HISTORYOFINDIANARCHITECTUREPLATE X.OLD DRAVIDIAN TEMPLE AT MAMALLAPUKAM(page362).[Frontispieceto VolumeI.HISTORYOFINDIANANDEASTERNARCHITECTUREBY THE LATEJAMESFERGUSSONC.I.E., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,F.R.I. B.A.MemberoftheSocietyofDilettanti, etc.,etc.REVISED ANDEDITED,WITH ADDITIONSINDIAN ARCHITECTUREBYJAMESBURGESS, C.I.E., LL.D.,F.R.?Hon.A.R.I.K.A.;Hon. MemberoftheImperialRussianArchaeologicalSociety ^pondingMemberBatavianSociety ;LateDirectorof theArchaeologicalSurveyofIndia, etc.,etc.ANDEASTERN ARCHITECTUREBY R. PHENESPIERS, F.S.A.,F.R.I.B.A.HonoraryMemberoftheAmericanInstituteofArchitects; Correspondentofthe InstituteofFranceWITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONSVOL. I.Nfl\1tov-l9537lAUTHOR'S PREFACE TO THE FIRSTEDITION.DURING the nineyearsthat haveelapsedsince I last wroteon thissubject,1veryconsiderableprogresshas been made inthe elucidation ofmanyof theproblemsthat stillperplexthestudentoftheHistoryofIndian Architecture. Thepublicationofthe five volumes of GeneralCunningham's'ArchaeologicalReports'has thrown newlightonmanyobscurepoints,butgenerallyfromanarchaeologicalratherthanfromanarchitecturalpointofview;andMrBurgess'sresearchesamongthewesterncaves and the structuraltemplesof theBombay presidencyhave addedgreatlynotonlyto our stores ofinformation,buttotheprecisionofourknowledgeregardingthem.For thepurposeof such a work asthis, however,photo-graphyhasprobablydone more thananythingthat has beenwritten. There are nowveryfewbuildingsin India ofanyimportanceat least which have not beenphotographedwithmore or lesscompleteness;and forpurposesofcomparisonsuchcollections ofphotographsasarenowavailablearesimplyinvaluable. Fordetectingsimilarities,ordistinguishingdiffer-ences betweenspecimenssituated at distances from oneanother,photographsare almostequalto actualpersonalinspection,and,whensufficientlynumerous,afford apictureof Indian art of theutmostimportancetoanyoneattemptingto describe it.1'Historyof Architecture in all Countries.' 2nd ed.Murray, 1867. [Now'Historyof AncientandMedievalArchitecture.'3rded. 2 vols.Murray, 1893.]viii PREFACE.These newaids,added to ourpreviousstock ofknowledge,areprobablysufficient tojustifyus intreatingthearchitectureof IndiaProperin thequasi-exhaustivemanner in which itisattempted,inthe first 600pagesofthiswork. Itsdescriptionmight,ofcourse,beeasilyextended evenbeyondtheselimits,but withoutplansand moreaccuratearchitectural details thanwe atpresent possess, anysuch additions wouldpracticallycontributeverylittle that was valuable to the informationthe workalreadycontains.Thecase is different whenweturntoFurtherIndia. Insteadofonly100pagesand50 illustrations,boththesefiguresoughtat least to be doubled tobringthatbranch of thesubject uptothesamestageofcompletenessas thatdescribingthearchi-tecture of IndiaProper.Forthis, however,the materials donotatpresentexist. Of Japanweknowalmostnothingexceptfromphotographs,withoutplans, dimensions,or dates; and,exceptasregardsPekinandtheTreaty Ports,weknowalmostas little of China. Weknow agreatdeal about one or twobuildingsin CambodiaandJava,butourinformationregardingall the rest is sofragmentaryandincomplete,that it ishardlyavailable for thepurposesof ageneral history,and the samemaybe said of Burma and Sia'm. Tenyearshence thisdeficiency maybesupplied, and itmaythenbepossibletobringthewholeintoharmony.Atpresentaslightsketchindicatingthe relativepositionofeach,and their relation to thestylesof IndiaProper,is all that can be wellaccomplished.Althoughappearingasthethirdvolumeofthesecondeditionof the'GeneralHistoryofArchitecture,'thepresent maybeconsidered as anindependentandoriginalwork. In the lastedition the Indianchaptersextendedonlyto about300 pages,with zooillustrations,1andthoughmost of the woodcutsreappearin thepresent volume,more than half theoriginaltext has beencancelled,andconsequentlyat least 600pagesof thepresentworkareoriginal matter,and200 illustrations'Historyof Architecture'(1867),vol. ii.pp. 445-756,Woodcuts966-1163.PREFACE. ixandthesebyfarthemostimportanthavebeenadded.These,with the newchronologicalandtopographicaldetails,presentthesubjectto theEnglish reader,in a morecompactandcompleteformthanhasbeenattemptedinanywork on Indianarchitecture hithertopublished.It doesnot,as I feelonlytookeenly,contain all the information that could bedesired,but I am afraid it containsnearlyall that the materials atpresentavailable will admit ofbeingutilised,in ageneralhistoryof thestyle.When Ipublished myfirst work on Indian architecturethirtyyearsago,I wasreproachedformakingdogmaticasser-tions,andpropoundingtheories which I did not evenattemptto sustain. The defectwas,I amafraid,inevitable.Myconclusions were baseduponthe examination of the actualbuildings throughoutthe three Presidencies of India and inChinaduringtenyears'residence in theEast,and to haveplacedbefore the world the multitudinous details which werethegroundofmy generalisations,would haverequiredanadditional amount ofdescriptionandengravingswhich wasnot warrantedbythe interest felt in thesubjectat that time.The numerousengravingsin thepresentvolume,the extendedletterpress,and the references to works of later labourers inthe wide domain of Indianarchitecture,willgreatlydiminish,but cannotentirelyremove,the oldobjection.No man candirect his mind forforty yearsto the earnestinvestigationofanydepartmentofknowledge,and not becomeacquaintedwithahostofparticulars,andacquireaspeciesofinsightwhichneithertime,norspace,norperhapsthe resources oflanguagewillpermithim toreproducein their fulness. Ipossess,togiveasingleinstance,more than3,000photographsof Indianbuildings,with which constant use has made me as familiaras withanyotherobjectthat isperpetuallybeforemy eyes,and torecapitulateall the informationthey conveytolong-continuedscrutiny,would be anendless,if not indeed animpossible undertaking.The necessities of the case demandx PREFACE.that broad results should often begivenwhen the evidenceforthestatementsmustbemerelyindicatedorgreatlyabridged,and if the conclusions sometimesgo beyondtheappendedproofs,I canonlyaskmyreaders to believethattheassertionsare notspeculativefancies,but deductions from facts.Myendeavour from the first has been topresenta distinct viewof thegeneral principleswhich havegovernedthe historicaldevelopmentof Indianarchitecture,andmyhopeis thatthosewhopursuethesubjectbeyondthepagesof thepresentwork,will find that theprinciplesI have enunciated will reduce toorder the multifariousdetails,and thatthedetails in turn willconfirm theprinciples. Thoughthe vast amount of freshknowledgewhichhasgoneonaccumulatingsince I commencedmy investigationshas enabled me tocorrect, modify,andenlarge my views, yetthe classification Iadopted,and thehistoricalsequencesIpointedoutthirty yearssince,have intheir essential outlines beenconfirmed,and willcontinue,Itrust,to standgood. Many subsidiary questionsremainunsettled,butmy impression is,that not a few of the dis-cordantopinionsthatmaybe observed ariseprincipallyfromthe different courses whichenquirershavepursuedin theirinvestigations.Some men ofgreateminence andlearning,more conversant with books thanbuildings,havenaturallydrawntheirknowledgeand inferences fromwrittenauthorities,noneofwhicharecontemporaneouswiththeeventstheyrelate,and all of which have beenavowedlyaltered and falsified inlater times.Myauthorities,onthecontrary,havebeenmainlytheimperishablerecords in therocks,or onsculpturesandcarvings,whichnecessarily representedat the time the faithandfeelingsof those who executedthem,and which retaintheiroriginalimpressto thisday.Insuch acountryasIndia,the chisels of hersculptors are,so far as I canjudge,immeasurablymoreto betrustedthan thepensofherauthors.Thesesecondary points,however,maywell await the solutionwhich time and furtherstudywill doubtlesssupply.In themeanwhile,I shall have realised along-cherisheddream if IPREFACE. XIhave succeeded inpopularisingthesubject by renderingitsprinciples generallyintelligible,and can thusgiveanimpulseto itsstudy,and assist inestablishingIndian architecture ona stablebasis,so that itmaytake its trueposition amongthe othergreat styleswhich have ennobled the arts ofmankind.Thepublicationof this volumecompletesthehistoryofthe 'Architecture in allcountries,from the earliest times tothepresentday,in fourvolumes,'andthere it must atpresentrest. Asoriginally projected,it was intended to have addeda fifth volume on'Rude StoneMonuments/which is stillwanted to make