history of tamil nadu

7/29/2019 History of Tamil Nadu

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History of Tamil Nadu

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A temple from the Chola period. The Cholas united most of thesouth Indianpeninsula under a

single administration during the tenth and the eleventh century CE.

Outline of South Asian history History of Indian subcontinent

Stone age(70003000 BC)[show]

Bronze age(30001300 BC)[show]

Iron age(120026 BC)[show]

Classical period(11279 AD)[show]

Late medieval age(12061596 AD)[show]

Early modern period(15261858 AD)[show]

Other states (11021947 AD)[show]

Colonial period(15051961 AD)[show]

Kingdoms of Sri Lanka[show]

Nation histories[show]

Regional histories[show]

Specialised histories[show]

v t e
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The region ofTamil Naduin modernIndiahas been under continuous human habitation since

prehistoricMadrasfrom 15,10,000 B.C.[1]

as its old existence controversy after mass destruction

the land is reduced both in geographical and people .Throughout its history, spanning the earlyUpper Paleolithicage to modern times, this region has coexisted with various external cultures.

Except for relatively short periods in its history, the Tamil region has remained independent of

external occupation.

The four ancient Tamil empires ofChera,Chola,PandyaandPallavawere of ancient origins.

Together they ruled over this land with a unique culture and language, contributing to the growthofsome of the oldest extant literaturein the world. They had extensive maritime trade contacts

with theRomanempire. These three dynasties were in constant struggle with each other vying

for hegemony over the land. Invasion by theKalabhrasduring the 3rd century disturbed the

traditional order of the land by displacing the three ruling kingdoms. These occupiers wereoverthrown by the resurgence of the Pandyas and thePallavas, who restored the traditional

kingdoms. The Cholas, who re-emerged from obscurity in the 9th century by defeating the

Pallavas and the Pandyas, rose to become a great power and extended their empire over the

entire southern peninsula. At its height the Chola empire spanned almost 3,600,000 km(1,389,968 sq mi) straddling theBay of Bengal. TheChola navyheld sway over theSri Vijaya

kingdom inSoutheast Asia.Madurai referred as the name of entire state after mass destructionthe land is reduced partially

Rapid changes in the political situation of the rest of India due toincursions of Muslim armies

from the northwest marked a turning point in the history of Tamil Nadu. With the decline of thethree ancient dynasties during the 14th century, theTamil countrybecame part of the

Vijayanagara Empire. Under this empire theTeluguspeakingNayakgovernors ruled the Tamil

land. The brief appearance of theMarathasgave way to theEuropean trading companies, whobegan to appear during the 17th century and eventually assumed greater sway over the

indigenous rulers of the land. TheMadras Presidency, comprising most of southern India, was

created in the 18th century and was ruled directly by theBritish East India Company. After the

independence of India, thestateof Tamil Nadu was created based on linguistic boundaries.

Contents

1 Pre-historic periodo 1.1 Paleolithico 1.2 Neolithico 1.3 Iron Age

2 Early history 3 Interregnum (300600) 4 Age of empires (6001300)

o 4.1 Pallavaso 4.2 Pandyaso 4.3 Cholaso 4.4 Pandya revivalo 4.5 Delhi Sultanate

5 Reddy's rule in north Tamilnadu
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.28600.E2.80.931300.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Pallavashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Pallavashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Pandyashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Pandyashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Cholashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Cholashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Pandya_revivalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Pandya_revivalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Delhi_Sultanatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Delhi_Sultanatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Reddy.27s_rule_in_north_Tamilnaduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Reddy.27s_rule_in_north_Tamilnaduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Reddy.27s_rule_in_north_Tamilnaduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Delhi_Sultanatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Pandya_revivalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Cholashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Pandyashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Pallavashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Age_of_empires_.28600.E2.80.931300.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Interregnum_.28300.E2.80.93600.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Early_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Iron_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Neolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Paleolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#Pre-historic_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_independence_strugglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_East_India_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_Presidencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanjavur_Nayakshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telugu_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Tamil_countryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_in_the_Indian_subcontinenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Vijayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_Militaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Bengalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallavashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalabhrashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangam_Literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallava_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandyan_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chera_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Paleolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-.E0.AE.90.E0.AE.B0.E0.AF.8B-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Nadu


