaire.
4.4.7 Administration and Time Horizon
This research administered the survey by using the longitudinal design. To manage
the issue of common method bias, the data collection was completed in two waves. The data
of all independent and mediating variables were collected in time 1. The data of EIs were
collected in time 2.
4.5 MEASUREMENT
4.5.1 Adopted Measures
The entrepreneurial intentions were measured by six items developed by Liñán and
Chen (2009). This instrument was used by many other studies and validated (Herman &
Stefanescu, 2017; Hsu, Shinnar, Powell, & Betty, 2017; Shinnar, Hsu, Powell, & Zhou,
2018) in different contexts such as Spain and Taiwan. The Cronbach Alpha value was in the
range of .776 to .953 (Liñán & Chen, 2009).
ATE is measured by five items adopted from Liñán and Chen (2009). This measure
was used by different studies (Kautonen, Tornikoski, & Kibler, 2011; Serida Nishimura &
Morales Tristán, 2011) and showed acceptable reliability and validity. The 7-point Likert
Scale was used for the items of ATE.
Social norms are measured by eight items selected from Liñán and Chen (2006). The
Cronbach alpha value of this measure was .80. This instrument was also used by some other
studies that showed acceptable reliability and validity (Jakopec, Krecar, & Susanj, 2013;
Muofhe & Du Toit, 2011).
Self-efficacy, six items scale, was adopted by Wilson et al. (2007). The reliability of
this variable was .82. This instrument was also validated by Pihie and Akmaliah (2009). The
7-point Likert Scale was used for the items of self-efficacy (1= Strongly Disagree, 7=
Strongly Agree). Example item includes “I am able to solve problems of business-related
matters.”
Intrinsic interest was measured by two items adapted from Lopes and Galletta
(2006). This instrument was used in the marketing context, and this study adapted this
instrument in entrepreneurship context.
43
Community feelings aspiration was measured by seven items adapted from Kasser
and Ryan (1993). The Cronbach alpha value of this variable was .81 (Kasser & Ryan,
1993).
Perceived relative income from entrepreneurship refers to the expected present
value of profit from entrepreneurship exceeding that of being an employee (Campbell,
1992). It is measured by a single item (I believe that I will have more money in my own
business as compared to doing the job) adapted from Dawson and Henley, (2012).
The 7 points Likert Scale was used for the items of EIs, ATE, social norms, self-
efficacy, intrinsic interest, and perceived relative income (1= Strongly Disagree, 7 =
Strongly Agree). For the measurement of community contribution, 7 point Likert Scale (1=
Not at all, 7= Very important). The complete survey is available in APPENDIX A.
4.5.2 Self-Developed Measure
Perceived occupational prestige from entrepreneurship refers to the admiration
and respect that the entrepreneur holds in a society (Najafimoghadamnejhad &
Kharazmirahimabadi, 2014). In some studies, occupational prestige was measured by the
socio-economic index (Ganzeboom, De Graaf, & Treiman, 1992), in which individuals are
given a list of different occupations, and they are to order these occupations by the value of
these occupations in their minds. This study did not adopt this scale, because it provides the
comparisons of different occupations, whereas, this study is to measure the occupational
prestige from self-employment on a Likert scale. If the researcher uses that socio-economic
index, in this case, this research has the option of single item binary variable. For example,
rank the options from 1-2 as they value themselves: Starting job under someone, Start own
business. There are a few problems with this measure. Firstly, it is a single item measure,
which does not cover the concept of prestige related to own business or job. Secondly, it
does not provide the complete operationalization of definition of perceived occupational
prestige from own business. Therefore, this study developed a new scale of occupational
prestige from entrepreneurship by operationalization its definition. For the development of a
measure of relative occupational prestige from entrepreneurship, this study followed the
recommendations proposed by Schwab (1980) and Churchill (1979). This research
conducted a Q-Sort list of items using a panel of 10 content experts. The researcher
provided them the definition of occupational prestige. They are requested to evaluate each
item and place it in either occupational prestige category or in another category, which is
44
not fit in in the conceptual definition. As per definition, this scale covers prestige,
admiration, and respect related to own business the 7-point Likert Scale was used for the
items of occupation prestige (1= Strongly Disagree, 7= Strongly Agree). Example item
includes “I consider I will enjoy more value in society if I start my own business rather than
doing a job.” After the data collection, we performed exploratory factor analysis (EFA) by
using the principal components extraction method. All the items enjoyed good factor
loadings (.76-.91). In addition, in confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) the standardized
regression weights (.69-.90) of these items were also greater than 0.50, as a result, its
average variance extracted (AVE) were also greater than 0.50 (Kline, 2011). To test the
internal consistency we measured Cronbach Alpha value which was found greater than 0.70
(see table 2). Therefore these developed items enjoyed good reliability and validity in the
current context of the study.
4.5.3 Control Variables
The demographic variables were in the first part of the questionnaire. These
variables include the University, Field of study, Gender (Male, Female), Age (15-20 years,
21-25 years, 26-30 years, 31-35 years, 36-40 Years and More than 40 years), Education
(Graduation, Masters), Entrepreneurship Course (Yes, No), Role Model (Yes, No). In
study 1 and study 2 researcher controlled the effect of age, qualification, entrepreneurship
course, a role model on individuals EIs. In addition to these demographic control variables,
in study 2, the researcher also controlled the effect of social norms and self-efficacy on EIs.
The questionnaire used in this research is provided in Appendix A.
4.6 ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
In this research, the analysis was completed in different steps. The first step is
related to the establishment of reliability, convergent validity and discriminant validity that
was done by using the AMOS. The model testing was performed in two steps. The first step
was related to testing the direct and indirect effects with the help of SEM in AMOS.
Moderation was tested in the second step by using the PROCESS developed by Hayes
(2011).
45
CHAPTER 5:
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
This research investigated the impact of different socio-psychological and
motivational factors on attitude and EIs. This chapter explained the data analysis of study 1
and study 2. As the data collection process completed, the data were entered in SPSS.
Missing value analysis was performed to manage the missing values in the data. In the
demographic analysis, this research calculated the frequency of all demographics of
respondents. To test the normality of data the researcher measured the skewness and
kurtosis of all the variables. In the preliminary analysis, the investigator performed
multicollinearity analysis, common method bias, descriptive statistics, and correlation
analysis. Before testing the hypothesized model, the researcher performed CFA to test the
measurement model. The measurement model was tested to establish the convergent
validity and discriminant validity of all studied variables. Reliability was examined with
Cronbach alpha value. Model testing was performed in two steps. Firstly, direct and indirect
effects were calculated by using AMOS 22. Secondly, moderation hypotheses were tested
by using the MACRO process developed by Hayes (2011).
5.1 MISSING VALUE ANALYSIS AND DATA SCREENING
The survey method is the most prominent method in quantitative research. The
questionnaire was used as a tool for data collection. While in data collection, this research
found that there are many missing values in the filled questionnaires which may influence
the findings of the study. For data collection, the researcher distributed 410 surveys among
the university students of business, engineering and information technology. Out of 410
surveys, the 398 filled surveys were received. There was a 97% response rate. Therefore,
non-response bias was not affecting the results. In the data entry phase, 18 surveys were
identified as having missing values. These missing values were less than 5 percent which
was considered trivial. To manage these missing values, this research used the Hot-deck
imputation method. The hot-deck method is preferable over the other imputation methods
such as series mean method and linear by interpolation (Ford, 1983) because it overcomes
the limitations of other methods.
46
5.2 DEMOGRAPHICS OF THE RESPONDENTS
Data were collected from business, engineering and IT students in multiple sessions.
For hypotheses testing, the data set of 380 students (248 males (i.e., 65.3%) and 132
females (i.e., 34.7%) was used. Of the participants, 100 (i.e., 26.3%) were aged between
15–20, 247 (i.e., 65%) were aged between 21—25, and 33 (i.e., 8.7%) were aged above 25.
The data were collected from the different field of studies such as 157 (i.e., 41%) from
business, 137 (i.e., 36%) from engineering, and 86 (i.e., 23%) belonged to information
technology. About the education, the participants were enrolled in the Bachelor of Science
(55.5%), Masters of Science (32.9%), or Masters of Philosophy (11.6%) programs. From
the sample of 380 students, 116 (30.5%) have studied entrepreneurship course, and
193(50.8%) have a business role models in their family (See Table 5.1).