the seriesquite complete; but,asexplainedin theprefacetomyworkbearingthattitle,thesubjectwasnot,when it waswritten,ripefor a historicaltreatment,and the materials collected wereconsequentlyused in anargumentativeessay.Since thatwork waspublished,in1872,no seriousexamination of itsargumentshas been undertakenby any competent authority,whileeverynew fact that hascome tolight especiallyin India hasserved to confirm memore and more in the correctness of theprinciplesI thentried to establish.1Unless, however,the matter is takenupseriously,and re-examinedbythosewho,from theirposition,have the ear of thepublicin thesematters,no suchprogresswill be made as wouldjustifythepublicationof a secondworkonthesamesubject.Iconsequentlyseenochanceofmyeverhavinganopportunityoftaking upthesubject again,so asto be able to describe itsobjectsin a moreconsecutiveor more exhaustive manner than was done in the workjustalluded to.1AdistinguishedGermanprofessor,Herr Kinkel ofZurich,in his'MosaikzurKunstgeschichte, Berlin, 1876,'haslately adopted myviews withregardtotheageofStonehengewithoutanyreservation, though arrivingat thatconclusionbyaverydifferent chain ofreasoningfrom that I wasled toadopt.PREFACE TO SECOND EDITIONTHE late Mr.Fergusson's'Historyof Indian and EasternArchitecture' has now been before thepublicfor more thanthirtyyears,andwasreprinted(withouthisconsent)inAmerica,before his death in1886,and thepublishersissued areprintin1891.His method oftreatingthesubjecthe has thusdescribed:"What I haveattemptedto doduringthe lastfortyyearshas been toapplyto Indian Architecture the sameprinciplesofarchaeologicalsciencewhichareuniversallyadoptednotonlyinEngland,but inevery countryinEurope.Sincethepublicationof Rickman's'Attemptto discriminate theStylesof Architecture inEngland'in1817, stylehas beenallowed tosupersedeall other evidences for theageofanybuilding,notonlyinMediaeval,but inByzantine,Classical,and,infact,all othertruestyles. Anyaccomplishedantiquary,lookingatany archwayorany moulding,cansayatonce,this isNorman,orEarly English,orDecorated,or Tudor;andiffamiliar with thestyle,tell the date withinafewyears,whetheritbelongstoacathedral or aparishchurch,adwellinghouse or agrange,... is not of the smallestconsequence,nor whether itbelongsto themarvellouslyelaboratequasi-ByzantinestyleoftheageoftheConqueror,or to theprosaictamenessofthatoftheageof Elizabeth.Owingto itsperfectoriginalityandfreedomfrom allforeignadmixtureorinfluence,I believetheseprinciples,souniversallyadoptedin thiscountry,are even moreapplicableto the Indianstylesthan to theEuropean."The successfulapplicationof theseprinciplesto Indianarchitecture wasentirelyhis own: no one had dreamed of itxiiPREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. xiiibefore.It was a stroke ofgeniusto trace outlogicallythehistoricalsequencesofthe Hindu monumentsand makethemtell theirownstorybymeansofthoseguiding principleswhichhe was the first toapplytothem,and to elucidate theirapplicabilityin a manner that has been borne out sincewith-outexceptionwherevertheyhave beenintelligently applied.Though descriptionsof Indian monumentsmaybe written invariousways,noone couldpretendto takeupthesystematicstudyof Indian Architecture without the aid of thiswork,and nohistoryofthe architecture can bescientificallywrittenwithoutappropriatingtheprinciplesMr.Fergussonshowedhowtoapply.Mycloseintimacywith Mr.Fergussonfortwenty years,andknowledgeof hisopinions, mayhavesuggestedthat Imightundertake the revisal of his work; but,when it wasfirstproposed,I wasengagedon thepreparationof certainvolumes of theArchaeological Reportsof the IndianSurveythathadbeenentrustedtomeandI couldnotthenundertake it.Ontheappointmentof a new director for theSurveys,at theclose of1901,the materials were taken out ofmyhands andmyengagementterminated. I wasthenatlibertytoundertaketherevision ofthework,and indoingso Inaturallydependedonthelikehelpthat hadbeen afforded to Mr.Fergussonhim-self in1875,when the resources of theSurveyswere at hisdisposal.But obstruction was raised where itought hardlytohavebeenexpected,andit wasduetothegoodoffices oftheRightHonourable LordMorley, Secretaryof State forIndia,that this waslargelyovercome. The materials in the IndiaOffice were at onceliberally placedatmy disposal,and theGovernment of Indiarequestedto favour the work.This,however,causeddelay,andsubsequentsevere illness haspro-tracted thepreparationof the work.It would have beeneasytoexpandthishistory, but,if itwas to answer itspurposeas ahandbook,it mustobviouslybe restricted within moderate dimensions.Myaim has beento condense wherepracticable and,whilstrevising,to makexivPREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.onlysuch additions from the accessible materials accumulatedsince1876,as seemedrequisite.TheArchaeological Surveyshave collected vast stores ofdrawingsonlyafraction of whichhasyetbeenpublished.Travellerstoo,influencedpartly perhapsbythe interest that Mr.Fergusson'svolume hadcreated,havepublishedworks that have added to our information.Thegreatadvances madein IndianEpigraphyand Palaeo-graphyduringthesameperiodhavefurtherenabledustoreviseand fix moreaccuratelythe dates in the earlierchronologyofIndia;butthis has notmateriallyaffected the author'schrono-metric scale ofarrangementof themonuments,for where thedates have been somewhataltered,the relativeplacesof themonuments have notrequiredto bechanged, onlytheyhavebeen betteradjusted;and inmanycasesMr.Fergusson,in hislateryears,hadacceptedthese corrections.For much valued aid and informationmythanks are dueto Mr.HenryCousens, Superintendentof the Western IndiaArchaeologicalCircle;andto Mr.AlexanderReaoftheMadrasCircle,from both ofwhom I have receivedungrudgingassist-ance,relative tothedistrictsundertheircharge.ForCeylonI amgreatlyindebted to Lord Stanmoreandthe ColonialOffice,whilst Mr.J.G.Smither,late Govern-mentarchitect,and Mr. H. C. P.Bell, C.C.S.,ArchaeologicalCommissioner, very kindlyhave read theproofsandsuppliedimportantadvice and material for thechapteron the archi-tecture of the Island.I owe thanks also for valuedhelpto Babu MonmohanChakravarti, M.A.,relative to Orissa;andamongothers toMr. R. F.Chisholm,F.R.I.B.A.;Mr. H. C.Fanshawe, C.S.I,;Dr.J.F.Fleet, C.I.E.;Professor Dr. H.Kern, Utrecht;theRightHonble.Ameer'AH;Mr.G.F.Williams,StateEngineer,Udaypur;Lieut. Fred. M.Bailey,IndianArmy;Mr. F. H.Andrews;Dr. L. D.Barnett,and the Rev. Dr. Wm.Millar,C.I.E. To Messrs.KeganPaul, Trench,Triibner andCo.,Iam indebted for the use of a number of woodcuts.Thehistoryof Indian ArchitecturehasbeenextendedfromPREFACE TO SECONDEDITION. xv610 to785 pages,and the illustrations in the textincreasedby 98,besides the addition of34 platesfromphotographs.Thechapterson FurtherIndia, Javaand ChinahavebeeneditedandpartlyrewrittenbyMr. R. PheneSpiers,theeditorof Mr.Fergusson's largerwork,the'Historyof Ancient andMedievalArchitecture,'publishedin1893.Mr.Spiershasrecast thesechapters, addingmuch fresh andimportantin-formation toeach,whilst he has also added a newchapteron the Architecture ofJapan.ForBurma,Mr.Spiershashad todepend largely uponthe few workspublishedduringthe lastthirty years describingthebuildingstherefound,onthephotographsin the India Office and on the somewhatmeagrenotes contained in the'Progress Reports'of theArchaeological Survey.ForCambodia,Siam andJava,on the otherhand,wereavailabletheexcellentpublicationsoftheFrenchArchaeologicalSurveyscarried out at first under thesupervisionoftheEcoleFran9aise d'ExtremeOrient,andnowundertheskilled directionof theArchaeologicalCommission of Indo-China,and oftheJava Surveysunder the direction of the Dutch GovernmentArchaeologicalCommission.This sectionoccupied100pageswith49woodcuts in theformer edition; now,with the addition ofJapan,it has beenextended to163 pages,with67woodcuts and31 plates.J.BURGESS.EDINBURGH,February 1910.NOTE.ONEofthegreatdifficultiesthatmeteveryoneattemptingto writeon Indiansubjectsfortyyearsagowas to knowhow tospellIndianpropernames. TheGilchristianmode ofusingdoublevowels,which was fashionableearlylastcentury,had thenbeendoneawaywith,ascontraryto thespiritof Indianorthography, thoughit leftaplentifulcropofdiscordantspellings.Onthe otherhand,Sir WilliamJonesandmostscholars, by markingthelongvowels andbydots todistinguishthepalatalfromthedentalconsonants,hadformedfromtheRomanalphabetdefiniteequivalentsfor each letter in the Indianalphabetsboth Sanskritic and Persian.Lepsius,Lassen,and Max Muller in turnproposedvarious