88 [March-April, 1948

HORACE BROWN MEMORIAL LECTURE*

BRITISH BREWING IN RETROSPECT AND PROSPECTBy Julian L. Baker"Men should not be vain in publishingtheir knowledge whether orally or by

wiling, neither should they be cunning insecreting what they have acquired, but begenerous and free in communicating thefacts making them as comprehensive and

as simple as possible."Bacon.

IntroductionWhen some months ago the Council of this

Institute awarded me the Horace BrownMedal, I confess I had misgivings in acceptingso signal an honour when I remembered thegreat scientific and technical achievements of

past recipients of the medal. Moreover, it iscustomary for the Medallist to give anaddress on a subject with "which his life'swork has been associated. I have been

tempted, however, to -take a liberal view ofmy task and to submit certain ideas on the

effect of past and present research, legislation,and changes.in the customs of the inhabitantsof these islands on the future of our greatindustry, rather than discuss my research"work on the biochemical changes undergone

by starch when acted on by the amylases,which might be considered of somewhatlimited interest.

The impetus of social changes which is somarkedly increasing "the ambit off beer

consumers, of improved processes and plant,and methods of presentation of products inpremises have brought about many changes

in brewery practice, and it is unlikely thatwe shall ever again see the varieties and

gravities of beer which were available to thepublic before the first world war. It thusbecomes a matter of interest to speculate and,if possible, foresee what confronts us.Whether some of the surmises which followbe correct or not, time will show. They aresubmitted with all sincerity.

Delivered at a meeting of the Institute ofBrewing, held at the Royal Institution, AlberaarieStreet, London, on 10th January, 1048 (

March-April, 1948] baker: British brewing in retrospect and prospect 89seeds, the diffusion of COS through thestomata of leaves, thermal changes in opticalactivity of freshly prepared solutions ofsome of the sugars, bear witness to hisremarkable versatility.

His papers on the "Nitrogen Question inBrewing'* (this/om., 1907, 394; 1909, 169;1913, 84), and "Reminiscences of FiftyYears' Experience of the Application of

Scientific Method to Brewery Practice"(ibid., 1916, 267), will long be remembered.

Throughout his career Brown neverwavered from his belief that his life's worklay with the brewing industry, and in his

remarkable paper just mentioned he, to usethe words of his biographer, Dr. J. H. Millar,"struck a fair balance between the claims ofscience and art in brewing with a usefulprejudice in favour of science."

His final service to the brewing industrywas in conjunction with Sir Edward Thorpe,when the revision of the table of originalgravities of beers was made for the Board of

Inland Revenue.

Throughout the ages the creature comfortsof men have always been a subject of thepens of the literati. Much has been writtenon the early history of brewing, and there is a

fairly clear picture of it available from theEgyptian dynastic period. In 1860 Dr.

H. Bottinger, a well-known German chemistand manager of Allsopp's brewery at Burton,contributed an article on "Brewing" in

Muspratt's Chemistry as Applied to Arts andManufactures, which even now well repays

perusal, as much practical information isrecorded. But it reveals how small a partscience played in brewing in those days.Bottinger, who had a great personal influenceon the early life of Horace Brown, expressedhis conviction that the principles of brewingthen based on mere empiricism would in time

admit of a rational and scientific explanation.The correctness of this outlook can now be

appreciated, and it has served to convincethe industry of the vital necessity of organized

research work.The last half of the nineteenth centurywitnessed a great urge for scientific investiga

tion in all directions. The doctrines enunciated on agriculture by the great Germanchemist, Liebig, the work of Gilbert andLawes and a host of workers here and in othercountries on soils, their treatment, and the

requirements of different crops, were preparing the way for the introduction ofimproved varieties of seeds.

BarleyRemarkable advances have been made inmalting barleys in the first instance by the

classical work of two well-known men, Dr.H. Hunter and the late Dr. E. S. Beaven.An authoritative account of the position ofbarley growing in this country is set out in

Dr.' Beaven's "Horace Brown MemorialLecture" of 1934, and again in an interesting

article which he wrote, entitled "Barley forBrewing" (this/owrn., 1936,487). Beaven'sname will always be associated with hisPlumage-Archer and Dr. Hunter's withSpratt-Archer. These two pure-line barleysmay now be said to constitute the main bulk

of malting barleys in this country, replacingthe former Chevallier, Standwell, Goldthorpe,etc.

British brewers generally like to brewmalt made from two-rowed barleys mixedwith malt from six-rowed barleys grown inwarmer countries. It is claimed there ismore "sun" in the latter barleys, which

therefore constitute better brewing material.These barleys being more husky in character

certainly favour drainage in the mash tun,but beyond this the advantage appears tobe dubious in the light of the experience

gained in the war years, when such barleyswere not available.

According to Dr. H. Hunter, the area usedfor the cultivation of barley in this countryin pre-war years was about 1,000,000 acres.

During the war this acreage was doubled;some 60 per cent, of it served for the cultiva

tion of the two varieties Spratt-Archer andPlumage-Archer. Sixty per cent, of the totalbarley crops is used for malting and brewing,

10 per cent, for seeds and 30 per cent, forfeeding and other purposes. Nowadays,more Spratt-Archer than Plumage-Archer isgrown.