Table 5.1
Demographics of the Respondents
Variable Description Frequency Percentage
Field of Study
Business 157 41%
Engineering 137 36%
IT 86 23%
University
University 1 130 34.2%
University 2 145 38.2%
University 3 105 27.6%
Gender Male 248 65.3%
Female 132 35%
Age
15 – 20 Years 100 26.3%
21 – 25 Years 247 65.0%
26 – 30 Years 30 7.9%
31 – 35 Years 2 .5%
36 – 40 Years 1 .3%
More than 40 Years 0 0
Education
BS 211 55.5%
MS 125 32.9%
M.Phil. 44 11.6%
Entrepreneurship
Course
Yes 116 30.5%
No 264 69.5%
Role Model Yes 193 50.8%
No 187 49.2%
Total 380 100%
47
5.3 ANALYSIS STUDY 1
The analysis of study 1 was done into different steps that include the descriptive
statistics, correlation analysis, normality test, multicollinearity test, common method bias,
confirmatory factors analysis, direct and indirect effects, and moderation analysis.
5.3.1 Normality Test
This study tested the normality of data by using the method proposed by Finney and
DiStefano (2006) and calculated the Skewness and Kurtosis value (see Table 5.2). The
results indicated that the skewness value of all variables is less than 2 (Finney & DiStefano,
2006). The results also demonstrated that the kurtosis values of all aggregated variables are
less than 7 (Finney & DiStefano, 2006). Therefore, there was not any serious issue of non-
normality which can influence the maximum-likely (ML) based results.
Table 5.2
Normality Test
Variable Skewness Kurtosis
Self-efficacy -.12 -1.12
Social norms -.21 -0.93
ATE -1.02 0.97
EIs -.72 0.56
5.3.2 Multicollinearity Analysis
To assess the degree of multicollinearity among independent and dependent
variables, the researcher calculated the tolerance value and variance inflation factor (VIF).
Results of this study demonstrated that the tolerance value of all independent variables (self-
efficacy = 0.92; social norms=0.85; ATE = 0.95; Gender = 0.94; Age =0.88;
Education=0.91; Entrepreneurship course = 0.95; Role Model = 0.95) were above the
threshold value of 0.10 (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2013; Table 5.3).
The variance inflation factor of all independent variables (self-efficacy = 1.09; social
norms = 1.18; ATE = 1.05; Gender = 1.07; Age =1.13; Education=1.10; Entrepreneurship
course = 1.06; Role Model = 1.06) were found less than 4 (Pan & Jackson, 2008; Table 5.3).
48
Table 5.3
Multicollinearity Analysis
Independent Variable Tolerance VIF
Self-efficacy .92 1.09
Social norms .85 1.18
ATE .95 1.05
Gender .94 1.07
Age .88 1.13
Education .91 1.10
Entrepreneurship Course .95 1.06
Role Model .95 1.06
5.3.3 Common Method Bias
The current study collected data of independent and dependent variables into two
sessions. The data of all independent and mediating variables were collected in time 1.
Whereas, the data of EIs (dependent variable) were collected in time 2 after one week.
Although, the time lag model is helpful to manage the issue of common method bias
(CMB). This study applied Harman’s one factor analysis. The results revealed that a single
factor extracted 33% variance. On the other hand, the principal component analysis of all
items yielded four factors which showed 69.45% variance together, and among these
factors, the first factor extracted 25.82% variance. In addition, this study performed the
single-factor CFA and four-factor CFA. The model of the single-factor model produced
poor fit indices. By following the technique proposed by Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, and
Podsakoff (2003), a common latent factor produced only 19% variance (see Appendix B).
With the help of these different diagnostics, it is revealed that there is not any issue of
common method bias in the data.
5.3.4 Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Because this study adopted the existing measures which were developed in the
western context, so it was necessary to test these measures in the current context of the
study. Therefore, this study performed CFA to measure the convergent validity,
discriminant validity, and reliability of all studied variables. The researcher used AMOS 22.
Firstly, a single factor analysis (See Appendix C) was performed in which all
items were loaded on a single factor which provided a poor fit with the data (2 = 4323.45;
df = 275; 2/df = 15.72; root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = .20;
49
goodness-of-fit index [GFI] = .38; Tucker-Lewis index [TLI] = .33; confirmatory fit index
[CFI] = .39; Table 5.4).
Table 5.4
Model Fit of Single Factor CFA
Fit Index Type Name of
Fit Index Value Threshold value Remarks
Absolute
Fit Measures
GFI .38 A value closer to 1 is
considered a good fit. Poor
RMSEA .20 The range is in
between 0.01 to 0.08. Poor
Incremental
Fit Index
TLI .33 >=0.90 Poor
CFI .39 >=0.90 Poor
Parsimonious
Fit Index
Normed
Chi-Square 15.72 Range from 1-5. Poor
The four-factor CFA (See Appendix D) showed good fit with data (2 = 760.39;
df = 269; 2/df = 2.83; RMSEA = .069; GFI = .86; TLI = .92; CFI = .93; Table 5.5). A chi-
square difference test further established the four-factor model was better than the single
factor CFA model (p < .05).
Table 5.5
Model Fit of Four-Factor CFA
Fit Index Type Name of
Fit Index Value Threshold value Remarks
Absolute Fit
Measures
GFI .86 A value closer to 1 is
considered a good fit. Good fit
RMSEA .069 The range is in
between 0.01 to 0.08. Good fit
Incremental
Fit Index
TLI .92 >=0.90 Good fit
CFI .93 >=0.90 Good fit
Parsimonious Fit
Index
Normed
Chi-Square 2.83 Range from 1-5. Good fit
The results of the four-factor model further demonstrated that standardized loadings
of each variables items are high and above the recommended value of .50 (.65-92). To
measure the convergent validity, the researcher calculated the average variance extracted
(AVE) of each variable by using the technique developed by Fornell & Larcker, (1981). To
50
assess the reliability of all variables; the Cronbach’s alpha values and composite reliably
were tested which were higher than .70 (See Table 5.6).
Table 5.6
Factor Loadings, AVE, and Reliability
Variable Items Factor
Loading AVE
Composite
Reliability α
EIs
EIs1 0.82
.57 .89 .89
EIs2 0.91
EIs3 0.76
EIs4 0.65
EIs5 0.69
EIs6 0.69
ATE
ATE1 0.92
.62 .89 .89
ATE2 0.80
ATE3 0.77
ATE4 0.74
ATE5 0.69
Social
Norms
PSN1 0.65
.60 .92 .92
PSN2 0.76
PSN3 0.70
PSN4 0.78
PSN5 0.92
PSN6 0.83
PSN7 0.79
PSN8 0.74
Self-
efficacy
ESE1 0.79
.72 .94 .94
ESE2 0.92
ESE3 0.87
ESE4 0.81
ESE5 0.84
ESE6 0.85
To establish the discriminant validity, the heuristics proposed by Fornell and
Larcker (1981) was applied and AVE value of all the factors was compared with all factors’
squared correlations, and it was found that the AVE values were higher than these squared
correlations (Table 5.7). All these statistics of Cronbach Alpha, factor loadings, AVEs, and
discriminant analysis showed that the instruments adopted from the western context are
appropriate in the Pakistani context.
51
Table 5.7
Discriminant Validity for all Study Variables
Variable 1 2 3 4
Social norms 0.77
EIs 0.18 0.76
ATE 0.33 0.41 0.79
Self-efficacy 0.31 0.29 0.42 0.85
Notes: The bold values on the diagonal represent the square root of AVE.
5.3.5 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Matrix
For the understanding of the relationship between variables of study 1, this research
performed bivariate correlation analysis using SPSS. Table 5.8 showed that majority of the
correlations among variables are less than .50 that presents no high correlation among
variables. In addition, the descriptive statistics that include the mean and standard deviation
were also available in Table 5.8.