othersystems,whichha^enotfound muchacceptance;and of late continental scholars haveputforward stillanother scheme,quiteunsuited forEnglishuse. In thissystemsuch names as"Krishna,""Chach,""Rishi,"areto berepresentedbyKrsna, Cac,Rsi sopedanticasystemis, impossibleboth forcartographerandordinaryreaderand,likeothers,itmaywell cease to be.Meanwhile a notable advance towards officialuniformityhas been made in thespellingof Indianplace-names.When the'ImperialGazetteer of India" wasprojected,Governmentjudiciouslyinstructedtheeditor toadopttheJonesiansystemof transliteration asslightlymodifiedbyProfessor H. H.Wilson,but devoid ofthe diacritical dots attached to certain consonants. The authorisation of thissystemin the newmapsandGazetteer,and its use inpublishedworkssince,hasestablishedits claimtoacceptanceinaworkintendedfor thegeneralreader.In thefollowing pages, consequently,thissystemhas beenused,asnearlyasmaybe, avoidingdiacritical marks onconsonants,butindicatingthelongvowelsoundsti, i, ft,as inLzit, Halebid,Stupa, etc.,whilsteando,beingalmostalwayslong, hardly requireindication.Thusalsoundsasin"rural";aasin"tar";i,, ,, "fill";i,, "police";,, ,, "full";ft,, "rude";e,, ,,"there";ando,,"stone".Onlythepalatal5,as in"sure,"isdistinguishedfromthedental,as in"hiss,"bytheitalicformamongRomanletters,as in"jikhara,""Aroka." Ahundredyearshence,when Sanskrit and Indianalphabetsaretaughtin all schools inEngland,itmaybeotherwise,but in thepresentstate ofknowledgeon thesubjectit seemsexpedienttousesomesuchsimplemethod ofindicating,at leastapproximately,theIndiansounds.Strictlyaccuratetranscriptionin all casesandofwell-knownnames,however,has not been followed.InBurmese,whichlisps soundslikes andch,thespellingsusedintheGazetteersof Burmahavebeengenerallyadopted.1The shutvowel,inherent in all consonants of theproperIndianalphabets,wasformerlytransliteratedby almostanyEnglishvowel : in"Benares"(for"Banaras").t is usedtwicefor it.CONTENTS.INTRODUCTIONPage 3BOOK I.BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE.CHAP. PAGEI. INTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFI-CATION . . .".51II. STAMBHAS OR LATS . .56III. STUPAS RelicWorshipBhilsaTopes Topesat Sar-nathandin Bihar AmaravatiStupaGandharaTopesJalalabad Topes ManikyalaStupa62IV. RAILS RailsatBharaut,Math-ura1, Sanchi,andAmaravati . 102V. CHAITYA HALLS StructuralChaityasBihar CavesWesternChaityaHalls,etc. .125CHAI'. PAGEVI.VIHARAS,OR MONASTERIESStructural ViharasBengalCaves WesternViharaCavesNasik, Ajanta,Bagh, Dham-nar andKholvi,Elvira, Aurang-abadandKudaViharas .170VII. GANDHARA MONASTERIESMonasteries atJamalgarhiTakht-i-BahaiandShah-DheriGreekinfluence '. .209VIII. CEYLONIntroductoryAnuradhapuraPolonnaruwa224BOOK II.ARCHITECTURE IN THE HIMALAYAS.I. KASHMIRTemplesM^rtandAvantipurBuniar Pan-drethan Malot251II. NEPAL AND TIBETStupasorChaityasWoodenTemplesTibetTemplesinKangrSXVll273XV111CONTENTSBOOK III.DRAVIDIAN STYLE.CHAP.PAGEI. INTRODUCTORY . ..302II. HINDI) CONSTRUCTIONArches Domes Plans.Sikharas ....310III. DRAVIDIANROCK-CUT TEMPLESMamallapuram Kailas,Elura327IV. DRAVIDIAN TEMPLES Patta-dakal and DharwarTemplesCHAP. PAGEConjivaram TanjorTiru-valiir5rirangamChidamba-ram Ramervaram MadurlTinnevellyKumbakonamVellor and PerurVijayanagar 350V. CIVIL ARCHITECTURE Palacesat Madura andTanjorGarden Pavilion atVijaya-nagarPalaceatChandragiri.411BOOK IV.CHALUKYAN STYLE.I. INTRODUCTORYChalukyanArchitecture Dharwar tem-ples Ittagi GadagKuru-vatti Dambal HanamkondaKirtti-StambhasatWorangalMysore Templesat Som-nathpurand BeliirTemplesat Halebid ....420DIRECTIONS TO BINDERMAPOFINDIA,SHOWING THE PRINCIPAL BUDDHIST LOCALITIES Toface page 51MAP OF THE PRINCIPAL INDO- ARYAN, CHALUKYAN,ANDDRAVIDIAN LOCALITIES,,251LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I.No.1. HinduTemple,atBahulara,nearBankura ....2.Naga people worshippingtheTriratna emblem ofBuddha,onafiery pillar3.SriorGajaLakshmiseatedonaLotus,with twoElephantspouringwateroverher .4.LatatAllahabad5. Assyrian honeysuckleornamentfromcapitalofLat,atAllaha-bad6.Capitalat Sankisa7. CapitalofLatinTirhut8.Capitalof theLion-pillaratKarle9.MinarChakri,Kabul10. Relic CasketofMoggalana11. RelicCasketof.Sariputra.12. ViewofthegreatTopeatSanchi13.PlanofgreatTopeat Sanchi14.Section ofgreatTopeatSanchi15.'Tee'(Hti)cutin therockonaDagabaatAjanta.1 6.TopeatSarnath,near Benares .17.PanelontheTopeatSarnath18. Viewand -PlanofJarasandha-ka-baithak ....19. TempleatBodh-Gayawith Bo-tree .....20.RepresentationofaStupafromtheRailatAmaravati .21.TopeatBimaran22.TopeatSultanpur23. StupaatChakpat24.Relic Casket from aTopeatManikyala....25.ViewofManikyalaTope.26. Restored Elevation of theTopeatManikyalaPAGE , No.XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I.No.Si-52.S3-54-55-56.57-58.59-60.61.62.6364.65-66.67.68.69.70.71-72.73-74-75-76.77-78.79-80.81.82.PAGEElevation of ChezarlaChaityaTemple....127Section of ChezarlaChaityaTemple. . ..127SudamaCave,PlanandSection,Sat-Garbhagroup. ..130KondivteCave,Salsette . .131FacadeofLomasRishiCave .131LomasRishiCave,Plan ..132Plan and Section of Sita-marhiCave133Chaityaand ViharaCaves,atBhaja 134Frontof aChaityaHall ..134Fa9adeof theChaityaCave atBhaja 135Triratna. Shield. Chakra. Tri-ratna,etc136Capitalof a rock-cutDagabaatBhaja 137PlanofCavesat Bedsa . . 138CapitalofPillarin frontofCaveat Bedsa . . .139Viewin VerandahofChaityaatBedsa .140141143143144146ViewofChaityaCaveat Nasik .SectionofChaityaCaveatKSrlePlanofChaityaCaveat Karle .ViewofChaityaCaveat Karle .ViewofInteriorof CaveatK^rleInteriorofChaityaCaveNo. 10atAjanta. . ..149Cross-sectionof Cave No. 10atAjanrl149PlanofChaityaCave No.19atAjanta151View ofFacade,ChaityaCaveNo.19atAjanta. ..152Rock-cutDagabaatAjanta.153SmallModelfound in theTopeatSultanpur. . .'153Pillars ontheleft sideof theNave,inCaveNo. 26atAjanta.154Viewof ManmodaChaityaCaveatJunnar....157Planof CircularCave,Junnar.158SectionofCircularCave,Junnar158RoundTempleandpartofPalaceorMonastery. (From abas-reliefatBharaut).159Interiorof VLrwakarmaBuddhistCaveat Elura . .160No. PAGE83. Fa$adeof theVi^wakarmaCaveat EliirS .... 16184.Rail in front of theChaityaCaveat Kanheri . ..16385. Capitalof a Pillar from theChaityaCaveatKanheri .16486. CavesatDhamnar . ..16587. Fa9adeofChaityaCave atGuntupalle. . . .16888.SphinxesfromBuddhistViharaatPitalkhora . ..16989. DharmarajaRath at Mamalla-puram 17290. Diagram explanatoryof thearrangementof a BuddhistVihara of FourStoreysinheight 17291. SquareCell from a bas-reliefat Bharaut . . .-17392. OblongCell from a bas-reliefatBharaut ....17393.Planof Son-bhandarCaves .17694.SectionofSon-bhandarCave .17695.FrontofSon-bhandarCave .17696.PlanofsmallViharaatBhaja.17797. CapitalofPilaster atBhaja.17898.Planof CaveNo. natAjanta.18199.Planof CaveNo. 2atAjantS. 181100. Planof CaveNo.3atBagh. 182101. PlanofDarbarCave,Kanheri . 182102. PlanofNahapanaVihara,Nasik184103.Pillar inNahapanaCave,Nasik185104.Pillar inGautamiputra Cave,Nasik185105.PlanofSriYajnaCave,No.15,at Nasik . . ..1871 06. Pillarin SriYajnaCave . .188107.Planof CaveNo.16,atAjanta 189108. ViewofInterior ofVihara,No.16,atAjanta. . .190109.ViewinCaveNo.17,atAjanta 191no. PillarinViharaCaveNo.17atAjanta.....192in.CapitalfromVerandahofCave24, Ajanta. . ..194112. Pillarin the VerandahofCaveI, Ajanta....195113.Plan of Great ViharaCaveatBagh 198114.Buddhist Viharas at the southendoftheEluragroup. . 