It is difficult to assess the monetary valueof the work of Beaven and Hunter to thebrewing industry, but it must run into

astronomical figures. In 1900, first-classmalts rarely yielded extracts of 95 Ib. perquarter. As more of the Archer types of

barleys came into cultivation the extractvalues rose, and for many years past,

provided climatic conditions were favourable,figures of 97-99 Ib. extract per quarter have

90 BAKER.' BRITISH BREWING IN RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT [March-April, 1948

been customary. Sixteen years ago the lateSir Walter Fletcher, Secretary of the Medical

Research Council, stated in his address"Biology and Statecraft" that the newbarleys as calculated from official returnsmeant a saving of fully 1,000,000 a year.The work of Beaven and Hunter had thusrepaid to the country already far more than

all the Government expenditure on agricultural research of every kind since the war of

1914-18. Sir Walter Fletcher truly said"there could be no plainer example of howthis new science of genetics can add to thewealth of the nation."

Imported Barleys.Under the old maltduty it was not profitable to steep thin six-

rowed barleys, but after its repeal in 1880 theuse of thin foreign barleys increased rapidly,

particularly when there was a shortage ofsound home barley. Between 1890 and 1900the six-rowed Californian brewing barleybecame very popular in this country, largely

owing to its uniformity of character from yearto year. In fact this and other importedsix-rowed barleys accounted for 20 -per cent.of the malt made in Great Britain.

Grave misgivings were felt by brewerswhen, at an early stage in the recent war,importation of these foreign barleys forbrewing ceased. Technical difficulties such

as drainage in the mash tun were thoughtprobable, and there were forebodings that theloss of a large proportion of barley with the

"sun in it" would cause other abnormalities.But brewers rose to the occasion, and forsome years past they have had to brew withmalt made from barley grown in these islands;

and, if allowance be made for the enforceddrop in gravities, with remarkable success.The experience so gained has proved beyond

doubt that home grown barleys can be usedalone in brewinga point of considerableeconomic significance.

In this connection reference may be madeto a series of malting and brewing trials with

three types of English barleys, which weremade in 1946 for the purpose of determiningunder ordinary conditions the effect of using

one type of malt only on fermentation andyeast crop, and on the character and stabilityof the beer. Successive brewings (12 qrs.)were made with each malt, the yeast from

the first brewing being'used in the secondbrewing and so on for five or six brewings.

The results (this Journ., 1946, 17) showed

that whilst the three barleys showed variations in composition and were only ofmedium quality as judged by ordinary

standards, yet the series of five beers brewedfrom each behaved normally throughout thebrewing process. The yeast crops weresatisfactory, all the beers were sound and

bright, and remained so for the usual time.My colleague Mr. T. J. Ward and myself areindebted to Messrs. Watney Combe Reid &

Co. for placing facilities at our disposal forthe conduct of the series of makings andbrewings.

Messrs. B. M. Brown and J. Wilmot ofWhitbread & Co. (this Journ., 1947, 10)reported the results of a somewhat similar

series of makings and brewings with the samestrains of barleys grown in the following year.The barleys, though not of a high quality,malted satisfactorily without special treatment and produced satisfactory beers, which

passed into the trade without comment andremained stable for normal periods.

These results are of some interest and,very briefly summed up, show that Englishmalts of different quality with nitrogen

percentages varying from 1-51 to 2-00 percent, in straight brewing produce normalyeast crops and beers. In a measure thisprepares the way for trials on a brewery scalewith improved races of barley already in

existence and those yet to be geneticallyraised. As an example, early ripeningvarieties, if firmly established, would be ofgreat help to the farmer in staggering

harvesting operations.The improvement of malting barleys is afascinating study, and much valuable workhas been carried out on it during recent yearsby Dr. H. Hunter at the National Institute

of Agricultural Botany. Those who areinterested should read his paper (this Journ.,

1943, 296) in which his views and the resultsof his work are set out. The production of anew variety of barley presents many difficulties, for whilst such a variety may befavourably received by the grower because in

all its agricultural aspects it is satisfactory,it may not meet the requirements of thebrewer, and vice versa. In fact, the produc

tion of new varieties is still largely a questionof trial and error, but such material advanceshave already been made that it is legitimateto anticipate that further systematic research

will result in new varieties suitable alike togrower and user. The realization of such a

March-April, 1948] baker: British brewing in retrospect and prospect 91hope would, it is obvious, have a profoundeffect on brewing in general.

MaltingIt cannot be claimed that there have beenany substantial changes in malting technique

since early times. When new makings havebeen erected, thought and care have been

directed to their layout to embrace mddernideas of internal transport of material,

economy of fuel and other obvious considerations. The fact, however, remains that theoutlook has been conservative; maltstersappear to be wedded to the floor systemand with a few exceptions have been shyof

embarking on new procedures such as havebeen adopted elsewhere. Another difficultyis that of installing mechanical devices for

floor turning, drums and improved kilns,in existing and expensive buildings.

Since the beginning of the century verykeen competition has obtained amongst

maltsters-for-sale, and small profits have notencouraged additional capital outlay on

improvements. Further, the tendency forbrewers to make a proportion of their ownmalt has greatly increased, particularly

among larger brewing firms. It will beapparent that the maltster-for-sale is in adifficult position, but his survival is a matter

of interest to the brewer who does not wantto make all the malt he requires, as he would

then lose any favourable turn in fluctuatingmarket prices. Moreover, a large quantity

of malt is now made on commission terms,the barley being purchased by agreement

between brewer and malting firm and maltedat a fixed charge per quarter. This arrangement permits the maltster to work to some

thing approaching capacity and- obviateserection of new malting buildings by thebrewer.