Table 5.8
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Matrix
Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Self-efficacy 4.27 1.62 1
Social norms 4.22 1.49 .25** 1
ATE 4.92 1.24 .01 .12* 1
EIs 4.89 1.15 .12* .17** .37** 1
Gendera - - .02 -.18** .03 .16** 1
Ageb - - -.10 -.12* -.05 .04 .14** 1
Educationc - - -.03 -.19** .04 .10 .08 .23** 1
Entrepreneurship
Coursed - - .02 .09 .07 .10 .00 .18** .091 1
Role Modele - - .10* .08 .14** .12* -.09 -.14** -.08 .00 1
N = 380
* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01
a 0 = female; 1 = male
b 1= 15- 20 Years; 2= 21 – 25 Years; 3 = 26-30 Years; 4 = 31- 35 years; 5 = 36-40 Years;
c 1= BS; 2 = MS; 3 = M.Phil.
d 0 = No; 1 = Yes
e 0 = No; 1 = Yes
52
5.3.6 Model Testing
5.3.6.1 Direct and Indirect Effects
To test the direct and indirect effects, a structural regression model was developed
and tested in AMOS. By following the technique proposed by Anderson and Gerbing,
(1988), different alternative models were compared with the hypothesized models. The
results revealed that the hypothesized model showed a better fit index (Table 5.9) as
compared to the alternative model (Table 5.10). In the alternative model, the mediator was
treated as an independent variable, and the independent variable was placed in the place of a
mediator. Anderson and Gerbing (1988) proposed that during the model re-specification, the
direct effects should also be tested. The results demonstrated that self-efficacy also has a
direct effect on EIs, therefore, hypothesized model along the direct effect of self-efficacy on
EIs has used this study (Kline 2011). With the help of this re-specification, the model fit
indices further improved (See table 5.11). Figure 3 presents the selected model for data
analysis.
Table 5.9
Model Fit Indices of Hypothesized Model
Fit Index Type Name of
Fit Index Value Threshold value Remarks
Absolute Fit
Measures
GFI .86 A value closer to 1 is
considered a good fit. Good fit
RMSEA .06 The range is in
between 0.01 to 0.08. Good fit
Incremental
Fit Index
TLI .91 >=0.90 Good fit
CFI .93 >=0.90 Good fit
Parsimonious Fit
Index
Normed
Chi-Square 2.43 Range from 1-5. Good fit
53
Table 5.10
Model Fit of Alternative Model (IV>DV> Mediator)
Fit Index Type Name of
Fit Index Value Threshold value Remarks
Absolute Fit
Measures
GFI .86 A value closer to 1 is
considered a good fit. Good fit
RMSEA .06 The range is in
between 0.01 to 0.08. Good fit
Incremental
Fit Measures
TLI .91 >=0.90 Good fit
CFI .92 >=0.90 Good fit
Parsimonious Fit
Measures
Normed
Chi-Square 2.55 Range from 1-5. Good fit
Table 5.11
Hypothesized Model Plus Retained Effect of Self-Efficacy
Fit Index Type Name of
Fit Index Value Threshold value Remarks
Absolute Fit
Measures
GFI .86 A value closer to 1 is
considered a good fit. Good fit
RMSEA .06 The range is in
between 0.01 to 0.08. Good fit
Incremental Fit
Index
TLI .92 >=0.90 Good fit
CFI .93 >=0.90 Good fit
Parsimonious Fit
Index
Normed
Chi-Square 2.41 Range from 1-5. Good fit
Figure 3: Final Model with Standardized Regression Weights
Note: Hypothesized relationships are given by solid lines, Non hypothesized
relationships are given by dashed lines between the independent and
dependent variable.
Attitude toward
Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurial
Intentions
Self-Efficacy
Social Norms
0.36***
0.21***
0.33***
0.15**
54
Hayes (2011) proposed that 5,000 bootstrap samples should be used while testing
the mediation effects in SEM. The findings of this study supported the hypothesis 1 that
proposed the indirect effect of self-efficacy on the EIs via ATE (indirect effect =.12, p <
.001). However, the results also showed the direct positive effect of self-efficacy on
individuals’ EIs (direct effect = .15, p<.01) that revealed the partial mediation between the
relationship of self-efficacy and EIs (Table 5.12).
Hypothesis 2 proposed the indirect effect of social norms on EIs via ATE, that has
been confirmed by the results. There was a significant indirect effect of social norm on EIs
via ATE (indirect effect = .07, p<01). On the other hand, there was not any significant direct
effect of social norms on EIs which suggested the full mediation between social norms and
EIs.
Table 5.12
Direct Effects and Indirect Effects
Independent
Variable
Dependent Variables
ATE EIs
Direct
Effects
Direct
Effects
Indirect
Effects
Total
Effects Remarks
Proportion
Mediation
Self-efficacy .36*** .15*** .12*** .27*** Partial
Mediation 44%
Social norms .21*** ns .07** .07** Full
Mediation --
ATE .33***
Note: The cell values are standardized regression weights
N = 380
5.3.6.2 Moderation Effects
To test the moderation effects, the PROCESS macro developed by Hayes (2011)
was used and 5000 bootstrap samples were selected for analysis. Hypothesis 3 proposed that
the effect of self-efficacy on ATE is moderated by gender in such a way, the male
individuals value more the self-efficacy in developing their ATE. The results supported the
hypothesis because interaction effect of gender with self-efficacy on ATE was positive and
significant (interaction = .23, p < .05; Table 5.13) that showed effect of self-efficacy on
ATE of male individuals was higher (male = .45, p < .001; female = .22, p < .05; Table
5.14) than the female individuals.
55
Hypothesis 4 proposed the effect of social norms on ATE is moderated by gender in
such a way, the female individuals value more the social norms in developing their ATE.
The results revealed the significant moderation of gender (interaction = -.53, p < .001; Table
5.13) on the relationship of social norms and ATE that further demonstrated the effect of
social norms on ATE of female individuals was higher as compared to males (male = .17, p
< .05; female = .71, p < .001; Table 5.14).
Table 5.13
Moderating Role of Gender
Model # Independent Variables Attitude toward
Entrepreneurship
Model 1 Constant 4.44***
Gendera .24*
Social norms 0.71***
Social norms x Gendera -.53***
Self-efficacy 0.36***
Age -.02
Education .13
Entrepreneurship Course .06
Role Model .19
Model 2 Constant 4.55***
Gendera 0.19
Self-efficacy 0.22***
Self-efficacy X Gendera .23*
Social norms 0.32***
Age -.05
Education .12
Entrepreneurship Course .06
Role Model .22*
Note: The cell values are unstandardized regression weights
N = 380; Male = 248; Female = 132
a 0 = female; 1 = male
56
Table 5.14
Effects of Social Norms and Self-Efficacy across Gender
Independent Variable Moderator Dependent Variable
Gender ATE
Social norms Male 0.17*
Female 0.71***
Self-efficacy Male 0.45***
Female 0.22*
Note: The cell values are unstandardized regression weights
The findings showed the indirect effect of self-efficacy and social norms on EIs via
attitude. In addition, the results also found the moderation of gender on the relationship
between social norms and self-efficacy with EIs. These findings revealed that the indirect
effect of social norms and self-efficacy on EIs via ATE may vary across the male and
female individuals. The results showed that the indirect effect of self-efficacy on EIs of
male individuals via ATE was stronger as compared to female individuals (male: .12, p <
.05; female: .06, p < .05; Table 5.15). On the other hand, the indirect effect of social norms
on EIs via ATE was found stronger in the case of female individuals as compared to their
counterpart male individuals (male: .05, p < .05; female: .18, p < .05: Table 5.15).
Table 5.15
Moderated Mediation Results
Independent
variable Moderator
Indirect Effect on
Entrepreneurial Intentions
Via ATE
Estimates BCCI
Lower Upper
Social Norms Male 0.05* 0.012 0.090
Female 0.18* 0.105 0.277
Self-Efficacy Male 0.12* 0.065 0.186
Female 0.06* 0.016 0.113
5.4 ANALYSIS STUDY 2
Study 2 aims to identify the impact of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards on the
individuals’ EIs. By following the method of study 1, this study first tested the measurement
model and performed other preliminary analyses. After that, the model was tested by using
the structural equation modeling technique and PROCESS macro (Hayes, 2011).
57
5.4.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Before testing the model, the validity and reliability of the subjective measurements
used in the study had to be established. A CFA was performed using the analysis of moment
structural technique (AMOS 22). The results generated through the maximum-likelihood
showed that the estimation of all of the loaded items on their relevant factors was significant
at .1%. Further, the fit indices of 7 factor model (see Appendix E) suggested an acceptable
fit between the model and the data (χ2 = 1671.47, df = 676, χ2/df = 2.47, RMSEA = 0.06,
GFI = .81, TLI = .90, and CFI = 0.91 (See Table 5.16).