201115.PlanofMaharwaraCave,Elura 202LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSIN VOLUME I. xxiNo.PAGE116. Ancient Buddhist Tower atNegapattam....206117.Ancientcapitalfoundat Patna20711 8.Capitalin SideChapelof CaveNo.19, Ajanta. . .208119.PlanofMonasteryatJamalgarhi2121 20. Plan ofMonasteryat Takht-i-Bahai ....212121. CorinthianCapitalfromJamal-garhi. . . ..214122. Corinthian CapitalfromJamal-garhi.....214123.Conventional Elevation oftheFa9adeof a Cell fromJamal-garhi.....216124.PlanofIonicMonastery,Shah-Dheri125.IonicPillar,Shah-Dheri .126.Footprintsof Buddha(Fromabas-reliefatAmaravati).127.View of the north side ofwestchapel,RuwanveliDagaba.128. Part Elevation(restored)offrontofsouthchapel,Ruwan-veliDagaba.129.Stelceateast endof northchapel,Abhayagiri Dagaba130. ThuparamaDagaba,Anuradha-pura.....131. Capitalfrom outer circle atThuparamaDagaba132.LankaramaDagaba,Anuradha-pura.....133. Capitalof LankaramaDagabaPillars,innercircles134.Pavilion withStepswest ofRuwanveliDagaba135.Moonstone at theStepsofthe Bo-treeplatform136.View of the Sacred Bo-treevihara,Anuradhapura.137.SatMahalPrasadaandGalpota138. CapitalofaPilaster,Pitalkhora139-Tombof Zainu-l-'Abidin. Ele-vationof Arches .140.Takht-i-Sulaiman ElevationofArches ....141.ModelofTemplein Kashmir .142.PillaratSrinagar143. CapitalfromShadipur144.Restoration ofViharaCells,atTakht-i-BahaiNo.MS-146.147.148.149.150.IS*-152-153.154.155-218'57'XX11 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSIN VOLUME 1.No.182. Plan ofPapanathaTempleat Pattadakal183.Restored Elevationof the SunTempleat Kanarak184. DiagramPlan and Section oftheTempleat Kanarak185.View of theRaths,Mamalla-puram1 86. ViewofDraupadi'sRath187.PlanofBhima'sRath1 88. Pillar in Bhima'sRath .189.PlanofDharmarajaRath190.ElevationofDharmarajaRath.191.Section ofDharmarajaRath,withsuggestedinternal ar-rangements ....192.PlanofSahadeva'sRath .193.ViewofSahadeva'sRath194.Viewof Gane^aRath195.View of PerumalTempleatMadura ....196.Entrance to a HinduTemple,Colombo ....197.Head of theNaga figure,atMamallapuram.198.Viewof CaveTemple,Saluvan-kuppam199.PlanofKailSsTemple,atElura200. ViewofKailas Elura201. Shrineof the RiverGoddesses,Elura202.DhwajastambhaatKailas,Elura203. Dipdanin Dharw&r204.PlanofGreatTempleat Patta-dakal205.South elevation ofVirupakshaTempleat Pattadakal .206. Plan ofSangamejvar Templeat Pattadakal207.Plan ofMalegitti Temple,at Badami ....208. Plan ofMeguti Jaina TempleatAihole ....209.Plan of KailasanathaTemple,Conjivaram ....210. Section of Vaikuntha PerumalTemple,Conjivaram211. Plan of the ShoreTempleatMamallapuram212.DiagramPlanofTanjorTemplePAGELIST OF PLATES TO VOLUME I. xxiiiNo. PAGE . No. PAGE245.Plan of thegroundfloor ofj 255.PlanofKe.ra.vaTempleat Som-ChandragiriPalace ..418 nathpur. . . .437246.PlanofIttagiTemples. .425 256. TempleatSomnathpur. .438247.PlanofTemplesat Kukkanur .426I257.PlanofChennaKej-avaTemple248.Plan of Some^varTemple,at Belur ....439Gadag ....427358.ViewofpartofPorch at Belur440249.PlanofKuruvattiTemple.430259.Pavilionat Belur . ..441250.KuruvattiTemplesoutheleva-tion .....430251.Plan of DambalTempleof260. View of KedaresvaraTemple,Halebid ....443261. Plan ofHoysale-rvara TempleDoddaBasavanna . . .431jat Halebid . . . .444252. Doorwayof GreatTempleat262. Restored view ofTempleatHanamkonda . . .433253.Kirtti-StambhaatWorangal.434254. TempleatBuchhanapalli.436Halebid . . ..445263.CentralPavilion, Halebid,EastFront447LIST OF PLATES TO VOL. I.PLATEX. OLD DRAVIDIAN TEMPLEAT MAMALLAPURAM(page362)Frontispieceto Vohinie 1.JAMES FERGUSSON Toface pageII. ALIMASJIDSTUPA NO5 ,,92II. THUPARAMA DAGABA(AS RESTORED)....,,234III. THE WATA-DA-GE AT POLONNARUWA ....,, 246IV. THETHUPARAMATEMPLE,POLONNARUWA ...,, 247V. SAIVA TEMPLE AT POLONNARUWA,, 248VI. THE POTALA AT LHASA FROM THE W.S. W. ...,, 292VII. GOLDEN TEMPLE AT GYAN-TSE .....,, 294VIII. MALEGITT1 SAIVA TEMPLE AT BADAMI ....,,356IX. VIEW OF MAINSHRINE,KAILASANATHATEMPLE,KANCHfPURAM,, 359XI. STONECAR,ATTHETEMPLEOFVITTHALA,VIJAYANAGAR,1881(NOW DESTROYED) ,,403XII. GREAT TEMPLE ATITTAGI,FROM S.W,,424XIII. TEMPLE OF SOMESVAR ATGADAG,FROM N.E. . .,, 427XIV. DOORWAY OF THE SHRINE IN KASIVISVESVAR TEMPLEAT LAKKUNDI428XV. CHAUDADAMPURTEMPLE OF MUKTESVARA ...., 429XVI.GALAGANATH TEMPLE FROM N.W,,432XVII. TEMPLE OF KEDARESVARA AT BALAGAMI ...,, 441Buddhapreaching, (FromafrescopaintingatAjanta.JAMESFERGUSSON.[Toface pageI,VolumeI.HISTORYOFINDIANARCHITECTURE.VOL. I.HISTORYOFINDIAN ARCHITECTURE.INTRODUCTION.IT is invain,perhaps,toexpectthat the literature ortheArtsofanyotherpeoplecan be sointerestingto even the besteducatedEuropeansas those of their owncountry.Until itis forced on theirattention,feware awarehowmucheducationdoes to concentrate attention within averynarrow field ofobservation. We become familiar in thenurserywith thenames of the heroes of Greek and Romanhistory.Ineveryschool theirhistoryand their arts aretaught,memorials oftheirgreatnessmeet us ateveryturnthrough life,and theirthoughtsandaspirations become,as itwere,partof ourselves.So, too,with the MiddleAges: theirreligionis ourreligion;their architecture our architecture;and theirhistoryfades soinsensiblyinto ourown,thatwe can drawno line ofdemarca-tion that wouldseparateus from them. Howdifferent is thestate offeeling,when from this familiar homewe turntosuchacountryas India ! Itsgeographyishardlytaughtinschools,and seldom masteredperfectly;itshistoryis apuzzle;litsliterature amythicdream;its arts aquaint perplexity.But,aboveall,the names of its heroes andgreatmen are sounfamiliarthat,excepta fewofthosewhogotoIndia,scarcelyanyever become soacquaintedwiththem,thattheycallupanymemorieswhichareeitherpleasingorworthdwellingupon.Were it not forthis,there isprobablynocountryout ofEuropeat least that would so wellrepayattention as India:none,where all theproblemsof natural science or of art arepresentedtous in so distinct andsopleasingaform. Nowheredoes nature show herself in suchgrandand such luxurious1The lastthirty yearshave addedgreatlyto the number andqualityofthe text-books on Indianhistory,andthegeneralreader has nolongeravalidexcuseforignoranceofit.HISTORY OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.features,and nowhere doeshumanityexist in more variedandmorepleasingconditions. Sidebyside with the intellectualBrahmancaste,and the chivalrousRajput,are found the wildBhil and the nakedGond,notantagonisticandwarringoneagainsttheother,aselsewhere,butlivingnow astheyhavedone for thousands ofyears,each content with his ownlot,andpreparedtofollow,withoutrepining,in thefootstepsofhis forefathers.Itcannot,ofcourse,be for one moment contended thatIndia ever reached the intellectualsupremacyofGreece,orthe moralgreatnessofRome; but,thoughon a lowerstepoftheladder,herarts are moreoriginaland morevaried,andherformsof civilisationpresentanever-changing variety,such asare nowhere else to be found.What, however,reallyrendersIndia sointerestingas anobjectofstudyis that"it is now aliving entity.Greece and Rome are dead and havepassedaway,andwe arelivingsocompletelyin the midstofmodernEurope,that we cannotgetoutside tocontemplateit as awhole. ButIndia is acompletecosmos initself;boundedonthe northbytheHimalayas,on the southbythesea,on theeastbyjunglesinhabitedbyrudetribes,andonlyon the westhavingone door ofcommunication,across theIndus,opentothe outerworld. Across thatstream,nation after nation havepouredtheirmyriadsinto her coveteddomain,but no reflexwavesevermixedherpeoplewith thosebeyondherboundaries.Inconsequenceof allthis,every problemofanthropologyorethnographycanbe studied here moreeasilythananywhereelse; everyart has itsliving-representative,and often of themostpleasingform; everyscience has itsillustration,andmanyon a scale noteasilymatched elsewhere.But,notwith-standingallthis,in nine cases out often,India and Indianmatters fail tointerest,becausetheyare to mostpeoplenewandunfamiliar. The rudiments have not been masteredwhenyoung,and,whengrown up,few men havethe leisure or theinclination to set to work to learn the forms ofanewworld,demandingboth care andstudy;and till this isattained,itcanhardlybehopedthat the arts and the architectureofIndiawill interestmany Europeanreaders to the same extent asthosestylestreatedof in the volumes onancientandmediaevalarchitecture.1Notwithstandingthesedrawbacks,itmaystill bepossibletopresentthesubjectof Indian architecture in such a formastobeinteresting,even if notattractive. Todothis,however,i'Historyof Architecture in all vols. i. andii., 3rded.