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6 Vijayanagar and Nayak period (13001650) 7 Maratha influence 8 Rule of Nizams and Nawabs 9 European colonisation (17501850)

o 9.1 Anglo-French conflictso 9.2 British Government controlo 9.3 End of Company rule

10 British rule (18501947)o 10.1 Independence struggle and

11 Post Independence periodo 11.1 Evolution of regional politics

12 Timeline 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 16 Further reading

Pre-historic period

Further information:Prehistoric South India,Prehistory of Sri Lanka,South Asian Stone

Age,Bronze Age India, andIron Age India

Paleolithic

The prehistoric period during whichLower Paleolithicsettlements existed in the Tamil Naduregion has been estimated to span the period from about 15,10,000BCE

[1]until around 3000

BCE.[2]

For most part of the lower Paleolithic stage, humans lived close to river valleys with

sparse forest cover or in grassland environments. The population density was very low and so faronly two localities of this lower Palaeolithic culture have been found insouth India. One of these

is in Attirampakkam valley in the northwest ofChennaiin Tamil Nadu.[3]

Archaeological

research has uncovered evidence of fossil remains of animals and primitive stone implementsaround the northern Tamil Nadu that could be dated to belong to around 300,000 BCE.

[4]

Humans in South India, belonging to the species ofHomo erectus, lived in this primitive 'old

stone age' (Palaeolithic) for quite a long time, using only crude implements such ashand axes

and choppers and subsisting ashunter-gatherers.[5]

The ancestor of modern humans (Homo sapiens) who appeared around 50,000 years ago was

more developed and could make thinnerflake toolsand blade-like tools using a variety of stones.From about 10,000 years ago, humans made still smaller tools calledMicrolithictools. The

material used by the early humans to make these tools werejasper,agate,flint,quartz, etc. In

1949, researchers found such microliths inTirunelveli district.[6]

Archaeological evidencesuggests that the microlithic period lasted between 60003000 BCE.

[7]

Neolithic
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In Tamil Nadu, theNeolithicperiod had its advent around 2500 BCE. Humans of theNeolithic

period made their stone tools in finer shapes by grinding and polishing. A Neolithic axe head

with ancient writing on it has been found in Tamil Nadu.[8]

TheNeolithichumans lived mostlyon small flat hills or on the foothills in small, more or less permanent settlements but for

periodical migration for grazing purposes. They gave the dead proper burials within urns or pits.

They were also starting to usecopperfor making certain tools or weapons.

Iron Age

During theIron Agehumans started usingironfor making tools and weapons. The Iron Ageculture in peninsular India is marked byMegalithicburial sites, which are found in several

hundreds of places.[9]

On the bases of both some excavations and the typology of the burial

monuments, it has been suggested that there was a gradual spread of the Iron Age sites from the

north to the south. Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in Thirunelveli districtand in Northern India have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic

culture.[10]

The earliest clear evidence of the presence of the megalithic urn burials are those dating from

around 1000 BCE, which have been discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu, notably at

Adichanallur, 24 km fromTirunelveli, where archaeologists from theArchaeological Survey ofIndiaunearthed 157 urns, including 15 containing human skulls, skeletons and bones, plus husks,

grains of rice, charred rice andNeolithicCelts. One urn has writing inside, which, according to

archaeologists from theArchaeological Survey of India, resembles earlyTamil-Brahmiscript,confirming it of the Neolithic period 2800 years ago.

[11]Adhichanallur has been announced as an

archaeological site for further excavation and studies.[12][13]

Mentions of the political situation of Tamil Nadu before the common era are found in Asoka's

edicts dated c 300 BCE and, vaguely, in theHathigumpha inscriptiondated c.150 BCE. Theearliest epigraphical evidence in the Tamil country are that of the Pandya king Kadungon (c.