The ever-increasing overhead charges forlabour and fuel and the replacement or repair

of makings arising from war damage arecausing some interesting changes of. outlook,

and various modifications in the adaptationand construction of the well-known Saladinbox, the drum method, mechanical turning infloor maltings, and Continental and Americanprocedures for rapid drying and curing are

all under consideration and will be installedas soon as circumstances and materials

permit. In the past, malting drums andmechanical turning have been used in a fewinstances in this country with satisfactory

results, but the inherent conservatism of theindustry has not aided a general development of modern iteas. It is clear, however,

that compulsion is bringing about a changein this respect.

The storage and maturation of barleyand the proper age at which to malt it to get

the best results are now becoming matters ofinterest among maltsters, largely due to the

very promising work of Dr. L. R. Bishop(see e.g., this Journ., 1947, 86).

HopsHops appear to have been first introducedinto this country early in the sixteenthcentury, the cuttings being obtained from

Flanders. Formerly they were grown inmany districts, including Cheshire and

Lancashire, but gradually their cultivationbecame restricted to the present areas.

However, the hop can grow elsewhere, and itmay well be that in the near future the

possibility of other hop-growing areas mayrequire consideration.

Advances in the culture and improvementof varieties of hops, although considerable,have not been so rapid as with barley, the

underlying cause being the understandabledesire of the grower to conserve his capital

outlay. Another difficulty is that of assessing the real value of the hop whether for

copper or dry-hopping purposes, and, whilstvigorous efforts are being made in these

directions by brewers and chemists alike,the study is really only in its infancy.Decades of work have evolved the P.V.determinationa useful weapon, but onewhich does not carry us very far. The

pioneer work of Prof. Salmon and his schoolof workers in the production and introduction

of new varieties has been of value to thebrewer, and this value will be greater in the

future. Already some of the new varietieshave proved to be successful in varying

degrees in their brewing value and in resistance to disease. The industry owes a greatdebt to Prof. Salmon and to his colleagues for

the long, arduous and patient care devotedto this subject, and it must be a pleasure to

him to realize that his efforts are at lengthproving fruitful.

Growers and brewers alike are shy ofinnovations, and the lack of definite analyti

cal methods on the evaluation of hopsfor the P.V. although useful is at best a bluntinstrumenthas acted as a contributory

BAKER: BRITISH BREWING IN RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT [March-April, 1948

cause. In this matter the grower waits onthe chemist. It is no easy task, and will

require much patient investigation andcorrelation of results on a scale far morecomprehensive than has sa far been possible

with the Institute Research Scheme. Evenso, much useful work has been done on a verydifficult subject. '

The acreage under hops is insufficient forthe brewers' needs, and during the war yearsthe grower has been beset by all manner ofdifficulties. The ravages of some diseasesare unfortunately on the increase, and itseems reasonable that new districts for hopfields must be sought and the present landsgiven a rest. It should be borne in mind

that some of the best hop fields have been incultivation under the same crop and heavilymanured for a great number of years, and it

may well be that some protective constituentor condition of the soil becomes graduallydiminished or altered in character, with the

result that the plant then offers less resistanceto disease. Unfortunately, the attendantcapital outlay on the growth and drying of

hops as practised is very heavy, and tends toprohibit the speculative development of newareas, but if there be anything in this surmise,it is a situation which will have to be faced.

In a measure the hop grower is not in a particularly happy position, for he supplies onlythe brewer; so far no other use has been foundfor this prolific crop.

Before discussing the advances which havebeen made in our knowledge of the composition of mash tun wort, a few remarks con

cerning the enzymic hydrolysis of maltstarch may not be out of place. An enor

mous amount of labour has been expended inthis country and abroad on the elusive starchgranule and its hydrolytic products, and on'

no subject have more researches beenpublished, so much laborious work done, somany unconfirmed experiments recorded, and

so many tentative and arbitrary findings putforward. The pertinacity with whichchemists attack this subject is understandable, for starch is one of the principal foods

of man. Moreover, its breakdown productsare of profound interest to our own industry.

The writer has been a worker in this fieldsince 1894, first with A. R. Ling and from

1906 to 1939 with H. F. E. Hulton. In thecourse of our work the idea gradually

gained ground that the principal products of

the enzymic hydrolysis of starch were not sonumerous or so complicated as stated by

C. O'Sullivan, Horace Brown and manyother workers. At all temperatures themain products of such hydrolysis are maltose,

maltodextrin, stable dextrin and a smallundetermined amount of a low molecularweight carbohydrate, dextrin-like in nature,which may well be a trisaccharide as stated

by the Danish chemist, Blom (this Journ.,1947, 302).

At conversion temperatures between 60and 122 F., no maltodextrin can be found,for, if produced, it is at once hydrolyzed tomaltose; at 160 F. its presence is definite,

and at 165 F. very marked. The stabledextrin and maltodextrin were isolated in a

pure state and their properties described; theformer dextrin resembles ct-amylodextrin,which I isolated and described in 1902

(J. Chem. Soc, 1902, 134; this Journ., 1902,628), in its greater resistance, as comparedwith starch, to the action of a- and j3-

amylases.Having established the facts concerningthe character of the products of the hydrolysis of starch by malt amylase, the corollary

is their isolation and identification in breweryworts and beer, and this is likely to prove adifficult problem. In this connection it is

interesting to note that L. R. Bishop hassucceeded in preparing pure crystalline maltose from mash tun wort and has alsosuggested a method for the estimation ofdextrin (this Journ., 1944, 6). So far the

conclusions which I have submitted havenot been challenged, but they assist to onlya limited extent in the fundamental problemof the make up of the starch molecule.