(1893).EditedCountriesfrom the Earliest Times.'By .byR. PhenSpiers,F.S.A.thelateJas. Fergusson,C.I.E., D.C.L.,INTRODUCTION.5the narrative form must be followed as far as iscompatiblewith such asubject.All technical and unfamiliar names mustbe avoided wherever it ispossibleto doso,and the wholeaccompaniedwith a sufficient numberof illustrations to enableits forms to be mastered withoutdifficulty.Even if this isattendedto,no one volume can tell the whole of so variedand socomplexahistory.Withoutpreliminaryorsubsequentstudyit canhardlybeexpectedthat so new and so vast asubjectcanbegrasped;butone volumemaycontainacompleteoutline ofthewhole,and enableanyonewhowishes for moreinformation to knowwhere to look forit,orhowtoappreciateitwhenfound.Whether successful ornot,it seems well worth while thatanattemptshould be made to interest thepublicin Indianarchitectural art; first,because the artist and architect willcertainly acquirebroader and more varied views of their artbyitsstudythantheycanacquirefromanyother source.More thanthis,anyone who masters thesubject sufficientlyto be able to understand their art in its best andhighestforms,will rise from thestudywith a kindlierfeelingtowardsthe nations ofIndia,and ahigher certainlya correctorappreciationof their social status than could beobtainedfromtheirliterature,or fromanythingthat now exists in theiranomalous social andpolitical position.Notwithstandingallthis,many maybe inclined toask,Isit worth while to master all thegeographicaland historicaldetailsnecessaryto unravel sotangledawebasthis,andthentryto become so familiarwith theirever-varyingforms asnotonlyto be able to discriminate between the differentstyles,butalsoto followthemthroughall theirceaselesschanges?Myimpressionis that thisquestion mayfairlybe answeredin the affirmative. No one has arighttosaythat he under-stands thehistoryof architecture who leaves out of his viewthe works of an immenseportionof the humanrace,whichhasalwaysshown itself socapableof artisticdevelopment.But,more thanthis,architecture in India is still alivingart,practisedontheprincipleswhich caused its wonderfuldevelop-ment inEuropein the I2th andI3th centuries;andthere,consequently,and therealone,the student ofarchitecture hasachance ofseeingthe realprinciplesof the art in action. InEurope,at thepresent day,architecture ispractisedin amanner so anomalous and abnormal thatfew,ifany,havehithertobeenable to shake off the influence ofa falsesystem,and to see that the art of ornamentalbuildingcan be basedonprinciplesof common sense;andthat,when sopractised,the result notonlyis,but mustbe, satisfactory.Those who6 HISTORY OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.have anopportunityofseeingwhatperfect buildingstheuneducated natives of Indiaproduce,willeasilyunderstandhow successmaybeachieved,while those who observe whatfailures the best educated and most talented architects inEurope frequently perpetrate, may, byastudyof Indianmodels,easilyseewhythis mustinevitablybe the result. Itisonlyin India that the twosystemscan be seenpractisedsidebyside the educated and intellectualEuropean failingbecause hisprinciplesarewrong,the feeble and uneducatednative asinevitablysucceedingbecause hisprinciplesareright.The Indian builders thinkonlyof whattheyaredoing,andhowtheycan bestproducethe effecttheydesire. In theEuropeansystemit is consideredmoreessential thatabuilding,especiallyin itsdetails,should be a correctcopyofsomethingelse,thangoodin itselforappropriateto itspurpose: hencethedifference in theresult.In one otherrespectIndia affords asingularlyfavourablefield tothe student of architecture. Innoothercountryof thesameextentaretheresomanydistinctnationalities,eachretain-ingits old belief and its oldfeelings,andimpressingtheseonits art. Thereisconsequentlynocountrywheretheoutlinesofethnologyasappliedto art can be soeasilyperceived,ortheirapplicationto the elucidation of the variousproblemssopre-eminently important.The mode in which the art has beenpractisedinEuropefor the last three centuries has beenveryconfusing.In India it is clear andintelligible.Noone canlook at thesubjectwithoutseeingitsimportance,and noonecanstudythe art aspractisedthere withoutrecognisingwhattheprinciplesofthesciencereallyare.Inaddition, however,to these scientificadvantages,it willundoubtedlybe concededbythose who are familiar with thesubjectthat for certainqualitiesthe Indianbuildingsare un-rivalled.Theydisplayan exuberance offancy,a lavishnessoflabour,and an elaboration of detail to be found nowhere else.Theymaycontainnothingso sublime as the hall atKarnak,nothingso intellectual as theParthenon,nor soconstructivelygrandas a mediaeval cathedral;but for certain otherqualitiesnotperhapsof thehighest kind, yet very importantinarchitectural art the Indianbuildingsstand alone.Theyconsequentlyfillupagreat gapin ourknowledgeof thesubject,which without them would remain a void.HISTORV.One of thegreatestdifficulties that existperhapsthegreatestinexcitingan interest in IndianantiquitiesarisesINTRODUCTION.7from thefact,that India has nohistory properlysocalled,before the Muhammadan invasion in theI3th century.HadIndia been agreatunitedkingdom,likeChina,with alongline ofdynastiesand well-recorded dates attached tothem,the task would have beencomparatively easy ;butnothingof the sort ever existed within her boundaries. On thecontrary,so far as ourknowledgeextends,India hasalwaysbeenoccupied bythree or four different races ofmankind,who have neveramalgamatedso as to become onepeople,and each of these races has beenagainsubdivided intonumeroustribesorsmall nationalitiesnearly,sometimeswholly,independentof each otherand,what is worse thanall,notone of them everkepta chronicle orpreserveda series ofdatescommencingfromanywell-known era.1The absence ofanyhistorical record is the morestriking,becauseIndiapossessesawritten literatureequalto,if not sur-passinginvarietyandextent,thatpossessedby anyothernation,beforetheadoptionanduseofprinting.The Vedasthemselves,with theirUpanishadsandBrahmanas,and the commentariesonthem,form a literature in themselves ofvastextent,andsomepartsofwhichareasold,possiblyolder,thananywrittenworksthat are now known to exist;and thePuranas, thoughcomparativelymodern,makeupabodyofdoctrine mixedwithmythologyand tradition such as few nations can boast of.Besidesthis, however,are the twogreat epics, surpassinginextent,if not inmerit,thoseofanyancientnation,and a dramaofgreat beauty,written atperiods extending throughalongseriesofyears.Inaddition to thesewehave treatises onlaw,ongrammar,onastronomy,onmetaphysicsandmathematics,onalmosteverybranchofmental science a literature extend-ingin fact tomanythousandworks,butin all thisnotonebookthatcanbe called historical. Nomanin ancientIndia,so faras isknown, everthoughtofrecordingthe events of his ownlife,orofrepeatingthepreviousexperienceofothers,andit wasnot tillshortlybefore the Christian Era thatthey thoughtofestablishingerasfromwhichtodatedeedsorevents.Allthis is the more curious because inCeylonwehave,inthe'Dipawansa,''Mahawansa,'andotherbooksofalikenature,1Thefollowingbrief resume of the orderto make itreadable,all referencesprincipalevents in the ancienthistoryand allproofsofdisputedfacts haveof India has nopretensionstobeinga I been here avoided.Theywill befoundcompleteor exhaustive viewof the sub-1in thebodyof thework,wheretheyareject.It is intendedonlyas such apopularsketchasshall enablethegeneralreadertograspthe main features of thestoryto such an extent asmayenablehim to understand what follows. Inmoreappropriate.But without somesuchintroductorynotice of thepoliticalhistoryandethnography,the artistichistorywould benearly,if notwhollyunintelligible.8 HISTORY OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.a consecutivehistoryof thatisland,with dateswhich,withcertaincorrections,maybedepended uponwithin certainlimits oferror,forperiods extendingfrom about B.C.250to thepresenttime. At the otherextremityofIndia,wehave also in the'Rajatarangini'ofKashmir,a work of the1 2thcentury,which Professor Wilson characterised as "theonlySanskritcomposition yetdiscovered to which the titleofHistorycan withany proprietybeapplied."1Ithardlyhelps us, however,toanyancient historicaldata,itsearlychronology being onlytraditional and confused;but from thebeginningof the9thChristiancentury,its materials are ofgreatvalue.2In IndiaProper,however,we have no suchguidesas eventhese,but for writtenhistoryare almostwholly dependentonthePuranas.Theyfurnishuswithalist ofkings'names,withthelengthoftheirreigns,soapparentlytruthful thatthey may,withincertainlimits,beofuse.Theyareonly,however,ofonerangeofdynasties probablyalso sometimescontemporaryand extendonlyfrom the accession ofChandraguptatheSandrokottos ofthe Greeks about B.C.320,to the decline oftheAndhradynasty,aboutthebeginningofthe3rdcenturyA.D.It seemspossiblewemay yetfind sufficient confirmation ofthese lists as far backas the 6thcenturyB.C.,so as to includetheperiodmarkedbythe life and labours ofSakyamunithelast Buddha in ourchronology,with tolerablecertainty.Allchronologybefore thatperiodis asyet merely conjectural.From theperiodof theGupta dynastyin the4th centuryonwards,whenthePuranasbeganto beputinto theirpresentform,inconsequenceoftherevivaloftheBrahmanicalreligion,instead ofrecording contemporaryevents,they purposelyconfused them so as to maintain theirpretended propheticcharacter,andpreventthe detection of the falsehood of theirclaimtoanantiquityequaltothatoftheVedas.ForIndianhistoryafterthe5thcenturyweareconsequentlyleftmainlytoinscriptionsonmonumentsoroncopper-plates,tocoins,and to theworks offoreignersfor thenecessaryinforma-tion withwhichthenatives ofthecountryitself haveneglectedtosupplyus.Inscriptions fortunatelyare more abundant inIndiathan,perhaps,inanyothercountry,andnearlyall ofthem contain historical information; and,thanks to thegreatadvances made inepigraphy duringthe lastthirty-five years,wearenowabletopiece togetheratolerablyaccurate historical1'AsiaticResearches,'vol. xv.p.i. ! a valuablecommentaryand notesby*Kalhana's'Rajatarangini'hasbeen|Dr. A. M.Stein,2 vols.