560590 CE) who displaced the Kalabhras from the Pandyas country.Nilakanta Sastri,Ahistory ofSouth India, pp 105, 137

Early history

Main article:Sangam period

See also:Tamil history from Sangam literature
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Hathigumpha inscription ofKharavela

Ancient Tamil Nadu contained three monarchical states, headed by kings called Ventarand

several tribal chieftaincies, headed by the chiefs called by the general denomination Velor

Velir.

[14]

Still lower at the local level there were clan chiefs called kizarormannar.

[15]

During the3rd century BCE, theDeccanwas part of theMauryankingdom, and from the middle of the 1st

century BCE to 2nd century CE the same area was ruled by theSatavahanadynasty. The Tamil

area had an independent existence outside the control of these northern empires. The Tamil kingsand chiefs were always in conflict with each other mostly over property. The royal courts were

mostly places of social gathering rather than places of dispensation of authority; they were

centres for distribution of resources. Gradually the rulers came under the spell of north Indian

influence andVedicideology, which encouraged performance of sacrifices to enhance the statusof the ruler.

[16]

The names of the three dynasties, Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras,are mentioned in thePillars of

Ashoka(inscribed 273232 BCE) inscriptions, among the kingdoms, which though not subject toAshoka, were on friendly terms with him.[17][18]

The king ofKalinga, Kharavela, who ruled

around 150 BCE, mentioned in the famous Hathigumpha inscription of the confederacy of theTamil kingdoms that had existed for over 100 years.

[19]

Karikala Cholawas the most famousearly Chola. He is mentioned in a number of poems in theSangam poetry.

[20]In later times Karikala was the subject of many legends found in the

Cilappatikaramand in inscriptions and literary works of the 11th and 12th centuries. They

attribute to him the conquest of the whole of India up to the Himalayas and the construction of

the flood banks of the riverKaveriwith the aid of his feudatories.[21]

These legends however areconspicuous by their absence in the Sangam poetry.Kocengannanwas another famous early

Chola king who has been extolled in a number of poems of the Sangam period. He was evenmade aSaivasaint during the medieval period.[22]

Ancient map ofsouth Indiacreated afterPtolemy, probably following his cartography.

Pandyas ruled initially fromKorkai, a sea port on the southernmost tip of the Indian peninsula,and in later times moved toMadurai. Pandyas are also mentioned in Sangam Literature, as wellas by Greek and Roman sources during this period.Megasthenesin hisIndika mentions the

Pandyan kingdom.[23]

The Pandyas controlled the present districts of Madurai,Tirunelveli, and

parts of south Kerala. They had trading contacts withGreeceandRome.[24]

With the otherkingdoms of Tamilakam, they maintained trading contacts and marital relationships with Tamil
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharavelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharavelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharavelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velirshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauryahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauryahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauryahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satavahanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satavahanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satavahanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillars_of_Ashokahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillars_of_Ashokahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillars_of_Ashokahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillars_of_Ashokahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashokahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashokahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalinga_%28India%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalinga_%28India%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalinga_%28India%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karikala_Cholahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karikala_Cholahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Cholashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Cholashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Cholashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangam_literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cilappatikaramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cilappatikaramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaverihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaverihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaverihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kocengannanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kocengannanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kocengannanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saivahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saivahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saivahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korkaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korkaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korkaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maduraihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maduraihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maduraihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megastheneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megastheneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megastheneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirunelvelihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirunelvelihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirunelvelihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_commercehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_commercehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ptolomy_map.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ptolomy_map.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HathiGumphaInscription.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ptolomy_map.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ptolomy_map.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HathiGumphaInscription.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ptolomy_map.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ptolomy_map.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HathiGumphaInscription.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_commercehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirunelvelihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megastheneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maduraihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korkaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saivahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kocengannanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaverihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cilappatikaramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangam_literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Cholashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karikala_Cholahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalinga_%28India%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashokahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillars_of_Ashokahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillars_of_Ashokahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satavahanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauryahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velirshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharavela


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merchants fromEelam. Various Pandya kings find mention in a number of poems in the Sangam

literature. Among them Nedunjeliyan, 'the victor of Talaiyalanganam', yet another Nedunjeliyan

AArand Mudukudimi Peruvaludi 'of several sacrifices' deserve special mention. Besides severalshort poems found in theAkananuruand thePurananuru collections, there are two major

worksMathuraikkanciand theNetunalvatai(in the collection ofPattupattu) that give a

glimpse into the society and commercial activities in the Pandyan kingdom during the Sangamage. Theearly Pandyaswent into obscurity at the end of the 3rd century CE during the incursionof the Kalabhras.

The kingdom of theCherascomprised the modern state ofKerala, along the western orMalabar

Coastof southern India. Their proximity to the sea favoured trade with Africa.[25][26]

The people

of the current Indian state of Kerala, which constitutes the ancient territories of the Cheras spoke

the same language and had extensive interaction with the rest of the Tamil country. It was onlytowards the 9th or the 10th centuries CE, Due to Sanskrit influences on Tamil their individual

identity changed, and a new language began to evolve.[27]

These early kingdoms sponsored the growth of some of the oldest extantliterature in Tamil. Theclassical Tamil literature, referred to as Sangam literature is attributed to the period between 200

BCE and 300 CE.[28][29]

The poems of Sangam literature, which deal with emotional and materialtopics, were categorised and collected into various anthologies during the medieval period. These

Sangam poems paint the picture of a fertile land and of a people who were organised into various

occupational groups. The governance of the land was through hereditary monarchies, although

the sphere of the state's activities and the extent of the ruler's powers were limited through theadherence to the established order(dharma).

[30]The people were loyal to their kings and roving

bards and musicians and danseuse gathered at the royal courts of the generous kings. Thearts of

music and dancingwere highly developed and popular. Musical instruments of various types findmention in the Sangam poems. The amalgamation of the southern and the northern styles of

dancing started during this period and is reflected fully in the epic Cilappatikaram.[31]

Internal and external trade was well organised and active. Evidence from both archaeology and

literature speaks of a flourishing foreign trade with theYavanas(Greeks). The port city ofPuhar

on the east coast andMuzirison the west coast of south India were emporia of foreign trade,where huge ships moored, offloading precious merchandise.

[32]This trade started to decline after

the 2nd century CE and the direct contact between the Roman empire and the ancient Tamil

country was replaced by trade with the Arabs and theAuxumitesofEast Africa. Internal trade

was also brisk and goods were sold and bartered. Agriculture was the main profession of a vastmajority of the populace andVellalars, the hereditary agriculturalists, owned the bulk of the

land.[33]

Interregnum (300600)

Main article:Kalabhras

After the close of the Sangam era, from about 300 to about 600 CE, there is an almost total lack

of information regarding occurrences in the Tamil land. Some time about 300 CE, the whole

region was upset by the appearance of the Kalabhras. These people are described in later
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eelamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eelamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eelamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akananuruhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akananuruhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akananuruhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathuraikkancihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathuraikkancihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netunalvataihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netunalvataihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netunalvataihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattupattuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattupattuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattupattuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Pandyan_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Pandyan_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Pandyan_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chera_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chera_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chera_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keralahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keralahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keralahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malabar_Coasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malabar_Coasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malabar_Coasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malabar_Coasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Tamil_musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Tamil_musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Tamil_musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Tamil_musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yonahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yonahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yonahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puharhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puharhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puharhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzirishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzirishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzirishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellalarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellalarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellalarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalabhrashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalabhrashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalabhrashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalabhrashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellalarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzirishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puharhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yonahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Tamil_musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Tamil_musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malabar_Coasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malabar_Coasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keralahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chera_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Pandyan_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattupattuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netunalvataihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathuraikkancihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akananuruhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eelam


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literature as 'evil rulers' who overthrew the established Tamil kings and got a strangle hold of the

country.[34]

Information about their origin and details about their reign is scarce. They did not

leave many artefacts or monuments. The only source of information on them is the scatteredmentions inBuddhistandJainliterature.