The comparative analysis of the single-factor CFA (all items loaded on a single
factor; Appendix F) and the seven-factor CFA (items loaded on their relevant factors)
showed that the seven-factor CFA had a good fit with the data at different indices (see Table
5.16). A chi-square difference test also established that the seven-factor CFA was better
than the single-factor CFA (p < 0.05).
Table 5.16
Model Fit Indices of 7 Factor CFA
Fit Index Type Name of
Fit Index Value Threshold value Remarks
Absolute Fit
Measures
GFI .81 A value closer to 1 is
considered a good fit. Good fit
RMSEA .06 The range is in
between 0.01 to 0.08. Good fit
Incremental
Fit Index
TLI .90 >=0.90 Good fit
CFI .91 >=0.90 Good fit
Parsimonious Fit
Index
Normed
Chi-Square 2.47 Range from 1-5. Good fit
Table 5.17
Single Factor CFA Study 2
Fit Index Type Name of
Fit Index Value Threshold value Remarks
Absolute Fit
Measures
GFI .34 A value closer to 1 is
considered a good fit. Poor fit
RMSEA .17 The range is in
between 0.01 to 0.08. Poor fit
Incremental Fit
Index
TLI .27 >=0.90 Poor fit
CFI .31 >=0.90 Poor fit
Parsimonious Fit
Index
Normed
Chi-Square 11.86 Range from 1-5. Poor fit
58
The Cronbach alpha and composite reliability of all factors ranged from 0.83 to
0.94; thus, reliability was established (Nunally & Bernstein, 1978) (see Table 5.18). The
loadings of all observed items on their corresponding latent factors ranged from 0.59 to
0.93, and the values of AVE ranged from 0.57 to 0.72 (Kline, 2011); thus, convergent
validity was established (see Table 5.18).
Table 5.18
Factor Loadings of Variables
Variable Items Factor
Loading AVE
Composite
Reliability α
Occupation
Prestige
OP1 0.75
.58 .88 .88
OP2 0.74
OP3 0.74
OP4 0.90
OP5 0.69
Community
Feelings
CF1 0.80
.70 .94 .94
CF2 0.93
CF3 0.87
CF4 0.83
CF5 0.81
CF6 0.82
CF7 0.78
Intrinsic Interest II1 0.91
.71 .83 .83 II2 0.77
EIs
EI1 0.83
.57 .89 .89
EI2 0.88
EI3 0.73
EI4 0.67
EI5 0.70
EI6 0.70
ATE
ATE1 0.91
.61 .88 .88
ATE2 0.82
ATE3 0.78
ATE4 0.71
ATE5 0.65
59
Variable Items Factor
Loading AVE
Composite
Reliability α
Social norms
PSN1 0.64
.60 .92 .92
PSN2 0.74
PSN3 0.70
PSN4 0.78
PSN5 0.92
PSN6 0.84
PSN7 0.79
PSN8 0.75
Self-efficacy
ESE1 0.79
.72 .94 .94
ESE2 0.93
ESE3 0.87
ESE4 0.82
ESE5 0.82
ESE6 0.84
Note: All the loadings are standardized. For convergent validity, the AVE
should greater than .50.
The technique proposed by Fornell and Larcker (1981) was used to establish
discriminant validity. Specifically, the values of the square root of AVE were compared
with the inter-factors correlations. The results of the data showed that the values of the
square root of AVE were higher than the inter-factors correlations (see Table 5.19). The
results of the data statistically confirmed that the scales adopted from the Western studies
were also valid and reliable in the Pakistani context.
60
Table 5.19
Discriminant Validity Analysis
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Community Feeling 0.70
Intrinsic Interest 0.00 0.71
Occupational Prestige 0.03 0.12 0.58
Perceived income 0.01 0.06 0.12 -
ATE 0.06 0.16 0.20 0.27 0.61
EIs 0.00 0.12 0.14 0.06 0.14 0.57
Self-efficacy 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.14 0.08 0.72
Social norms 0.10 0.04 0.13 0.06 0.12 0.04 0.08 0.60
Note: The diagonal values represent the AVEs whereas all other
values are inter-factor correlations
5.4.2 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Matrix
Table 5.20 sets out the means, standard deviations, and correlations of all of the
variables. This table also includes the control variables and provides a comprehensive
overview of the relationships between the variables.
61
Table 5.20
Mean, Standard Deviation and Correlation Matrix
Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Gender - - 1
Age - - .14** 1
Education - - 0.08 .23** 1
Entrepreneurship Course - - 0.00 .18** 0.09 1
Role Model - - -.09 -.14** -.08 0.00 1
Community Feeling 4.12 1.60 -.35** -.12* -.10* .12* .25** 1
Intrinsic Interest 4.99 1.32 .13* 0.06 0.01 .18** 0.00 0.07 1
Occupational Prestige 4.89 1.21 0.04 0.07 0.00 .18** 0.02 .16** .34** 1
Perceived Income 4.98 1.42 0.04 -.01 0.00 0.09 0.08 .11* .25** .34** 1
ATE 4.92 1.24 0.03 -.05 0.03 0.07 .14** .24** .40** .45** .52** 1
EIs 4.89 1.15 .16** 0.04 0.10 0.10 .12* 0.04 .35** .37** .24** .37** 1
Self-efficacy 4.36 1.54 0.02 -.11* -.01 -.01 .12* .27** .24** .19** .16** .38** .28** 1
Social norms 4.23 1.50 -.15* -.05 -.14** .18** 0.07 .32** .20** .36** .25** .34** .20** .29** 1
N = 380
* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01
a 0 = female; 1 = male
b 1= 15- 20 Years; 2= 21 – 25 Years; 3 = 26-30 Years; 4 = 31- 35 years; 5 = 36-40 Years;
c 1= BS; 2 = MS; 3 = M.Phil.
d 0 = No; 1 = Yes
e 0 = No; 1 = Yes
62
5.4.3 Normality Test
In this study, the researcher also calculated the skewness and kurtosis values of all
variable to examine the normality of data (Finney & DiStefano, 2006). The results
demonstrated that skewness of all variables was less than 2 (Finney & DiStefano, 2006). In
addition, the kurtosis of all variables was less than 7 (Finney & DiStefano, 2006).
Therefore, the results based on maximum likelihood were not affected by the issue of
normality (See Table 5.21).
Table 5.21
Normality Test
Variable Skewness Kurtosis
Statistic Std. Error Statistic Std. Error
Community Feeling .048 .125 -1.287 .250
Intrinsic Interest -.734 .125 .467 .250
Occupational Prestige -.874 .125 .705 .250
Perceived Income -.666 .125 .306 .250
ATE -1.021 .125 .969 .250
EIs -.721 .125 .563 .250
Self-efficacy -.165 .125 -1.052 .250
Social norms -.154 .125 -.959 .250
5.4.4 Multicollinearity Analysis
In study 2, the independent variables were intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Therefore,
it needed to test the multicollinearity of all variables again. The VIF values and of all the
variables were less than 4 (Pan & Jackson, 2008; Table 5.22). In addition, the tolerance
values of all variables were higher than the threshold value of .10 (Cohen et al., 2013;
Table 5.22).
63
Table 5.22
Multicollinearity Analysis
Independent Variable Tolerance VIF
Gender .844 1.185
Age .883 1.133
Education .931 1.074
Entrepreneurship Course .902 1.109
Role Model .915 1.093
Community Feeling .759 1.318
Intrinsic Interest .778 1.286
Occupational Prestige .732 1.367
Perceived Income .711 1.406
ATE .565 1.770
5.4.5 Common Method Bias
In the present study, to handle the issue of common method bias, the time lag design
was used. Further diagnostics of CMB were performed by following the guidelines of
Podsakoff et al. (2003). Thus, this study used multiple methods, including a single-factor
CFA, a Harman one factor and common latent factor. The single-factor CFA did not
produce a good model fit for the different indices (see above). In relation to the Harman one
factor method, all of the items were first fixed to extract one factor; however, as one factor
yielded only 23.5% variance, all of the factors were consequently kept free to produce their
own factors via a principal component analysis. The first factor yielded 16.35% variance,
and all of the factors yielded 72.49% variance. CMB was also tested by a common latent
factor that produced less than 20% variance (Gaskin, 2012). The multiple methods enabled
the conclusion to be drawn that there was no serious threat of CMB in the data.