(London,verycarefullytranslatedandedited with1900).INTRODUCTION.9outlineofthecourseofevents fromthe3rdcenturyB.C.1ThisismoreespeciallythecasefortheDekhanandthenorthofIndia;in theTamilcountrysomuchhasnotyetbeendone,butthis ismorebecausethere havebeen fewerlabourers in the field thanfrom want of materials. There areliterallythousands ofinscriptionsin the south which have not beencopied,and ofthose that have been collectedonlyaportionhaveyetbeentranslated;buttheyaresuchastogiveusassurancethat,whentherequisiteamountoflabouris bestoweduponthem,we shallbeableto fix thechronologyof thekingsofthe south withadegreeofcertaintysufficient for allordinarypurposes.2It is afarmore difficult task to ascertain whether we shalleverrecovertheHistoryofIndiabeforethetime ofthe adventofBuddha. Herewecertainlywill findnocoinsorinscriptionstoguideus,andnobuildingsto illustrate thearts,or to markthepositionofcities,while allethnographictraceshave becomesoblurred,ifnotobliterated,thattheyserve us little asguidesthroughthelabyrinth.Yetontheotherhandthere is so muchliterature suchas it isbearingonthesubject,thatwe cannotbuthopethat,when a sufficient amountoflearningisbroughttobearuponit,theleadingfeaturesofthehistoryofeven thatperiod maybe recovered. Inorder, however,to render itavailable,it will notrequireindustryso muchas a severespiritofcriticism towinnowthefewgrainsof useful truth out of themassofworthlesschaffthis literaturecontains. Butit does notseemtoomuch toexpecteventhis,from theseverelycriticalspiritoftheage. Meanwhile,themainfacts ofthecase seemtobenearlyasfollows,in sofaras it isnecessaryto statethem,inordertomakewhatfollowsintelligible.ARYANS.Atsomeveryremoteperiodin theworld'shistorytheAryasorAryans3apeople speakinganearlyform of Sanskrit1Thechronologicalresults have beensystematically arrangedin that usefulhandbook. Duff's'Chronologyof India'(London, 1899).2Almost theonly personwho haddoneanythingin this direction tillfortyyearsagowasthe late SirWalterElliot.Since1872the labours of Drs.Fleet,Biihler,Kielhorn,R. G.Bhandarkarandothershavethrownafloodoflightonthehistoryof southern as well as northernIndia;andwithinthe lasttwenty yearsDr.Hultzsch's workamongthe Tamilinscriptionsof Madras hasyielded veryimportant chronologicaland historicalinformation for the south of thepenin-sula. TheMysoreGovernmenthas alsoissued thegreat'EpigraphiaCarnatica,'underthedirectionofMr. LewisRice.3Wehavethewordin the'Aria'and'Ariana'of the Greekwriters,appliedto thecountrylyingto the north-eastofPersiaadjoiningBaktriana. TheearlyZoroastrians called theircountry'Airy-anavaej6'theAfya. home,and in theBehistuninscriptionsit isstyled'Ariya.'SeeLassen,'IndischeAlterthumskunde,'Bd. i. Ss.5ff.to HISTORY OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.entered India across theUpperIndus,comingfrom CentralAsia.Theywerea faircomplexionedpeopleascomparedwiththeAborigines,and foralongtimetheyremainedsettled in thePanjab,oronthebanksoftheSarasvati,thenamoreimportantstreamthannow,themainbody,however,stillremainingtothewestward of the Indus.If, however,wemaytrust ourchronology,wefindthem settled150x3to2000yearsbefore theChristianEra,inAyodhyaand then in theplenitudeof theirpower. Naturallywelook forsomelightontheirearly historyin the twogreatIndianepicstheRamayana recordingtheexploitsof Rama,KingofAyodhya,of the Solarrace,and inmuch later timesregardedas an incarnation ofVishnu;andthe Mahabharatacelebratingthe contest between the KurusandPandus,oftheLunarfamily.BotharesteepedinBrahmandoctrines,almostcertainlyinserted in laterages amongtheoriginal legends.It thus becomesverydifficult toseparatewhatbelongstotheoriginal spiritand aim of the works fromtheinterpolatedmaterials. TheRamayanais solargelyallegoricalandcast in theform it has reached us solongaftertheperiodtowhichit refers that it is doubtful whetherwe candrawanyinferencewithsafetyfrom itscontents,exceptthat itrelatestothespreadofAryancivilisation whichhadprobablythenoccupiedmostofthecountrynorthoftheVindhyanrangeinto southernIndia,and as far asCeylon.1From averyearly periodtheAryanshad, doubtless,become mixed withaboriginal races,and could not beregardedaspureat thisperiod.But whethertheyformed settlements in the Dekhanornot,it wasopeneduptothem,andbyslowdegreesimbibedthat amount of Brahmanism whicheventually pervadedthesouth.ByB.C.700,orthereabouts,theyhadbegunto betolerablywellacquaintedwiththewholeof thepeninsula.The events that form the theme of the westernepictheMahabharatamayhave occurred almost asearlyas,or evenseveral centurieslaterthanthetimesofRama. Itopensupanentirelynew view of Indian social life. If the heroes of thatpoemwereAryansatall,theywere ofa much lesspure typethan those whocomposedthesongsof theVedas,or aredepictedin the verses of theRamayana.Theirpolyandry,theirdrinkingbouts,theirgamblingtastes,andlove offighting,markthemasaverydifferentrace from thepeaceful shepherdimmigrantsoftheearlierage,andpointmuch moredistinctlytowardsaTartar,trans-Himalayanorigin,than to the cradleof1For some account of theprobablespreadof theAryas southwards,seeDr. R. G. Bhandarkar's'Early Historyof theDekhan,'inBombayGazetteer(1895),vol. i.pt.ii.pp. I32tf.INTRODUCTION. iitheAryanstock in Central Asia. We aretemptedto askwhetherthePandavas,whoconqueredin thegreatstrife,werenotaconfederacyofhostiletribes,headedbyabandofwarriorsofmixedornon-Aryandescent. Theirhelperandcounsellor,KrishnS,is adivinityunknown to theearly Aryans,and withhimas anincarnationofVishnu,theSiva, andBrahma,of modernHinduism,taketheplaceoftheoldergods.Asif to mark thedifference ofwhich the warriors themselves felt theexistence,they distinguished themselves, byname,asbelongingto aLunarrace,distinctfrom,andgenerally antagonistic to,theSolarrace,which was theprouddistinction of thepurerandearlierAryansettlers in India.1ByaboutB.C.700,weagainfind atotallydifferent state ofaffairs in India. TheAryansnolongerexist as aseparatenationality,and neither the Solar nor the Lunar race are therulers of the earth. The Brahmans have become apriestlycaste, andsharethepowerwiththeKshatriyas,araceoffarlesspurityofdescent. TheVai^yas,asmerchantsandhusbandmen,havebecomeapower,and even the Sudras areacknowledgedas apartof thebody politic ;andthoughnot mentioned intheScripturestheNagas,or Snakepeople,had become aninfluentialpartof thepopulation. Theyare first mentioned intheMahabharata,wherethey playa mostimportant partincausingthedeathofParikshit,which led to thegreatsacrificeforthedestruction of theNagasofTaksha^ilaby Janamejaya,whichpracticallycloses thehistoryof the time.Destroyed,however,theywerenot,for we findNaga dynasties rulinginvariouspartsof Central India andRajputanafrom the7thcentury B.C.,till at leastthe4thcenturyA.D.2AlthoughBuddhismwasfirsttaughtprobablybyonebelong-ingto the Solarrace,and ofAryanblood,andthoughits firstdiscipleswereBrahmans,it hadas littleaffinity withthereligionoftheVedasasChristianity had withthePentateuch,and itsfatewasthesame. TheonereligionwastaughtbyoneofJewishex-traction totheJews;but it wasultimatelyrejectedbythem, andadoptedbytheGentiles,whohad noaffinityofraceorreligionwith the inhabitants ofJudaea. Thoughmeantoriginally,nodoubt,forAryans,theBuddhistreligionwasultimatelyrejectedbytheBrahmans,whowereconsequentlyeclipsedandsupersededbyit fornearlyathousandyears;andwehearlittle ofthemandtheirreligiontilltheyriseagainatthe court ofthegreatGupta1Orientalists haveexpressed veryvarying opinionsas to the historicalteachingsof theepics.SeeWeber,'OntheRamayana,'etc.2TheNagaor KarkotadynastyofKashmir ruled as lateasfrom about thebeginningof the7thtill the middle ofthegthcentury.iz HISTORY OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.kingsin the4th centuryA.D.,when theirreligion begantoassume thatstrange shapewhich it nowstill retains in India.In its newform it is as unlike thereligionoftheVedasas it ispossibleto conceiveonereligion beingto another;unlikethat,also,of the olderportionsof the Mahabharata;butaconfusedmessoflocalsuperstitionsandimported