In 1987 H. E. Armstrong wrote (this Journ.,1937,383):

" I doubt if we can assert anything more to-daythan that the molecule is very complex; that theprimary unit is a glucose radicle; the secondary amaltose radicle; that there is some probability

also that a triose complex is present. Formulaesuch as have been drawn are practically worthless."

It is thus apparent that what may betermed the enzyme method of attack toelucidate the constitution of starch is insufficient. In recent years the organic chemists

have tackled the problem, and the brilliantresearches of Sir Norman Howarth and Prof.

E. L. Hirst and then* schools have established a number of facts which bear on theproblem. It may well be that the joint

March-April, 1948] baker: British brewing in retrospect and prospect 03efforts of the biochemist and the organicchemist may result in success, but it isobvious that much has yet to be done by askilfully-led team of workers. One recentand important discovery by C. S. Hanes,which constitutes a step forward, is theenzymic synthesis of a component of natural

starch.Nevertheless, the problem of the changeswhich malt starch undergoes in the mash

tun is relatively simple, compared with thataffecting the nitrogenous constituents. Thelatter provide a problem of great complexity,and have been and still are the subject of

investigation in many directions. Notwithstanding the advances which have beenmade, we are only on the threshold ofunderstanding the subject. As Horace

Brown pointed out many years ago, thework of the physiologist must go hand inhand with that of the chemist, if the problemsof agricultural and malting practice are ever

to emerge from empiricism.There are indications that more of therecent work is following this precept.

Strenuous efforts are being made to isolateand study qualitatively and quantitativelythe nitrogenous constituents of barley andmalt, the changes they undergo duringmalting and mashing, and their effect and

behaviour during fermentation. The results of the studies of L. R. Bishop and

R. S. W. Thome at Birmingham in thisconnection are of great promise, and have

already advanced our knowledge materially.It is reasonable to anticipate further definite

results from the Institute's enlarged researchscheme.

It may be anticipated that as the amountsand kinds of carbohydrate, nitrogenous, andother constituents of wort most necessaryfor brewing become known, the growers ofbarley will find themselves in a surer positionthan they are at present. Already field

trials at the agricultural research stationshave effected great improvements in malting

barleys, but much yet requires to be donebefore growers of barley have precise knowledge of the type which they should produce.

The Mashing ProcessCenturies of experience and the advancesin scientific knowledge of the reactions which

take place in the mash tun have not alteredessentially the procedure for obtaining extract from malt. The modern mash tun is

provided with an external mashing machine,internal mashing' machinery, rotating sparge

arms and a false bottom of fitted metalplates supported on short feet which servesas a draining area to separate the malt

husks from the wort. The mash tun isa well-tried and, up to a point, an efficient

piece of apparatus, but the fact remains thatthe removal of the wort is not complete.

At the beginning of this century thesuggestion was mooted that the mash shouldbe passed through a filter press. It was triedin a spasmodic fashion but not very success

fully, owing to poor designs on the part offilter-press makers. Moreover, there was animpression among brewers that abnormallyhigh extracts were to be distrusted, althoughreally nothing tangible could be adduced tosupport such a statement.

In fact, the inherent conservatism of thebrewer and the strong financial position of theindustry were against the innovation, andlittle has been heard since of the mash filter in

British breweries. America and the Continent, where competition plays a greater part

than here, have adopted the process withsuccess. Economic considerations ultimatelywill compel a reconsideration of the use of

the mash filter, and in this connection theforthcoming work of the Institute's researchscheme will be of great help. The problem

is a big one, as it entails heavy alterations andexpense; against these, however, must be

set material saving in time and more efficientremoval of extract.

FermentationThe classic work of Pasteur, his controversy with Liebig and his school ofthought marked the beginning of an epochin the study of the problems involved in thephenomenon of fermentation. Earlierworkers had formulated the doctrine that

there could be no decomposition of sugar, i.e.,no fermentation, without the physiologicalactivity of vegetation. These ideas wereelaborated by Pasteur, and it was due to hisresearches that this doctrine gained recogni

tion. In his well-known work Etudes sur laBiSre (1876) he discussed the diseases towhich beer is exposed when it is attacked bybacteria; and, since these are distinguishable

from yeast cells when examined under amicroscope, he recommended the employment of that instrument for diagnostic

94 BAKER: BRITISH BREWING IN RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT [March-April, 1948purposes in breweries. He also urged theimportance of conducting the fermentation ofbeer wort so that foreign organisms cannot

gain admission. Thus was the way madeclear for far-reaching improvements in the

brewing industry. Pasteur with his strongimpression that bacteria were the cause ofbeer diseases suggested the purification ofbrewery yeast by treatment with cane sugarand tartaric acid, which would result in the

suppression of the bacteria. He made noattempt to differentiate between the sac-charomycetes and non-saccharomycetes, andat that time there was no evidence to distinguish a brewery yeast from a disease yeast.