5.4.6 Model Testing
Model testing was performed in two steps. First, the direct and indirect (mediation)
effects were tested using the SEM technique in AMOS 22. This study had multiple
dependent variables; however, SEM was selected and deemed preferable to linear
regression analysis, as it enables multiple relationships to be tested in a single model. The
moderating effect of gender was then tested using the macro process developed by Hayes
(2011). This method has been recommended by recent scholars to test the moderation
64
between the relationship of independent and dependent variables (Sardeshmukh &
Vandenberg, 2016) and has been used in many recent studies (Archimi, Reynaud, Yasin, &
Bhatti, 2018; Farooq, Payaud, Merunka, & Valette-Florence, 2014; Jones, Farooq, De
Roeck, & Farooq, 2018).
Structured regression (SR) modeling was applied with a maximum-likelihood
estimator to test the hypothesized model. The effects of gender, age, education,
entrepreneurship course, and role models on individuals’ EIs were controlled. Also, the
effect of social norms and self-efficacy was controlled by EIs. The hypothesized model
produced a good fit at different indices (χ2 = 2110.31, df = 877, χ2/df = 2.41, RMSEA =
0.06, GFI = .80, TLI = .88, CFI = .89, and IFI = .89; Table 5.23). In an alternative model
(see Table 5.24), the position of the mediator and dependent variables were changed. An X2
difference test confirmed that the hypothesized model was significantly better than the
alternative models at p < .001 level.
Table 5.23
Model Fit Indices of Hypothesized Model
Fit Index Type Name of
Fit Index Value Threshold value Remarks
Absolute Fit
Measures
GFI .80 A value closer to 1 is
considered a good fit. Good fit
RMSEA .06 The range is in
between 0.01 to 0.08. Good fit
Incremental
Fit Index
TLI .88 >=0.90 Acceptable
fit
CFI .89 >=0.90 Acceptable
fit
Parsimonious
Fit Index
Normed
Chi-Square 2.41 Range from 1-5. Good fit
Table 5.24
Model Fit of the Alternative Model (IV ➔ DV ➔ Mediator)
Fit Index Type Name of
Fit Index Value Threshold value Remarks
Absolute Fit
Measures
GFI .79 A value closer to 1 is
considered a good fit. Good fit
RMSEA .06 The range is in
between 0.01 to 0.08. Good fit
Incremental
Fit Index
TLI .87 >=0.90 Acceptable
fit
CFI .88 >=0.90 Acceptable
fit
Parsimonious
Fit Index
Normed
Chi-Square 2.50 Range from 1-5. Good fit
65
The bootstrap method in SEM was used to measure the indirect effects. As proposed
by Hayes (2011), 5,000 bootstrap samples were used. In this model, it was hypothesized
that intrinsic (i.e., community feeling aspirations and intrinsic interest) and extrinsic (i.e.,
perceived relative income and occupational prestige) factors would have positive effects on
attitudes toward entrepreneurship, which in turn would develop individuals’ EIs. Hypothesis
1 considered intrinsic factors and stated that community feeling aspirations would have a
positive effect on attitudes toward entrepreneurship, which in turn develop individuals’ EIs.
The results revealed that community feeling aspirations had a direct effect on attitudes
toward entrepreneurship (.15, p < 0.001), which in turn positively developed individuals’
EIs (.15, p < 0.01). Further, it was found that community feeling aspirations had no direct
effect on individuals’ EIs but did have an indirect effect on individuals’ EIs via attitudes
toward entrepreneurship (indirect effect = 0.02, p < 0.01).
This study also confirmed Hypothesis 1b; that is, that intrinsic interest in
entrepreneurship has a positive effect on attitudes toward entrepreneurship and thus
individual EI is developed. Attitudes toward entrepreneurship were found to partially
mediate (17%) the relationship between intrinsic interest and individuals’ EIs. The direct
effect of intrinsic interest on individuals’ EIs was positive and significant (.19, p < 0.001).
The magnitude of the indirect effect of intrinsic interest on EIs through the mediation of
attitudes toward entrepreneurship was also significant and positive (indirect effect = .04,
p < 0.05). The total effects of community feeling aspirations and intrinsic interest on EIs
were also compared, and intrinsic interest had a greater effect (.23, p < 0.001) than
community feeling aspirations (0.02, p < 0.05) on individuals’ EIs.
Hypothesis 2 proposed that extrinsic factors would have a positive effect on
individuals’ attitudes which in turn develops the EIs. The results supported Hypothesis 2a;
that is, perceived relative income was found to have a significant positive effect on attitudes
toward entrepreneurship (.41, p < .001) and attitudes toward entrepreneurship positively
affected EIs (.15, p < .01). The indirect effect of perceived relative income on EIs through
the mediation of attitude towards entrepreneurship was positive and significant (.06, p<.05).
However, the direct effect of perceived relative income on EIs was insignificant.
Hypothesis 2b stated that there would be a positive relationship between perceived
occupational prestige and attitudes toward entrepreneurship which in turn develop the EIs.
The indirect effect of perceived occupational prestige on EIs via attitudes toward
entrepreneurship was positive and significant (indirect effect = .03, p < .05). The direct
66
effect of perceived occupational prestige and relative income on EIs was also found to be
insignificant. Table 5.25 sets out the results.
Table 5.25
Direct and Indirect Effects
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
ATE EIs
Direct
Effects
Direct
Effects
Indirect
Effects
Total
Effects Mediation
Community Feeling .15*** ns .02* .02* Full
Intrinsic Interest .29*** .19** .04* .23*** 17%
Perceived Income .41*** ns .06* .06* Full
Occupational Prestige .18*** ns .03* .03* Full
ATE - .15** - - -
Gender .15**
Age .01
Education .12**
Role Model .10*
Entrepreneurship Course -01
Note: The values given in the table are standardized estimates
This study also considered the role of gender as a moderator. To test the moderation,
this study used process macro developed by Hayes (2011) in SPSS and adopted a bootstrap
method with 5000 bootstrap samples.
The results supported the hypothesis 3a; that is, gender was found to be a significant
moderator (interaction = -.22, p < 0.10, and see Table 5.26) such that the positive effect of
community feeling aspirations on attitudes toward entrepreneurship was stronger among
females than males (female = .36, p < 0.001; male = .14, p < 0.05, and Table 5.27).
The data supported hypothesis 3b; that is, the effect of intrinsic interest on attitudes
toward entrepreneurship was moderated by gender (interaction = 0.22, p < .05, and see
Table 5.26). The positive effect of intrinsic interest on attitudes toward entrepreneurship
was stronger in males than females (female = .14, p < 0.05; male = .36, p < 0.001, and see
Table 5.27).
Hypothesis 4a stated that the positive effect of perceived relative income on attitudes
toward entrepreneurship would be higher in males than females. The results of this study
showed that gender moderated the effect of perceived relative income on attitudes toward
67
entrepreneurship (interaction= .17, p <0.05, and see Table 5.26); that is, the positive effect
of perceived relative income on attitudes toward entrepreneurship was stronger in male
members than females (female = 0.23, p < 0.001; male = 0.40, p < 0.001, and see Table
5.27). However, Hypothesis 4b (which proposed that gender would moderate the
relationship of perceived occupational prestige and attitudes toward entrepreneurship) was
not supported by the results (interaction = -.12, p > 0.10, and see Table 5.26).