myths,coveringupandhidingtheVedanticand Buddhistdoctrines,whichmaysome-timesbedetected asunderlyingit. Whateveritbe,however,itwasinventedbyandforasmixedapopulationasprobablywereevergatheredtogetherintoonecountryapeoplewhosefeelingsandsuperstitionsitonlytootrulyrepresents.DRAVIDIANS.Although,therefore,aswashintedabove,theremightbe nogreat difficultyinrecoveringthe main incidents andleadingfeatures ofthehistoryof theAryans,from their firstentryintoIndia tilltheywereentirelyabsorbedintothemassofthepopula-tionsometimebeforetheChristianEra,therecouldbenogreatermistakethantosupposethat theirhistorywouldfully representtheancienthistoryofthecountry.TheDravidiansareapeoplewho,in historicaltimes, seemtohavebeenprobablyasnumerousasthepureAryans,andatthepresentdayform one-fifth ofthewholepopulationof India.Theybelong,it istrue,to a lowerintellectual status than theAryans,buttheyhavepreservedtheirnationality pureandunmixed,and,such astheywere atthedawnofhistory,sotheyseemtobenow.Theirsettlementin Indiaextendstosuchremotepre-historictimes,thatwecannotfeel evensurethatweshouldregardthemasimmigrants,or,atleast,aseitherconquerorsorcolonistsonalarge scale,but rather asaboriginalin the sense in which thatterm isusuallyunderstood.Generallyit is assumed thattheyentered India across the LowerIndus,leavingthecognateBrahui in Baluchistan as a mark of the roadbywhichtheycame, and,as the affinities of theirlanguageseem to bewiththeUgriansand Northern Turaniantongues,this viewseemsprobable.1Buttheyhavecertainlyleftno trace oftheirmigra-tionsanywherebetweentheIndusand theNarbada,andall thefacts of theirhistory,so far astheyareknown,would seem tolead to anoppositeconclusion. Thehypothesisthat wouldrepresentwhatwe know oftheirhistorymostcorrectlywouldplacetheiroriginalseat in the extremesouth,somewhere1Dr.Caldwell,the author of the I and mosttrustworthyadvocate of this'DravidianGrammar,'is thegreatest Jview.INTRODUCTION.13probablynot far from Madura orTanjor,and thencespread-ingfan-like towards thenorth,tilltheymet theAryansinthe northern Dekhan. Thequestion, again,is not of muchimportancefor ourpresent purposes,as we do not know towhatdegreeof civilisationtheyhad reached anterior to theChristianEra,orwhentheywere first able topractisethe artsof civilised life with such success as tobringthem within thescopeof aworkdevotedtothehistoryofart.1Itmaybe that at some futureperiod,whenweknowmoreof the ancient arts ofthese Dravidians thanwenowdo,somefreshlightmaybethrownon thisveryobscurepartofhistory.Geographically,however,onethingseemstolerablyclear. Ifthe Dravidians came into India in historical times it was notfrom Central Asia thattheymigrated,butfromPersia,orsomesouthernregionoftheAsiaticcontinent.DASYUS.Inadditiontothesetwogreatdistinctandoppositenationa-lities,thereexists in Indiaathird, which,inpre-Buddhisttimes,wasasnumerous,perhapseven moreso,thaneithertheAryansortheDravidians,butofwhosehistoryweknoweven less thanwedo of the two others.Ethnologistshave notagreedonanamebywhichto call them. I havesuggestedDasyus,2aslavepeople,as that is the namebywhich theAryans designatedthemwhentheyfound them there on their first entrance intoIndia,andsubjectedthem to theirsway.3PossiblytheywerepartlyofMongol-Tibetanorigin,andpartlythey mayhavebeena mixed race allied to theDravidians,and nowrepresentedbyGonds,Santals, Bhils,etc.TheDasyus,however,were not mere barbarians;fortheyhadtowns,and traces of at least apartialcivilisation; theyhad leaders or chiefspossessedofstrongfortifiedretreats,andthey possessedtreasures ofgoldand richjewels.4Whoevertheyweretheyseem to havebeen apeopleof less intellectualcapacity,lessmuscular,and less united than their invaders.When theAryansfirst entered Indiatheyseem to havefoundthemoccupyingthe wholevalleyof theGangesthe whole1In the'Ramayana'themonkey-soldiers are directed to the countriesof theAndhras, Pandyas,Cholas,andKeralas,in thesouth,andare toldtheywill there see thegateof thecityof thePandyasadorned withgoldandjewels.2'Tree andSerpent Worship,'pp. 244-247.1 'Dasyu'probably meant'provincial,''aboriginal,'and was used much as'Gentiles,' 'Pagans,' 'Barbarians,'inearlytimes.Theyare also termedYadvas,of which wemayhave asurvival in the'Jats.' A4ViviandeSaint Martin's'Etude surlaGeographicet lespopulations primi-tives du Nord-ouest de1'Inde, d'apreslesHymnes vediques.'i4HISTORY OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.countryin fact between theVindhyaand theHimalayaMountains. Atpresent theyareonlyfound inanythinglikepurityin the mountainrangesthat bound thatgreat plain.Theretheyare known asBhils, Gonds, Kandhs, Mundas,Oraons, Hos, Kols, Santals,Nagas,and other mountain andforest tribes. Butthey certainlyform the lowestunderlyingstratumof thepopulationover thewholeof theGangeticplain.So far as their affinities have beenascertained,theyare withthe trans-Himalayan population,and it either is thattheyentered Indiathroughthepassesof thatgreatmountainrange,or itmightbe more correct tosaythat the Tibetans are afragmentofagreatpopulationthatoccupiedboththenorthernand southernslopeof thatgreatchain of hills at someveryremotepre-historictime.Whoevertheywere,theywere thepeoplewho,in remotetimes,wereapparentlytheworshippersofTreesandSerpents;lbut what interests us more inthem,and makes theenquiryinto theirhistorymoredesirable,is that it was where thepeoplewerelargelyof thisaboriginalstock that Buddhismseems to have been mostreadily adopted,and it islargelyamongallied races that it is still adhered to. InCeylon,Tibet, Burma, Siam,and China wherever apeopleallied totheMongolorTibetanfamilyexists,thereBuddhismflourishedand stillprevails.But in India a revival of Brahmanismabolished it.Architecturally,thereis nodifficultyindefiningthelimitsoftheDasyuprovince: whereverasquaretower-liketempleexistswith aperpendicularbase,but a curvilinear outlineabove,suchasthatshown in thewoodcut(No. i),therewemavfeel certainof theexistence,pastorpresent,of apeopleofDasyuextrac-tion. Noone can accuse thepureAryansofintroducingthisformintoIndia,orofbuildingtemplesatall,orofworshippingimagesof Siva orVishnu,withwhichthesetemplesarefilled,andtheyconsequentlyhave little title to confer their nameonthestyle.TheAryanshad, however,become soimpureinblood before thesetempleswereerected,and were so mixedupwith theaboriginaltribes whosesuperstitionshad soinfluenced theirreligionand their arts thattheyacceptedtheirtempleswith theirgods.Be this as itmay,onethingseemstolerablyclear,that theregions occupied bytheAryansinIndia were conterminous with those of theDasyus, or,inother words, that theAryans conqueredthe whole of theaboriginalor native tribes whooccupiedtheplainsof northernIndia,and ruled over them to such an extent asmateriallyto1See'IndianAntiquary,'vol. iv.pp. 5f.INTRODUCTION.influencetheirreligionand theirarts,and alsoverymateriallytomodifyeven theirlanguage.Somuchso, indeed,thataftersome four thousandyearsof domination we should not besurprisedif we have somedifficultyinrecoveringtraces oftheoriginal population,and couldprobablynot doso,ifsomefragmentsof thepeoplehad notsought refugein thehills on the north and south of thegreat Gangetic plain,andthere haveremainedfossilised,oratleastsufficientlypermanentforpurposesofinvestigation.i. HinduTemple,atBahulara,nearBankura.SAISUNAGADYNASTY,ABOUT B.C.650TO318.Leaving these,whichmust,for thepresentatleast,beconsidered aspractically pre-historic times,we tread on surergroundwhen weapproachtheperiodwhenBuddhawasborn,anddevoted his life to solve theproblemofsufferingandtransmigration.There seems little reason fordoubtingthathe was born about theyear 560,taught duringthereignofBimbisara,the fifthkingof theSaLrunuga dynasty,and diedB.C.480,1at theageofeighty,in theeighthyearofAjatajatru,the sixthking.2New sources ofinformationregardingthese1Dr.J.F.Fleet,in'JournaloftheRoyalAsiaticSociety,' 1906, pp. 9845.the datesgivenarequitenearenough.The'MatsyaPurana'alone insertsf*r A.*/ i -7 )t'r" ^^t*.