The botanical treatment of the problem hadnot occurred to him, and he had no exactmethods of pure cultivation. But Pasteurhad started the ball rolling and there wasmuch controversy concerning the degenera

tion and transformations which occur inbrewery yeast.

To Emil Chr. Hansen must fall the honourof clearing up many of these difficulties andmisunderstandings. This great investigator,to whom brewers are profoundly indebted,elaborated methods for the pure culture ofyeasts from single cells, and his work afforded

results which have had a lasting effect on thefermentation industries. His criticisms ofPasteur's investigations and his polemics withDuclaux, Velten and others afford mostinteresting and instructive reading.

The application of Hansen's pure yeastsystem, although successful in many

Continental breweries, was not so -in thiscountry. The trials were made in a cautious

and half-hearted manner from about 1890to 1910, but the general opinion held bybrewers was that no advantages wereapparent, and that the "pure" yeast rapidlydeteriorated. Moreover, the great disadvantage was the difficulty experienced in inducing

secondary fermentation, which was necessaryin many of the types of beer brewed at that

time. In 1900 to 1903, I fermented successfully at Castle Street, Long Acre, portions

(100 barrels) of many gyles of mild ale,but it was found that after the third successive fermentation the yeast had become

mixed in type, and had to be renewed fromthe original culture.

The then rather parlous state of thebrewing industry, and the outpouring of

capital in the rush for purchase of tied housesmade brewers in this country conservative in

their outlook on any departure from recognized practice, and it was felt that notenough was known of the Hansen principleto justify the expenditure of large sums forthe radical alteration of existing fermentation

plant.Looking back on those days it can berealized now that the underlying cause for theapparent failure of the " pure yeast" doctrinewas the contamination of wort from air, andplant infection, due to the very elementaryideas then current regarding cleanliness and

to the unsatisfactory conditions of yeaststorage.

With Hansen's name, that of AlfredJorgensen will be associated. His bookMicro-organisms and Fermentation has run

through many editions in this country. Hisassociation with Hansen began during theirbotanical studies at Copenhagen University,and it was this early collaboration whichresulted later on in such far-reaching resultsin the Continental fermentation industries.

Since experience in this country indicatedthat pitching yeast derived from a single celldid not function in secondary fermentation,attempts were made to ferment worts withmixed types, each produced from single cells.

Hansen regarded this as a schism, but claimsfor satisfactory results have been made byseveral observers, and a particularly interesting and successful application was suggestedand introduced by B. M. Brown of Whit-bread's Brewery in 1934 (this Jottrn., 1934,9).

The work of Pasteur, Hansen andJorgensen started vigorous and productivelines of investigation on yeasts, moulds andbacteria, which have greatly increased our

knowledge of the properties and functions ofthese organisms and the part they play in

fermentation industries generally. Much remains to be done before anything approaching

a complete list of the great number ofmicro-organisms of interest to the brewer can

be drawn up. This it is to be hoped, willconstitute one of the tasks of the Institute's

research scheme. Valuable contributionshave already been made on this subject by

J. L. Shimwell and also by T. K. Walker.One profound effect of Pasteur andHansen's work was to bring home to brewersthe importance of cleanliness in the brewing

plant and the prevention of aerial and otherinfections. In this respect the brewery ofto-day is very different from that of fiftyyears ago. The necessity of freedom from.

March-April, 1048] baker: British brewing in retrospect and prospect

and elimination of, external and internalsources of infection is now recognized by thebrewer, and modern plant is designed to meet

this demand. Formerly the heavier gravitiesand high hop rate permitted liberties to be

taken in the matter of infection, but it is quiteanother matter with the low-gravity beerswhich we are now compelled to brew.

Hansen's ideas on the permanent individuality of races of yeast remained undis

puted until W. Winge and O. Laustsenworking in the famous Carlsberg laboratoriesin Copenhagen found that by delicate micro-manipulation it was possible to induce a

spore from each of two distinct species ofyeast to conjugate forming a zygote, whichsubsequently developed buds of a hybridyeast (Compt. rend. Trav. Lab. Carlsberg,S&r. physiol., 1035,21, 77; 1030, 22, 337; thisJourn., 1035, 406; 1930, 406).

It is thus evident that a culture of yeastderived from a single cell may contain morethan one type of yeast, and even the product

from a single spore may also consist of atleast two types. Previous work on yeasts

has been limited to selection of types spontaneously produced in nature, but there isnow the possibility of work on the breedingof yeasts corresponding to that carried out onthe higher plants.

This interesting discovery of Winge's unfolds far-reaching- lines of investigation.Already advances have been reported, andone of the artificial hybrids is in use in anEnglish yeast factory, where it is considered

superior to its "natural" predecessor. It isknown that the type of yeast used in fermentation plays a part in the flavour of the

resulting product, and in this connection thewine yeasts are a notable example. Asknowledge of the constituents of wort priorto fermentation progresses and fari passuthat of the properties of certain yeasts, it issurely not too radical a view to anticipatecomplete control of brewery fermentations

in any desired respect. It can be visualizedthat in the future something of the nature of a

"standard hopped wort" will become generalin British breweries, with any particularflavour to meet local requirements controlledby appropriate yeasts. Criticism is antici

pated in submitting this suggestion, but itseems highly probable that something of this

nature faces the industry.*There has been a slow but steady advancein the improvement of fermentation plant in

British breweries, although the fundamentalprinciples of the skimming and dropping,Burton union, and stone square systemsremain the same. The improvements havebeen in the direction of obtaining purity of

the air in the fermentation-rooms, control oftemperature during fermentation, ease ofkeeping the plant clean, preservation of theyeast crop, and reduction of fermentationlosses. Owing to the high beer duty the last-mentioned item has much significance, and a

former President of the Institute, Mr.W. Scott, has devised a process now in usein many breweries to effect this purpose.