[35]

Historians speculate that these people followed Buddhist orJainfaiths and were antagonistictowards the Hindu religions (viz. theAstikaschools) adhered by the majority of inhabitants of

the Tamil region during the early centuries CE.[36]

As a result Hindu scholars and authors who

followed their decline in the 7th and 8th century may have expunged any mention of them intheir texts and generally tended to paint their rule in a negative light. It is perhaps due to this

reason, the period of their rule is known as a 'Dark Age'an interregnum. Some of the ruling

families migrated northwards and found enclaves for themselves away from the Kalabhras.[37]

JainismandBuddhism, took deep roots in the society, giving birth to a large body of ethicalpoetry.

Writing became very widespread andvatteluttuevolved from theTamil-Brahmibecame a

mature script for writing Tamil.

[38]

While several anthologies were compiled by collecting bardicpoems of earlier centuries, some of theepic poemssuch as the Cilappatikaram and didactic

works such as theTirukkuralwere also written during this period.[39]

The patronage of the Jainand Buddhist scholars by the Kalabhra kings influenced the nature of the literature of the period,

and most of the works that can be attributed to this period were written by the Jain and Buddhist

authors. In the field of dance and music, the elite started patronising new polished styles, partly

influenced by northern ideas, in the place of the folk styles. A few of the earliest rock-cuttemples belong to this period. Brick temples (known as kottam, devakulam, andpalli) dedicated

to various deities are referred to in literary works. Kalabhras were displaced around the 7th

century by the revival of Pallava and Pandya power.[40]

Even with the exit of the Kalabhras, the Jain and Buddhist influence still remained in TamilNadu. The early Pandya and the Pallava kings were followers of these faiths. The Hindu reactionto this apparent decline of their religion was growing and reached its peak during the later part of

the 7th century.[41]

There was a widespread Hindu revival during which a huge body of Saiva and

Vaishnavaliterature was created. Many SaivaNayanmarsand VaishnavaAlvarsprovided a greatstimulus to the growth of popular devotional literature. Karaikkal Ammaiyar who lived in the 6th

century CE was the earliest of these Nayanmars. The celebrated Saiva hymnistsSundaramurthi,

Thirugnana SambantharandThirunavukkarasarwere of this period. Vaishnava Alvars such as

Poigai Alvar,BhoothathalvarandPeyalvarproduced devotional hymns for their faith and theirsongs were collected later into the four thousand poems ofNaalayira Divyap Prabhandham.

[42]

Age of empires (6001300)The medieval period of the history of the Tamil country saw the rise and fall of many kingdoms,

some of whom went on to the extent of empires, exerting influences both in India and overseas.

The Cholas who were very active during the Sangam age were entirely absent during the firstfew centuries.

[43]The period started with the rivalry between the Pandyas and the Pallavas, which

in turn caused the revival of the Cholas. The Cholas went on to becoming a great power. Their
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decline saw the brief resurgence of the Pandyas. This period was also that of the re-invigorated

Hinduism during which temple building and religious literature were at their best.[44]

TheHindusectsSaivismandVaishnavismbecame dominant, replacing the prevalence of

Jainism and Buddhism of the previous era. Saivism was patronised more by the Chola kings and

became more or less a state religion.

[45]

Some of the earliest temples that are still standing werebuilt during this period by the Pallavas. The rock-cut temples inMamallapuramand the majestic

Kailasanatha and Vaikuntaperumal temples ofKanchipuramstand testament to the Pallava art.