Table 5.26
Moderation of Gender
Model # Independent Variables ATE
Model 1 Constant 4.83*** Intrinsic Interest .14* Gender .12 Gender x Intrinsic Interest .22* Community Feeling Aspirations .21*** Perceived Relative Income .32*** Occupational Prestige .28***
Model 2 Constant 4.78*** Community Feeling Aspirations .36*** Gender .08
Gender x Community Feeling -.22+
Intrinsic Interest .26***
Perceived Relative Income .31***
Occupational Prestige .26***
Model 3 Constant 4.88***
Perceived Relative Income .23***
Gender .13*
Gender x Perceived Relative Income .17*
Community Feeling Aspirations .23***
Intrinsic Interest .25***
Occupational Prestige .28***
Model 4 Constant 4.87***
Occupational Prestige .35***
Gender .09
Gender x Occupational Prestige -.12
Community Feeling Aspirations .19***
Intrinsic Interest .26***
Perceived Relative Income .33***
The cell values are unstandardized regression weights
N = 380; Male = 248; Female = 132; a 0 = female; 1 = male
68
Table 5.27
Effects of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Goals across Gender
Independent Variable Moderator Dependent Variable
Gender ATE
Intrinsic Interest Female .14*
Male .36***
Community Feeling Female .36***
Male .14*
Perceived Relative Income Female .23***
Male .40***
Occupational Prestige Female .35***
Male .23***
Note: The cell values are unstandardized regression weights
The findings further showed that intrinsic interest, community feelings, perceived
relative income, and perceived occupational prestige had positive effects on EIs via the
mediation of attitudes toward entrepreneurship. Further, the effect of intrinsic interest,
community feeling aspirations, and perceived relative income on attitudes toward
entrepreneurship was moderated by gender. To better understand these results, a moderated
mediation analysis was performed to explore the differentiated indirect effects of intrinsic
interest, community feeling aspirations, and perceived relative income on the EIs of male
and female via attitudes toward entrepreneurship. The results showed that the magnitude of
the indirect effect of intrinsic interest on EIs via attitudes toward entrepreneurship was
different among males and females (female: 0.03, p < 0.05; male: 0.07, p < 0.05). Notably,
the magnitude of the indirect effect of community feeling aspirations on EIs was higher in
females than males (female: 0.07, p < 0.05; male: 0.03, p < 0.05). The results also showed
that the magnitude of the indirect effect of perceived relative income on EIs via attitudes
toward entrepreneurship also differed among females and males (females: 0.04, p < 0.05
and males: 0.07, p < 0.05). However, no significant difference was observed in the
magnitude of indirect effects of occupational prestige on EIs of males and females via the
mediation of attitudes toward entrepreneurship (see Table 5.28).
69
Table 5.28
Moderated Mediation Results
Independent Variable Moderator Indirect Effects on EIs via attitude
Estimate BCCI Lower BCCI Upper
Intrinsic Interest Female .03* .00 .08
Male .07* .03 .13
Community Feeling
Aspirations
Female .07* .02 .15
Male .03* .00 .07
Perceived Relative Income Female .04* .01 .10
Male .07* .02 .15
Occupational Prestige Female .07* .02 .14
Male .04* .01 .10
Note: The cell values are unstandardized regression weights
5.5 SUMMARY
This research aimed to identify the determinants of individuals’ EIs. Therefore, two
studies were conducted based on the TPB and goal contents theory respectively. Study 1
proposed the indirect effect of social norms and self-efficacy on the individuals’ EIs through
the mediation of ATE. The results of this study demonstrated that social norms have a
positive effect on ATE and ATE has a positive effect on the individual’s EIs. Self-efficacy
also has a positive effect on ATE and individuals’ EIs. The findings of study 1 avowed that
social norms and self-efficacy has an indirect effect on individuals’ EIs through the
mediation of ATE. Furthermore, the gender moderates the relationship of social norms and
self-efficacy with ATE in such a way, the effect of social norms on EIs was higher for the
male individuals whereas the effect of self-efficacy on ATE was higher for the female
individuals.
Study 2 was developed by using the theoretical framework of goal contents theory.
This study proposed the positive effect of intrinsic goals such as intrinsic interest and
community feelings on ATE which in turn influences the individuals’ EIs. The results of
this study stated that intrinsic interest and community feelings have a positive effect on EIs
via the mediation of ATE. Furthermore, this study also proposed the positive effect of
extrinsic goals (occupational prestige & perceived monetary rewards) on the individuals’
EIs through the mediation of ATE which was accepted by our data. In addition, this study
70
also found that gender moderates the effect of intrinsic interest and relative income on EIs
in such a way, the effect of these factors was high for male individuals. On the other hand,
the results of this research also stated that the effect of community feelings on EIs of a
female was higher than male individuals. These results revealed that ATE of the male is
primarily developed by the intrinsic interest and perceived relative income whereas the ATE
of female individuals is stimulated by their community feeling aspirations. On the other
hand, occupational prestige is equally important for male and females in the development of
their ATE.
71
CHAPTER 6
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
This chapter explains in detail all the findings of the research. This section has
interconnected the results of this research with the previous studies and attempted to answer
the research questions developed in the first chapter. In addition, this chapter also explained
the academic contributions and implications of this research for public policy. This research
addressed three research questions which were developed in the introduction section. To
address the research question 1 (What is the effect of different socio-psychological and
motivational factors on individuals ATE), this research applied the TPB in study 1 and
explained that social norms and self-efficacy are the important determinants of ATE. In
addition, the goal contents theory also helped to understand the determinants of ATE in
study 2 and demonstrated that intrinsic (community feeling aspiration, intrinsic interest) and
extrinsic (perceived relative income and occupational prestige) factors are important
antecedents of ATE. In order to answer the research question 2, the existing study explored
the implications of various elements on individual EIs by implementing the mediating role
of ATE. It was found that results of study 1 and study 2 both supported the role of attitude
being a mediator between the relationship of self-efficacy, social norms (study 1), intrinsic
and extrinsic goals (study 2) with EIs. This research also addressed the third research
question and explained the moderation of gender between the relationship of socio-
psychological and motivational factors with ATE.
6.1 STUDY 1: THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOR
6.1.1 Academic Contribution
Study 1 addresses the research questions of this research in multiple ways. This
study addresses the first research question by examining the effect of socio-psychological
factors on ATE. To address the second research question, the role of ATE as mediator was
tested between the relationships of socio-psychological factors EIs. To address the third
research questions, study 1 further tested the moderation of gender in the relationship of
socio-psychological factors and ATE.
This study made multiple contributions to the literature of entrepreneurship. First,
the existing scholars paid less attention to the effect of social norms and self-efficacy on
72
ATE. Liñán and Chen, (2009) examined the effect of SOCIAL NORMS on the ATE but
they ignored the effect of self-efficacy on ATE. Therefore this study established its novelty
and originality by explaining the role of self-efficacy along with social norms in the
development of ATE. In the context of Pakistan, this is the first study in its nature which
examined the effect of social norms and self-efficacy on ATE.
Study 1 is making some addition to entrepreneurship literature at three levels. First,
it explained the effect of socio-psychological factors (social norms and self-efficacy) on
ATE of students in the Pakistani context. The second contribution of this study is to
introduce the ATE as a mediator between the relationship of socio-psychological factors
and EIs. This study revealed that mediational mechanisms are important for understanding
the phenomena of EIs. The findings of this study demonstrated that social norms, self-
efficacy, and ATE are not affecting the EIs directly. The structural regression model showed
a better fit when we place the ATE as a mediator and self-efficacy and social norms as
independent variables. The model further refined when the direct effect of self-efficacy and
EIs is drawn in the hypothesized model. The current extended the findings of previous
studies which were proposing the direct effect of that social norms, self-efficacy and ATE
on EIs. The results of this study confirmed and extended the findings of Tsai et al. (2016)
who only explained the indirect effect of self-efficacy on EIs via ATE and ignored the direct
effect of self-efficacy on EIs. In addition, Tsai et al. (2016) also ignored the indirect effect
of social norms on the EIs via ATE. In another study, Kolvereid’s (1996) demonstrated the
positive direct effect of social norms on EIs which could not be proved by the findings of
study 1. The results of the current study re-specified the relationships between social norms
and EIs by explaining the indirect effect of social norms on EIs via ATE. The results of this
study demonstrated the positive relationship between ATE and EIs which has already been
established by many other studies. For example, Autio et al.’s (2001) found that the ATE
positively influenced the EIs in the context of the United States. Whereas in the settings of
China, the relationship between ATE and EIs was insignificant (Siu & Lo, 2013). In the
context of Vietnam, ATE and EIs were positively correlated (Tuan, Thao, Anh, & Long,
2019). These results revealed that inconsistency prevails between ATE and EIs. In different
cultural settings, the effect of ATE on EIs was appearing different. These results also
showed that I needed to identify the bounding conditions which affect the relationship
between ATE and EIs. Overall it was found that TPB (Ajzen, 1991) is a validated
framework that explained the role of social norms, self-efficacy and ATE as determinants of
EIs in different counties (Engle et al., 2010, Kolvereid, 1996).