Fermentation vessels made of copper andwood are being gradually replaced by othermaterials of a less costly and more durable

character, such as stainless steel, aluminiumalloys and concrete. Plastic materials maywell have a future in this connection.

The introduction of the paraflow withwhich Dr. Seligman's name is so closely

associated is a notable step forward in thesubmission of a clean wort to the action ofyeast, and the necessity of pure air andcontrolled temperatures in the fermentingrooms is now claiming the close attention ofbrewers. Progress in these respects is unfortunately retarded by constructional difficulties inherent in adapting old buildings tomodern requirements, whilst brewing opera

tions have to continue. A brewery cannotcease production whilst a new building toaccommodate modern plant is being erected.New building is rarely possible, and the besthas to be made of the existing lay-out. The

present position of this country will delaystill further improvements and developmentsin building and in plant.

The changes affecting the presentation andconsumption of the national beverage havebeen very great during the last 50 years,

economic considerations and Governmentordinances arising from the two great warsbeing largely responsible. The high prices ofwines and spirits have had their effect in

increasing the number of beer drinkers.More women now drink beer and, in thisrespect, improved licensed premises and the

* Those who are interested in the hybridization ofyeasts should read an interesting account of Winge'swork by Prof. R. H. Hopkins (this Journ., 1040, 68)and a later paper by Dr. R. S. W. Thome on

"Inheritance in Yeast" (ibid.. 1047, 25).

96 BAKER: BRITISH BREWING IK RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT [March-April, 1048

more liberal outlook on life which obtains inlarge centres of population have had aconsiderable influence. The spread of knowledge brought about by education that excessive consumption is harmful and unsocial, thegeneral improvement in conditions of life,

and the high price of beer and its low alcoholiccontent, have each and all contributed to thegreater sobriety which is now so apparent ascompared with the past.

If those responsible for the retailing of beerhad a free hand and were not so hampered bythe curious andin many casesarchaicregulations enforced by various authorities,the progress of internal and external improvements in, and the alteration of, licensed

premises would doubtless have been morerapid and substantial. For at least threedecades it has been the settled policy ofbreweries owning houses to improve them

and to bring them up to date to meet modernrequirements. The old gin "palace" is

vanishing and the many fine and attractivelicensed premises now to be seen in town

and country show what can be done andwhat may be anticipated in the future.

Few people outside the brewing industryrealize the many restrictions imposed by the

Licensing Acts upon reasonable developments and alterations of licensed premises.

It is not so much that the provisions of thoseActs are contested as the fact that such pro

visions are not always fairly interpreted.The expression "discretion of the LicensingJustices" freely permits the faddist reformerand temperance fanatic to indulge in pre

judiced views, so that instead of judicial andimpartial decisions the owners of licensed

premises are subjected to personal and partialinterpretation of the Acts. The manydifficulties, and obstructions to alterations

and improvements in licensed premisesnecessary to meet modern conditions, andparticularly those connected with new licences, are too well known to brewers to need

any elaboration. The existing licensing lawcalls urgently for revision and the removal ofmany anomalies, so that it may harmonize

with present social requirements.Whilst the necessity for State control ofthe conditions affecting the sale and consump

tion of alcoholic beverages is admitted, it isregrettable that so many take a narrow viewand lose sight of the fact of the very important

part played by licensed premises in the clublife of the community.

Throughout the ages there has been a closeassociation between the consumption ofalcohol and social relaxation, and there canbe no denial that the reason basically is

psychological. Alcohol plays a great partin the lighter side of our life, but excessiveindulgence has been the cause of much miseryand unhappiness and accounts for theimmense amount of prejudice which hasaccumulated on all sides of the "drink"

problem. As mankind advances in knowledge and culture, a sense of resentmentarises against the continuation of restrictionsto his legitimate leisure and entertainment,which were deemed necessary to the welfare

of his forefathers. Let us hope that a morehumane and considerate legislature will

evolve something better than the presentirksome regulations.

As a result of changes in the taste of thepublic arising from the aftermath of war and

from legislation, the strength of beers hassteadily dropped. It seems unlikely that

the production of heavily hopped beers of60 and over will ever again become general.Although a pleasant memory to many, they

are forgotten by or unknown to the majority,and interest now centres in the appropriatepresentation of low gravity products.

Whilst some still prefer draught beer, theconsumption of filtered carbonated beer fromeither cask, other movable container, orbottle is greatly on the increase. The

pewter pot of former days has almostvanished, glass having taken its place, andthis has resulted in the demand for brilliance

and clarity of the beverage.Great advances have been made in recentyears in the chilling, filtering, and carbonation

plants of breweries, necessitating heavycapital expenditure. The construction of thedifferent types of machines involved in the

bottling of carbonated beer is eloquenttestimony to the skill of our engineers. Themany patents granted for all types ofmachines involved in the bottling processl

for detergents for cleaning bottles, etc., wouldseem to suggest that more research and

enquiry have been directed to the finishedproduct than to the brewing of it.