The Cholas, utilising their prodigious wealth earned through their extensive conquests, builtlong-lasting stone temples including the greatBrihadisvara templeofThanjavurand exquisite

bronze sculptures. Temples dedicated to Siva and Vishnu received liberal donations of money,

jewels, animals, and land, and thereby became powerful economic institutions.[46]

Tamil scriptreplaced the vatteluttu script throughout Tamil Nadu for writingTamil. Both secular

and religious literature flourished during the period. The Tamil epic,Kamban'sRamavatharam,

was written in the 13th century. A contemporary of Kamban was the famous poetessAuvaiyar

who found great happiness in writing for young children. The secular literature was mostly courtpoetry devoted to the eulogy of the rulers. The religious poems of the previous period and the

classical literature of the Sangam period were collected and systematised into severalanthologies. Sanskrit was patronised by the priestly groups for religious rituals and other

ceremonial purposes. Nambi Andar Nambi, who was a contemporary ofRajaraja Chola I,

collected and arranged the books on Saivism into eleven books called Tirumurais. The hagiology

of Saivism was standardised inPeriyapuranam by Sekkilar, who lived during the reign ofKulothunga Chola II(11331150 CE). Jayamkondar'sKalingattupparani, a semi-historical

account on the two invasions of Kalinga byKulothunga Chola Iwas an early example of a

biographical work.[47]

Pallavas

Main article:Pallava Empire

Shore TempleinMamallapurambuilt by thePallavas. (c. eighth century C.E.)

The 7th century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of thePallavasunderMahendravarman Iand his sonMamallaNarasimhavarman I. The Pallavas were not a recognised political power before the 2ndcentury.

[48]It has been widely accepted by scholars that they were originally executive officers
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adu#cite_note-43


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under theSatavahanakings.[49]

After the fall of the Satavahanas, they began to get control over

parts ofAndhraand the Tamil country. Later they had marital ties with theVishnukundinawho

ruled over theDeccan. It was around 550 AD under KingSimhavishnuthat the Pallavas emergedinto prominence. They subjugated the Cholas and reigned as far south as theKaveri River. The

Pallavas were at their finest during the reigns of Narasimhavarman I andPallavamalla

Nandivarman II. Pallavas ruled a large portion ofSouth IndiawithKanchipuramas their capital.Dravidian architectureduring the Pallava rule includes theShore Temple, built forNarasimhavarman II, which is aUNESCO World Heritage Site. Many sources describe

Bodhidharma, the founder of theZenschool ofBuddhisminChina, as aprinceof the Pallava

dynasty.[50]

During the 6th and the 7th centuries, the western Deccan saw the rise of theChalukyasbased in

Vatapi.Pulakesi II(c.610642) invaded the Pallava kingdom in the reign of Mahendravarman I.Narasimhavarman who succeeded Mahendravarman mounted a counter invasion of the Chalukya

country and took Vatapi. The rivalry between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas continued for

another 100 years until the demise of the Chalukyas around 750. The Chalukyas and Pallavas

fought numerous battles and the Pallava capitalKanchipuramwas occupied byVikramaditya IIduring the reign of Nandivarman II.[51]

Nandivarman II had a very long reign (732796). He led

an expedition to theGanga kingdom(southMysore) in 760. Pallavas were also in constantconflict with the Pandyas and their frontier shifted along the river Kaveri. The Pallavas had themore difficult existence of the two as they had to fight on two frontsagainst the Pandyas as

wells as the Chalukyas.

Pandyas

Main article:Pandyan Empire

Pandyan Empire

Pandya Kadungon (560590) is credited with the overthrow of theKalabhrasin the south.[52]

Kadungon and his son Maravarman Avanisulamani revived the Pandya power. Pandya Cendan

extended their rule to the Chera country. His son Arikesari Parantaka Maravarman (c. 650700)had a long and prosperous rule. He fought many battles and extended the Pandya power.Pandya

was well known since ancient times, with contacts, even diplomatic, reaching theRoman
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Empire; during the 13th century of the Christian eraMarco Polomentioned it as therichest

empirein existence.[53]

After some decades of expansion, thePandyan Empirewas large enough to pose a serious threat

to the Pallava power. Pandya Maravarman Rajasimha aligned with theChalukyaVikramaditya II

and attacked the Pallava king Nandivarman II.