73
Third, this study incorporated gender differences while studying the effect of social
norms and self-efficacy on ATE in the context of Pakistan. The policy makers of Pakistan
are keenly interested to know the fostering factors of ATE not only in the case of male
individuals but also for the female individuals. Because entrepreneurship is considered the
way of economic progress and poverty alleviation (Hustedde, 2018; Laukkanen &
Tornikoski, 2018). Global entrepreneurship monitoring report has stated that EIs of women
in Pakistan are lower than the men (Qureshi & Sarfraz, 2012), therefore it is necessary to
identify the factors which can increase the ATE and EIs of women in Pakistan. Research
has shown that tendency of women toward entrepreneurship is low as compared to men
(Santos et al., 2016), therefore, this research will help the policy makers to understand the
reasons by which they can increase the women tendency toward entrepreneurship.
Integration of gender schema theory with TPB developed our understanding of the
differentiated effect of social norms and self-efficacy on the male and female ATE. The
results of this study demonstrated that self-efficacy is most important for male individuals
while developing their ATE. On the other hand, female individuals value more to social
norms while developing their ATE. The women in Pakistan most likely to follow the social
norms. Because they are more dependent on their family. The economic decisions are in the
hands of male individuals. Husband and father are the guardians of women, women need to
get permission from them regarding any economic or social decision (Agarwal, 1994),
therefore they primarily follow the social norms while developing their ATE. In the context
of Pakistan, the entrepreneurship is considered a male domain, therefore the women cannot
easily start their own business. The social norms can be a major reason for the women lower
entrepreneurial activities. The findings of this study are also in line with the results
demonstrated by Díaz-García and Jiménez-Moreno (2010) who found the higher effect of
subjective norms on the EIs of female individuals. The current study extended the findings
of Díaz-García and Jiménez-Moreno (2010) by explaining that SOCIAL NORMS has a
higher indirect effect on EIs of women via ATE.
Results of this research demonstrated that in Pakistan, the effect of self-efficacy on
the ATE of male individuals is higher than the female individuals. These findings are
contradicting with the findings explained by Wilson et al. (2007) who found the effect of
self-efficacy on EIs of women is stronger in the United States. These differences appeared
because of cultural settings. In the United States, women are more independent as compare
to Pakistan.
74
In Pakistan, male individuals most likely to rely on their self-efficacy because of
multiple reasons. They have a higher opportunity to observe successful entrepreneurs. Male
individuals are assertive and like to play with challenges. Qureshi and Sarfraz (2012) found
male individuals reported higher self-efficacy as compared to female individuals (male =
61.2%; female= 36%). Moderated mediation analysis further develop our insight about the
specific and differentiated indirect effect of self-efficacy and social norms on the ATE of
men and women. The results revealed that the indirect effect of social norms on female
individuals’ EIs via ATE is stronger. On the hand, the indirect effect of self-efficacy on
male individuals’ EIs via Ate is stronger than the female individuals.
6.1.2 Implications for Public Policy
This study provides many implications for the policy makers of Pakistan. The EIs of
individuals are lower in Pakistan as compare to other developing countries. In addition, the
EIs of women are also lower than men. The findings of this study revealed that
policymakers should focus on the self-efficacy and social norms to increase the ATE and
EIs. The business school needs to focus on the development of students’ self-efficacy; it
will increase the ATE and EIs of individuals. The finding of existing studies revealed that
for the development of self-efficacy, education, role models, and entrepreneurial
experiences can play an important role.
In Pakistan, half of the population is the women; they can contribute to economic
development if they start their own business. To increase the ATE and EIs of women, it is
needed to develop an entrepreneurial culture which can be helpful in developing the social
norms. These social norms can induce pressures on women regarding their new business
startups.
To increase the EIs of male individuals, it is needed to increase their self-efficacy.
With the help of business schools, entrepreneurship education the entrepreneurial self-
efficacy can be increased, which can ultimately increase the EIs of male individuals. In this
way to increase the entrepreneurship, business schools can play their important roles.
6.2 STUDY 2: GOAL CONTENTS THEORY
6.2.1 Academic Contribution
Study 2 is making some addition in the literature of entrepreneurship in two different
ways. First, the adoption of goal content theory enabled intrinsic (i.e., intrinsic interest and
75
community feeling aspirations) and extrinsic (i.e., relative income and occupational
prestige) factors to be considered as antecedents of private business attitudes and
inclinations
in mainstream entrepreneurship research. The results showed that intrinsic and
extrinsic factors affect EIs via the mediation of attitudes toward entrepreneurship. The
findings also showed that intrinsic interest had a positive direct effect on EIs and an indirect
effect via the mediation of attitudes toward entrepreneurship. Further, this study reveals that
the intrinsic factor of community feeling aspirations had an indirect effect on EIs via the
mediation of attitudes toward entrepreneurship; however, this effect was weaker than the
intrinsic interest effect.
Previous studies have discussed the role of intrinsic interest in the development of
entrepreneurial behaviors (Carsrud & Brännback, 2011; Carsrud et al., 2009); however,
these studies failed to provide any empirical evidence in support of their arguments. Further,
these studies also ignored the attitude, intention, and behavior linkage (Ajzen, 1991). Thus,
this study contributed to the existing literature by providing empirical support for and
explaining the mechanisms of the effects of intrinsic factors on EIs.
The findings also showed that extrinsic factors (i.e., perceived relative income and
occupational prestige) had positive effects on individuals’ EIs via attitudes toward
entrepreneurship. In Pakistan, individuals who perceive greater monetary rewards in
entrepreneurship, develop their positive attitudes in favor of private business and as a result,
they evoke their EIs. Similarly, the effect of perceived occupational prestige plays an
important role in generating positive attitudes and intentions for private business. Carsrud et
al. (2009) found that extrinsic motivations (e.g., money, power, and social acceptance)
influence entrepreneurial behaviors, but discussed these factors without providing any
empirical support. This study found empirical evidence support for and further explained
the meditational mechanism of the relationships between extrinsic rewards (i.e., perceived
relative money and occupational prestige) and EIs.
Second, this study proposed that gender moderates the relationship between intrinsic
and extrinsic rewards and attitudes toward entrepreneurship. The results showed that males
in Pakistan primarily develop their attitudes toward entrepreneurship based on intrinsic
interest. Males in Pakistan have more interest in entrepreneurship than females for multiple
reasons. Further, entrepreneurship is considered a male domain (Winn, 2005), and males
have a higher interest in entrepreneurship than females. Thus, males have a more significant
interest in entrepreneurship, and this interest develops their attitudes toward
76
entrepreneurship. The findings also showed that females in Pakistan developed their
attitudes toward entrepreneurship based on community feeling aspirations. Some previous
studies have reported that females are more society-oriented and more willing to help others
in society than males (Eagly, 1978; Eckes, & Trautner, 2000; Sheldon, 2007). Thus, women
appear to have more community feeling aspirations than males. This study hypothesized
that the effect of the extrinsic factor of perceived relative income on attitudes toward
entrepreneurship would be higher among males than females. The results supported this
hypothesis.
In developing countries, males are responsible for managing routine living expenses
and thus are concerned with perceived relative income. If they perceive that they will earn
more relative income from entrepreneurial activities, then they will be encouraged to take
initiative for personal business. This study hypothesized that the effect of the extrinsic
factor of occupational prestige on ATE is moderated through gender in a way that positive
effect would be stronger in females than males. The results showed that occupational
prestige had a higher positive effect on the attitudes of females toward entrepreneurship
than males; however, this difference was insignificant. Hence the results of this research
nullified the hypothesis that gender moderates the relationship between occupational
prestige and attitudes toward entrepreneurship. This study also provided insight into why
individuals have lower EIs in developing countries.
Gender significantly moderated the relationship between intrinsic interest,
community feeling aspirations, and perceived relative income via attitudes toward
entrepreneurship. The indirect effects of intrinsic interest, community feeling aspirations,
and relative income on EIs via attitudes toward entrepreneurship were explored in light of
these results. In relation to the intrinsic factors, it was found that the indirect effect of
intrinsic interest on EIs was higher in males than females. Conversely, the indirect effect of
community feeling aspirations was higher on the EIs of females via attitudes toward
entrepreneurship. The results of this study also explained why the indirect effect of
perceived relative income via attitudes on EIs was higher for males than females.
6.2.2 Implications for Public Policy
The results of the existing study have explored some new dimensions for public
policies of developing countries. The intrinsic factor of personal interest and the extrinsic
factor of perceived relative income are the basic determinants of private business attitudes
77
and inclinations for male members. The effect of relative income on attitudes toward
entrepreneurship was higher in males than females in Pakistan, suggesting that males in
Pakistan value entrepreneurship positively due to perceived relative income. On the basis of
these findings, policymakers must encourage the male members to select entrepreneurship
as their career that could lead them to earn a higher income and gain more monetary
rewards than they would as employees.