ResearchFrom early years to the end of the seconddecade of the present century, research work

associated with brewing and fermentationwas carried out by individuals deeply

March-April, 1948] baker: British brewing in retrospect and prospect 97interested in their subject. With a fewnotable exceptions the results of such workexcited only a mild interest amongst those inthe hierarchy of the industry. In those daysrelatively few breweries had a scientific staff,

and any problems or difficulties were referredto the consultant in whose laboratories muchvaluable work of a pioneer character was

done, the results in many cases being published in the different journals.

The experience during the first world warof the immense value to many essentialindustries at a very critical time in ournational life of organized research carried outby workers under efficient directorship,

brought home to manufacturers the urgentnecessity of research, if this country was tohold its own in the markets of the world.The Government encouraged the movementand provided financial assistance. The brewing industry, however, decided to adopt anindependent line, and the Institute Research

Scheme from its inception in 1919 has beenfinanced by brewing and malting firms with

out State aid, freedom of outlook and operation being thus assured. With the modestsum at its disposal, the scheme admittedlyhas made good progressthanks to theefforts of those engaged on the work, to theassistance and advice of distinguished scien

tists outside the industry, and to manyactively engaged in brewing and malting.

The industrial world now more than everrealizes the necessity of research, andhastens to give material expression to this

feeling, if the frequent advertisements appearing in the Press for qualified workers anddirectors of research be any indication.The intensive scientific team-work whichproduced such remarkable results during thetwo war periods, and certain adjustments inthe incidence of taxation designed to encourage research in industry have acted as aspur. Now the major industries have re

search organizations, and so have some of theminor ones also. Brewers arc not in the

rearguard in this accelerated movement anda comprehensive programme of work hasbeen arranged and approved and, what ismost important, supported by ample financial

aid from the Brewers' Society.The scheme was launched on 1st Octoberof last year under the able direction of Prof.Gulland, and we were all pleased that theservices of so distinguished a scientist hadbeen secured. But Fate willed otherwise.

and owing to the railway accident on 26thOctober, 1947, we were deprived of his help.

Men of Prof. Gulland's eminence and capabilities are rare, and the Institute may find itdifficult to replace him.

The labour involved in formulating theenlarged scheme of research has been great,and we are indebted to Dr. Seligman for thevaluable and painstaking services he hasrendered as Chairman of the Research

Committee, to the committees dealing withthe different subjects needing investigationand to our Secretary, Mr. W. H. Bird, whohas so wholeheartedly devoted his energiesto the end in view.

Reference has been made to the strikingresults emanating from physical and chemicalresearch during the stress of the war years,and a recollection of these should not relegatethe long range view of research work to asecondary place. With so many of what maybe regarded as minor problems connectedwith brewing which, in the opinion of some,require immediate investigation, there is apossibility that efforts to solve them mayclaim more time and attention than ought tobe allowed compared with what should beregarded as the main work of the ResearchScheme.

The pregnant remarks of Sir Henry Daleat the last meeting of the British Associationon this aspect of research work are of thehighest importance. He drew attention to

the remarkable stimulus given by thenecessities of war to scientific research,involving as it did an unparalleled concentra

tion of scientific collaboration. These practical results were, however, achieved only bythe diversion of the thought and efforts ofthe leaders of scientific research from theadvancement of basic science to the attainment of certain material ends, which, at the

time, were of primary importance.Thus the outlook of the workers in purescience was wholly changed during that

period. Sir Henry Dale suggested that thereis a grave danger to the future of science, ifresearch workers come to be confirmed inthis war-time attitude that it is the exclusive

task of science to provide rapid solutions ofpractical problems as they arise.

The following words from a leader in TheTimes of 28th August, 1947, dealing with SirHenry Dale's address aptly expressed theviews of serious-minded men, and served as

98 BAKER: BRITISH BREWING IN RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT [March-April, 1948a salutary caution to "all out" exponents ofshort-term research:

"Nobody,' of course, will wish to underrate the importance of applied science or to contend that this country and the world are not inurgent need of spectacular achievements but alsoof numberless improvements. On the other hand,every great advance which is now occupyingpopular attention, every scientific war-time

achievement had its origin in research not onlycarried out with no other object than gain of pure

knowledge bnt in research which at the time of itsaccomplishment, not even the most far-sighted

ever suggested could have any practical interest."Whilst there are many immediate problemsassociated with the brewing industry capable

of solution by a team of research workers,there are those of a fundamental characterwhich demand a "long-term" researchpolicy, and it is in this sense that Sir HenryDale's remarks merit attention. Doubtless

able directorship of our Research Scheme willestablish an appropriate balance between thetwo policies of "long-" and "short-"termresearch.The Outlook for the Brewing Industry

It is with a degree of reluctance that thisaspect of my address is approached, as it issomewhat speculative and probably some ofthe ideas which follow will not be received

with unanimity. An attempt has beenmade to give a brief outline of the moreimportant scientific and technical advances

which have been made during the last halfcentury, and from the results achieved it ispermissible to surmise what general changesin practice are probable in the future.

