History of PhilosophyLecture 1-b

What is Philosophy? (Part 2)

By David Kelsey

Arguments

• The second major task of philosophy is making arguments.• A philosopher makes arguments in performing his conceptual analysis.

– An argument about the correct definition of KNOWLEDGE or LOVE

• An argument: one statement is inferred from one or more other statements.– Example:

.

• Inference: a statement that follows from one or more other statements.– The inference made: – ‘Infer’ can also be used as a verb: – Infer the noun:

Propositions are the meanings of sentences

• An inference: a statement that follows from one or more other statements.

• A statement is a proposition.

• A proposition: the meaning of a sentence

• Words have meanings:

– Cat

• Just as words have meanings, sentences have meanings.

– Example: The cat is on the Mat.

Propositions

• The form of a proposition: – ‘it is the case that…’.

– Propositions are true or false.

Propositions & Sentences

• A sentence does two different things: it both expresses a proposition and asserts a proposition.

• The expressed proposition: – The literal meaning of the words of that sentence.

– What is literal meaning?

– Example in Sarcasm

Expressing a proposition

• For a sentence to express a proposition: – is for that sentence to toss the proposition up in the air, so to speak.

– It is to put the proposition up for usage.

• Knowing what proposition a sentence expresses is often quite easy. – It is the case that…

– Example: I went to the store

The asserted Proposition

• Making use of a proposition: – Just how a sentence makes use of the proposition it expresses determines it’s actual

or intended meaning.

• The actual or intended meaning of a sentence: what the speaker or writer of the sentence means when she writes or says it.

– Miscommunication and the hearer’s understanding of the asserted proposition…

Asserting a proposition #2

• Assertion: – The actual or intended meaning of a sentence is what is asserted by the words of the sentence.

• Declaration: – For a sentence to assert a proposition is simply for the sentence to declare of the proposition that it is

the case.

– Example: the cat is on the mat and the cat is orange.

Sarcasm

• Other kinds of sentences:

• Sarcasm:– The messy roomate:

• “She always takes out the trash”.

• This sentence expresses:

• But the sentence asserts:

The laws of logic

• The laws of logic: are rules for making a correct inference P given a certain set of propositions Q1-n.

– Socrates example

• Arguments: when one proposition is inferred from one or more other propositions

– Other definitions of an Argument

Arguments

• Argument: a position supported by reasons for its truth.

– To take a position:

• taking a side or stand on an issue.

– An issue: what is raised when one considers whether or not a proposition is true.

• There are always 2 sides to an issue

Issues

• Issues:– we might go as far as to say that an issue just is a question.

– Intelligent life:

– Safety belt law:

– Mac vs. Pc:

Arguments & Positions

• Arguments & Positions: so when we take a position on an issue and support it with reasons we have given an argument.

– Intelligent life:

– Safety Belt law:

– Mac vs. Pc:

Conclusions &Premises

• Arguments:– The conclusion of an argument:

– The premises of an argument:

– Examples:• Socrates again

• Raining and Pouring

What an argument isn’t

• What an argument isn’t: Let us be a bit clearer about what an argument is by stating what it isn’t.

– Not a Fight:

– Not Persuasion: • Advertisement example:

Persuasion

• Persuasion vs. Argument:– An argument offers support for some claim, its conclusion.

– Persuasion needn’t offer any support for a point.• Not Logic: It merely attempts to get you to believe a point.

– This attempt needn’t be one through logic though.

• Persuasion through rhetoric:

• Rhetoric: is “a broad category of linguistic techniques people use when their primary objective is to influence beliefs and attitudes and behavior”

Arguments vs.Explanations

• Arguments vs. Explanations:

– Explanation of X: If one gives an explanation about some thing X, one gives some details about X with the hope of coming to better understand X.

• Example: fixing a flat tire

Recognizing Arguments

• Conclusion Indicators: find the conclusion of an argument by looking for conclusion indicators.

– Examples of Conclusion Indicators: therefore, hence, and others

• Premise Indicators: find the premises of an argument by looking for premise indicators

– Examples of Premise Indicators: because, since, and others.

An introduction to formalizing an argument

• Challenging an argument: – In challenging an argument you must first formalize it.

• Formalizing an argument: – Is the reconstruction of that argument in its most simplified form.

• Read the passage

• Write down the argument’s propositions

Explicit Premises

• Explicit premises: – asserted by the words of the text.

• Simplifying the premises:

Implicit Premises

• Implicit or unstated premises: – Not made explicit by the text so must be inferred from the words of the text

– Are entailed by the words of the text.

• PQ

– Bloodhound example:• Moore’s dog is a bloodhound, so it has a keen sense of smell• What is the implicit premise?