This approach could also increase males’ attitudes toward entrepreneurship and
ultimately develop their EIs. This study also found that males have a higher intrinsic interest
in entrepreneurship and develop their EIs directly from this intrinsic interest and indirectly
by developing their attitudes toward entrepreneurship. Policymakers should increase the EIs
of males by focusing on the practices that may increase the intrinsic interest of men in
entrepreneurship. The education system of the business schools should be improved in such
a way, that they can present and teach entrepreneurship to students as an interesting subject.
The individuals’ attitude toward entrepreneurship in Pakistan is low because the education
system could not be successful in generating the entrepreneurial interest in the individuals
specified in the men.
The findings also suggested that the intrinsic factor of community feeling aspirations
and the extrinsic factor of perceived occupational prestige were the main determinants of
entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions in females. In Pakistan, females are concerned with
social factors (i.e., social norms) (Arshad et al., 2015). It has been revealed through results
that females’ entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions are primarily developed by community
feeling aspirations (i.e., social factors). According to Qureshi and Sarfraz (2012), the
entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions of females are lower than male individuals in
Pakistan. Females represent 48.63% of the population in Pakistan (World Bank, 2016).
Thus, the entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions of females need to be increased to promote
entrepreneurship in Pakistan. Policymakers should also make females aware that they can
serve their communities by starting their own businesses. Women are more attracted to
entrepreneurial activities that involve other people, helping others, creating a community, a
network, etc. Females are concerned with serving the community; thus, this knowledge
could develop their attitudes and intentions in starting a new venture.
The finding of our study demonstrated that occupation prestige is equally important
for the men and women in developing their attitude toward entrepreneurship and
entrepreneurial intentions. The individuals who want to be popular and get more prestige,
78
they can opt entrepreneurship as a career. With the help of their own business, they can be
an addition in the successful entrepreneurship stories.
6.3 LIMITATIONS AND RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Some contextual and methodological limitations are part of the results. University
students were selected to collect the data but for complete and accurate knowledge of
entrepreneurial intention, data must be collected from all the segments of the society.
In addition, this research opted the time lag design, the future researchers should use
the longitudinal design to further investigate the linkage between entrepreneurial intention
and behavior which has been ignored in our study. This study only identified the effect of
three socio-psychological, two intrinsic (intrinsic interests and community contribution) and
two extrinsic (perceived relative income and occupational prestige) motivational elements
on entrepreneurial intention and had ignored the other socio-psychological and motivational
factors such as autonomy, self-actualization, self-esteem. The future researchers may
explore the different other factors which can foster the entrepreneurial intention. In addition,
this study only identified the effect of socio-psychological, intrinsic and extrinsic factors on
the pre-decisional phase of entrepreneurship (entrepreneurial intention) and ignored
consequences which can appear after the decision. The future researchers may examine how
these factors help the individuals in the implementation phase of entrepreneurship to cope
up the challenges of the new startups.
6.4 CONCLUSION
This research was aimed to identify the determinants of individuals’ ATE and EIs in
Pakistan. For this purpose, TPB and Goal contents theories were applied and proposed that
socio-psychological and motivational factor influence the individuals’ ATE and EIs. The
data came from the students of universities. The findings of this research revealed that
socio-psychological factors such as social norms and self-efficacy positively influence the
ATE which ultimately affects the EIs. In addition, it was also found that male and females
are differently influenced by social norms and self-efficacy while developing their ATE.
Male ATE is primarily developed by self-efficacy, whereas the female primarily values the
social norms for their positive ATE.
This research also showed that intrinsic (i.e., intrinsic interest and community
feeling aspirations) and extrinsic (i.e., perceived relative income and occupation prestige)
79
factors affect individuals’ ATE, which in turn develops their EIs. It was also shown that
gender moderates these effects such that intrinsic interest and perceived relative income
have a more significant effect on the private business attitudes of males than females. On
the other hand, in developing positive attitudes toward entrepreneurship, females are more
influenced by community feeling aspirations than males. Thus, to promote entrepreneurship
in males, their intrinsic interest in entrepreneurship and their perceptions about the monetary
rewards that they can earn from their own businesses. Conversely, to promote
entrepreneurship in females, females should be made aware that starting their own
businesses might create opportunities by which they can serve their communities.
80
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98
APPENDIX A:
QUESTIONNAIRE
Part 1
1. University Name:
2. Field of Study: Business Engineering IT
3. Gender: Male Female
4. Age: 15- 20 Years 21 – 25 Years. 26-30 Years
31- 35 years 36-40 Years More than 40 years
5. Current Educational Program: BS MS M.Phil.
6. Have you studied the Entrepreneurship Course? Yes No
7. Do you have any role model in your family who is doing his own business? ?
Yes No
8. Have you participated in any Entrepreneurship training/workshop?
Yes No
Part-2
# Questions
No
t at
all
Very
Im
po
rtan
t
How it is important for you?
1 To work for the betterment of society. (Com) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 To assist people who need it, asking nothing in return. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3 To work to make the world a better place. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4 To help others improve their lives. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5 To help people in need. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6 To teach others the things that you know. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7 To participate in social or political movements. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
99
# Questions
Str
on
gly
Dis
ag
ree
Dis
ag
ree
Slig
htl
y D
isag
ree
Neu
tral
Slig
htl
y A
gre
e
Ag
ree
Str
on
gly
Ag
ree
8 I am able to solve problems of business related matters.
(SE) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9 I am able to make decisions in business related matters. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10 I am able to manage money for business. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
11 I am creative in business related matters. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12 I am able to make people agree with me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
13 I am good being a leader. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
14 My closest family thinks that I should start my own
business. (SN) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
15 The expectations of my closest family are important to me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
16 My closest friends think that I should start my own
business. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
17 The expectations of my closest friends are important to me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
18 My fellow students think that I should start my own
business. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
19 The expectations of my fellow students are important to
me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
20 Other people who are close to me think that I should start
my own business. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
21 The expectations of other people who are close to me are
important. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
22 Being an entrepreneur implies more advantages than
disadvantages to me. (AE) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
23 A career as entrepreneur is attractive for me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
24 If I had the opportunity and resources, I’d like to start a
firm. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
25 Being an entrepreneur would entail great satisfactions for
me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
26 Among various options, I would rather be an entrepreneur. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
27 I believe that I will have more income if I will do a
business rather than doing a job.(PRI) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
100
# Questions
Str
on
gly
Dis
ag
ree
Dis
ag
ree
Slig
htl
y D
isag
ree
Neu
tral
Slig
htl
y A
gre
e
Ag
ree
Str
on
gly
Ag
ree
28 I consider I will enjoy more value in society If I start my
own business rather than doing a job.(OP) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
29 I may have more prestige if I do my own business rather
doing a job. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
30 I think society will admire me more if I start my own
business instead of doing a job. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
31 I consider I will enjoy more recognition in society If I start
my own business rather than doing a job. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
32 I will have more respect in society if I start my own
business instead of doing a job. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
33 I am very interested in entrepreneurship in general. (II) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
34 Entrepreneurship is an important subject to me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
35 Being accepted as a member of a group is more important
than having autonomy and independence. (I/C) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
36 Being accepted as a member of a group is more important
than being independent. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
37 Group success is more important than individual success. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
38 Being loyal to a group is more important than individual
gain. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
39 Individual rewards are not as important as group welfare. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
40
It is more important for a manager to encourage loyalty and
a sense of duty in subordinates than it is to encourage
individual initiative.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
41 I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur. (EIs) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
42 My professional goal is to become an entrepreneur. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
43 I will make every effort to start and run my own firm. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
44 I am determined to create a firm in the future. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
45 I have very seriously thought of starting a firm. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
46 I have the firm intention to start a firm someday. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Thank You!
101
APPENDIX B:
COMMON LATENT FACTOR ANALYSIS OF STUDY 1
102
APPENDIX C:
SINGLE FACTOR CFA STUDY 1
103
APPENDIX D:
FOUR FACTOR CFA STUDY 1
104
APPENDIX E:
SEVEN-FACTOR CFA STUDY 2
105
APPENDIX F:
SINGLE FACTOR CFA STUDY 2
106
107