[54]

Varagunan I defeated the Pallavas in a battleon the banks of the Kaveri. The Pallava king Nandivarman sought to restrain the growing power

of the Pandyas and went into an alliance with the feudal chieftains of Kongu and Chera

countries. The armies met in several battles and the Pandya forces scored decisive victories inthem. Pandyas under Srimara Srivallaba also invaded Sri Lanka and devastated the northern

provinces in 840.[55]

The Pandya power continued to grow under Srimara and encroached further into the Pallava

territories. The Pallavas were now facing a new threat in the form of theRashtrakutaswho had

replaced the Chalukyas in the western Deccan. However the Pallavas found an able monarch in

Nandivarman III, who with the help of his Ganga and Chola allies defeated Srimara at the battle

of Tellaru. The Pallava kingdom again extended up to the riverVaigai. The Pandyas sufferedfurther defeats in the hands of the Pallava Nripatunga at Arisil (c. 848). From then the Pandyas

had to accept the overlordship of the Pallavas.[56]

Cholas

Main article:Chola Empire

See also:Early Cholas,Medieval Cholas, andLater Cholas

Around 850, out of obscurity roseVijayalaya, made use of an opportunity arising out of a

conflict between Pandyas and Pallavas, captured Thanjavur fromMutharaiyarand eventually

established the imperial line of the medieval Cholas. Vijayalaya revived the Chola dynasty andhis sonAditya Ihelped establish their independence. He invaded Pallava kingdom in 903 andkilled the Pallava king Aparajita in battle, ending the Pallava reign.

[57]The Chola kingdom under

Parantaka Iexpanded to cover the entire Pandya country. However towards the end of his reign

he suffered several reverses by the Rashtrakutas who had extended their territories well into theChola kingdom.

Chola EmpireunderRajendra Chola(c. 1030).
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11/29

The Cholas went into a temporary decline during the next few years due to weak kings, palace

intrigues and succession disputes. Despite a number of attempts the Pandya country could not be

completely subdued and the Rashtrakutas were still a powerful enemy in the north. However, theChola revival began with the accession of Rajaraja Chola I in 985. Cholas rose as a notable

military, economic and cultural power inAsiaunder Rajaraja and his sonRajendra Chola I. The

Chola territories stretched from the islands ofMaldivesin the south to as far north as the banksof the riverGangesin Bengal. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsularSouth India, annexed partsof Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of Maldives. Rajendra Chola extended the Chola

conquests to the Malayan archipelago by defeating theSrivijayakingdom.[58]

He defeated

Mahipala, the king ofBiharand Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new capitalcalledGangaikonda Cholapuram(the town of Cholas who conquered the Ganges). At its peak

the Chola Empire extended from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to theGodavaribasin in the

north. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola

suzerainty. Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya in the Malayan archipelago.[59]

Cholaarmies exacted tribute fromThailandand theKhmerkingdom ofCambodia.

[60]During the reign

of Rajaraja and Rajendra, the administration of the Chola empire matured considerably. The

empire was divided into a number of self-governing local government units, and the officialswere selected through a system of popular elections.[61]

Brihadishwara Temple

Throughout this period, the Cholas were constantly troubled by the ever resilientSinhalastryingto overthrow the Chola occupation ofLanka, Pandya princes trying to win independence for their

traditional territories, and by the growing ambitions of the Chalukyas in the western Deccan. Thehistory of this period was one of constant warfare between the Cholas and of these antagonists. A

balance of power existed between the Chalukyas and the Cholas and there was a tacit acceptance

of theTungabhadrariver as the boundary between the two empires. However, the bone ofcontention between these two powers was the growing Chola influence in theVengikingdom.
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12/29

The Cholas and Chalukyas fought many battles and both kingdoms were exhausted by the

endless battles and a stalemate existed.

Marital and political alliances between theEastern Chalukyakings based around Vengi located

on the south banks of theriver Godavaribegan during the reign of Rajaraja following his

invasion of Vengi.Virarajendra Chola's sonAthirajendra Cholawas assassinated in a civildisturbance in 1070 and Kulothunga Chola I ascended the Chola throne starting theCha

history of tamil nadu

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