One point to bear in mind is that brewingis not a free industry, in that brewery

premises are subject, to close supervision andinspection by the Excise Authorities. Nomaterial may be used in brewing other thanmalt, grain, sugar and hops unless the

sanction of the Commissioners of Excise isobtained. The excise officer can be presentat brewing operations and can take samples

of all materials which the brewer uses.Nothing can be added to beer such as

saccharine or liquorice, as they producesweetness and fullness and so replace gravitywhich would be a loss to the revenue. No

preservative other than sulphurous acid orsulphites may be used in beer, the permissible

limit being 5 grains per gallon of SO2. Thissupervision has one advantage in that it

furnishes all the evidence required to confutethe propaganda so frequently used by

prohibitionists that chemicals are used inbrewing. '

Owing to the vast revenue derived frombeerthe duty last year amounted to

259-7 millions, the capital sunk in tied-houses and the concomitant conditions of

trading, brewing is to some extent a protected industry. Hence there is not thesame amount or degree of competition asin

free industries, and this is probably themajor reason for the slow changes in the'improvement of essential brewing operations.

It will be admitted that much of the plantand many brewery buildings are, to put itmildly, out of date.

Under present circumstances the need forthe reduction of operational charges by theintroduction of new plant and improvements

is not so urgent as in the free industries, andthere is an understandable inclination to leavewell alone. But when new plant and vessels

have to be installed, the brewer is as keen asany other progressive industrialist to get the /best and most suitable for his purpose; but

so often this desirable aim is prevented bythe general lay-out of old brewery buildings.Indeed, some of the larger breweries arehopeless in this respect with their out-of-datestructure, their great length of mains so

awkwardly placed that it is next to impossible to keep them in that state of cleanliness which the brewer desires, steam mainsrunning great distances with consequent lossof heat, and a number of other well recognized difficulties. Brewery directorates areaware of the many drawbacks to improvements, and the multiple trading conditionsmake it extremely difficult to start afresh

and build an entirely new brewery; underpresent restrictions it is impossible.

It is a problem which will ultimately haveto be faced, and, with improved methods oftransport, breweries situated in areas of greatvalue in large towns and cities will have tobe transferred to localities as near and as

suitable as possible, where space is lessvaluable. In this matter one aspect merits

attention. Owing to general economic conditions the consumption of beer is now spreadmore generally than it was formerly, particularly in domestic life, and the demand forbottled beer has steadily increased. Bottlingplants occupy relatively large areas, andmany breweries have not the space to meet

the requirements of their trade, and consequently have to transfer operations to

March-April, 1948] baker: British brewing in retrospect and prospect 99distant bottleries.' This often involves, in

addition to transport of the beer, eithercooling, filtration and carbonation, or any oneof these, all of which are more convenientlycarried out at the home brewery, and with

less damage to the beer. In cases when alocal demand has been successfully fostered

for the products of some far distant brewery,it may well be economical and convenient to

send beer in bulk and bottle in that area.This is, in fact, being done in a number ofcases. .

Another matter which brewers are considering is the presentation of their bottledbeers. We are a conservative people in

domestic affairs, but it must be admittedthat our beer bottles are generally notattractive on the table or sideboard. Astudy of the containers used on the Continentand in America and of their labelling is wellworth undertaking, as the psychologicalvalue of an attractively labelled bottlecannot be ignored. It would also be an

advantage and save much trouble andexpense, if brewers could agree to use

standard sizes in interchangeable bottles.Most brewing companies these days do farmore than supply beer. Their houses aresocial centres; they provide meals, and in

increasing numbers, entertainment. Concerts where distinguished artists perform,

and lectures and addresses by well-knownmen are not unknown, and there is everyindication that this movement will bedeveloped. The catering side has increased

greatly, but far more could be done in thisrespect, as so many houses in our large towns

occupy prominent positions appropriate forthe provision of meals. Owing to thegeneral conditions of life there seems to be an

increasing movement for the more substantialmeals to be consumed away from the home,and with the liberal views now obtainingregarding entry to licensed premises there is a

large field awaiting development by thelicensed victualler.

The crowded premises at meal times

provide striking evidence of this. Ourhabits under the force of circumstances, thegreat numbers of women now employed onwork other than that of a domestic nature,and those who consequently have to takemeals away from their homes, are factorswhich demand consideration in this con

nection.It appears inevitable that licensed premiseswill play a much greater part in the life ofthe people than heretofore; no longer will thesale of exciseable liquors be the only con

sideration, and there will be a more appropriate balance between these and food andentertainment.

It is to be hoped that legislation will bydegrees remove the anomalies and difficultiesnow experienced by the licensee. Morefreedom in these matters would result inkeener competition amongst brewers, andcompetition means a closer consideration

than is at present possible of how existingprocesses can be improved and made moreeconomical. It seem probable that it is inthis direction that advances will be made.There is much leeway for the mechanical side

to make up, before it can approach theadvances which have been made in theknowledge of and improvements in materials.

Financial enterprise has brought aboutamalgamation of a great number of smallerbreweries with larger concerns and theeconomies in overhead and other chargesso brought about are reflected in satisfactory

dividends. This movement still continuesand it would appear that in the future mostof the smaller concerns will be absorbed andthe brewing industry will be in the hands of afew large companies. Thus there will be a

gradual tendency to similarity of outputthroughout the country. As the knowledgeof materials and processes increases theinevitable result will be that brewing,hitherto generally regarded as an art, will

progressively become a chemical engineeringproposition.