*tit,ifirtta^d.i u; una, luune inserisces thedeathorNirvanaof Buddhain thereignsofKanvSyananineyearsandB.C.482,with otherconnected dates injBhumimitra fourteenyearsbetween>rdance withit. For ourpurpose| BimbisaraandAjata-ratru.i6 HISTORY OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.times areopeningout,and wemaybeforelongbe able torecover afairlyauthentic account of thepoliticalevents ofthatperiod,and asperfectapictureof the manners and thecustoms of thosedays.It is tootrue, however,that thosewho wrote thebiographyof Buddha insubsequent agessooverlaid the narrative of his life with fables andabsurdities,that it is now difficult toseparatethe wheat from thechaff;butwehavesculpturesextendingbacktowithinthreecenturiesof hisdeath,at whichtimewemayfairlyassume that apurertraditionmayhaveprevailed.Fromwhathasalreadyoccurred,wemayhopetocreepeven further backthanthis,andeventu-allyto findearlyillustrations whichwill enable us to exerciseso sound a criticism on the books as to enable us to restorethe life ofBuddha to suchan extent as toplaceit on a basisofcrediblehistoricity.Immenseprogresshas been madeduringthe lastfiftyorsixty yearsininvestigatingtheoriginofBuddhism,and thepropagationof its doctrines inIndia,and incommunicatingtheknowledgesogainedto thepublicinEurope. More,how-ever,remains to be done before thestoryiscomplete,anddivested of all the absurdities whichsubsequentcommentatorshaveheaped uponit.Still,theleadingevents in the life ofthe founderofthereligionaresimple,andnowsufficientlywellascertained for allpractical purposes.1The founder of thisreligionwas claimedbytradition asone of the last of alongline ofkings,known as the Solardynasties,who,from aperiod shortlysubsequentto the adventoftheAryansintoIndia,hadheldparamountswayinAyodhyathemodernOudh. Aboutthe I2thorI3th centuryB.C.theyweresuperseded byanother race of much lesspurely Aryanblood,known as the Lunarrace,who transferred the seat ofpowertocapitalssituated in the northernpartsof the Doab.Butthe tradition of theroyalbirth ofSakyamunicanhardlybe sustainedhistorically.He seems to have been born atKapilavastu,at the foot of theHimalayas,as the son of1Themostpleasingof the historiesofBuddha,writtenwhollyfromaEuropeanpointofview,is that ofBarthelemySt.Hilaire,Paris. Of thosepartiallynative,partly European,are those ofBishop Bigandet,from the Burmeselegends,and the'RomanticHistoryofBuddha,'translated from the Chinesebythe Rev. S. Beal. The'LalitaVis-tara,'translatedby Foucaux,is moremodern thanthese,andconsequentlymore fabulous and absurd. In morerecentyearsalargeliterature hasappearedon thesubject.Prof. H.Oldenberg's'Buddha: hisLife,hisDoctrine,hisOrder,'translated fromtheGermanbyW.Hoey(1882)suppliesan able critical estimate of the teacher.Dr. H.Kern's'HistoryofBuddhism inIndia' has been translated into FrenchbyG. Huet(Paris, 1901-1903);andW. W. Rockhill's 'Life ofBuddha,and theEarly Historyof hisOrder,'1884,are also valuable works.INTRODUCTION.17apettychief. Fortwenty-nine yearshe isrepresentedasenjoyingthepleasures,andfollowingtheoccupations,usual tothe men ofhis rank andposition;but at thatage, becomingpainfullyimpressedbythemiseryincident to humanexistence,he determined to devote the rest of his life to anattemptto alleviate it. For thispurposehe forsook hisparentsandwife,abandoned friends and theadvantagesof hisposition,and,for thefollowing fifty years,devoted himselfsteadilytothe task he had set before himself. Years werespentinthe meditation and mortificationsupposedto benecessaryto fit him for his mission;the rest of hislonglife wasdevoted towanderingfromcitytocity, teachingandpreaching,anddoing everythingthatgentlemeans couldeffect to disseminate the doctrines which he believed weretoregeneratetheworld,and take thestingout of humanmisery.Hedied, or,in thephraseologyof hisfollowers,enteredNirvana or Parinirvana was absorbed intonothingnessatKujinara,in theeightieth yearof hisage,about480yearsB.C.With the information that has accumulated around thesubject,there seems nogreat difficultyinsurmising whythemission ofSakyamuniwas so successful as itprovedto be.Hewas born in anagewhen thepurityof theAryan races,especiallyin easternIndia,had become so deterioratedbyintermixture withaborigines,andwith lesspuretribescomingfrom thenorth,that theirpower,andconsequentlytheirdistinctive influence wasfading away.At thattime, too,thenative and mixed races hadacquiredsuch adegreeof civili-sation as led them to claimsomethinglikeequalitywiththeirAryanmasters. In such a condition ofthingsthepreacherwassure of awillingaudience whoignored caste,andtaughtthat allmen,ofwhatevernationordegree,hadanequalchanceofreachinghappiness,andultimatelyNirvana,bythepracticeofvirtue: in aword tobedeliveredfromthewearisomebondageof ritual or caste observances and thedepressing prospectofinterminabletransmigration. Aboriginalor TuranianDasyus,perhapseven morereadilythan the mixedAryans,wouldhail him as adeliverer,andbythe former the newreligionwasspecially adoptedandpropagated,whilst that of theBrahmanAryanswas,for a time atleast,overshadowed andobscured.It isbyno means clear howfar Buddha was successful inconvertingthe multitude to his doctrinesduringhislifetime.Athisdeath,the firstsynodor council was held atRajagriha,andfive hundred monks of asuperiororder,it issaid,wereVOL. i. Bi8 HISTORY OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.assembled there on thatoccasion,1and if sotheymust haverepresentedagreatmultitude. Buttheaccountsofthis,andofa secondconvocation,said,bythe southernBuddhists,to havebeenheldonehundredyearsafterwardsatVaijali,areof doubtfulauthenticity.Indeed, thewholeannalsofthe.Saijunagadynastyfrom the death ofBuddha till the accession ofChandragupta,dr. B.C.320,areabouttheleastsatisfactoryofthetime. ThoseofCeylonwere falsified in order tomakethelandingofVijaya,theallegedfirstconquerorfromKalinga,coincident with thedateof Buddha'sdeath,while aperiodofsomelength elapsedbetweenthetwoevents.2Wehaveannals, and wemaypossiblyrecoverinscriptions3andsculptures belongingto thisperiod,andthoughit is mostimprobablewe shall recoveranyarchi-tecturalremains,there arepossiblymaterialsexistingwhich,whenutilised,maysuffice for thepurpose.Thekingsof thisdynastyseem to havebeen considered asofalowcaste,andwerenot,consequently,in favoureitherwiththeBrahmanor,atthattime,withtheBuddhist;andnoeventswhichseemtohavebeenthoughtworthyofbeingremembered,exceptthesecondconvocation thefact ofwhich is doubtfularerecorded ashappeningin theirreigns,after the death ofthegreatAsceticor,at allevents,ofbeingrecorded insuchannalsaswepossess.MAURYADYNASTY,B.C.320TO 180.The case waswidelydifferent with theMaurya dynasty,whichwascertainlyone of the mostbrilliant,and isfortunatelyoneofthebestknown,of the ancientdynastiesof India. ThefirstkingwasChandragupta,theSandrokottosoftheGreeks,to1SeeRockhill,'Lifeof theBuddha,'p. 156;Kern's'HistoireduBouddhismedans1'Inde,'torn. ii.pp. 253ff. (Frenchtrans.).2Thereisanerrorof aboutsixtyyearsin theusualdate B.C.543,derivedfromtheSinghalese chronicles,which is else-wherecorrected. The reviseddatemaynot beprecisely correct,but it must beapproximatelyso.*WehavenoveryearlyHinducoins;theearliest aresquareoroblong punch-markedpieces,which seem to datefromabout acenturybeforeAlexander,andsupplyno historical data. ThelateMr.Ed. Thomassupposedacoin,bearingthe name ofAmoghabhuti,aKuninda,belongedtooneof the nineNandaswithwhom thisdynastyclosed('JournaloftheRoyalAsiaticSociety,'N.S.,vol. i.pp. 447ff.).It is nowknownthatsuchcoins do notbelongto a date earlierthanaboutB.C. 100. The earliest coinsof historical value for India are thoseof the Grseco-Baktrians and their con-temporariesor successors on the north-west frontier.INTRODUCTION.19whomMegastheneswas sent as ambassadorbySeleukos,thesuccessor of Alexander in the westernpartsof his Asiaticempire.It is from his narrative nowunfortunatelylost thattheGreeksacquiredalmostall theknowledge theypossessedofIndiaatthatperiod.1Thecountrywas then divided into 120smallerprincipalities,but theMaurya residingin Palibothra(Pataliputra)the modern Patna seems to have exercised aparamount swayover the whole. It wasnot, however,thisking,but hisgrandson,thegreatA^oka(B.C.262 to225),whoraised thisdynastyto itshighest pitchofprosperityandpower.Though utterlyunknown to theGreeks,we have from nativesources a morecomplete pictureof the incidents of hisreignthan ofanyancientsovereignof India. Thegreatevent thatmade him famous in Buddhisthistorywas his conversion tothatfaith,and the zealheshowed inpropagatingthe doctrinesof his newreligion.Hedid,infact,forBuddhism,whatConstantinedid forChristianity,andataboutthesamedistanceof time from the death ofthe founder of the faith. From astrugglingsect he made it thereligionof theState,andestablished it on thebasisonwhich it lastedsupremefornearly1000years.In order to render hissubjectsfamiliar with thedoctrinesofhis newfaith,hecaused a series of edictsembody-ingthem to beengravedonrocksnearPeshawar,inGujarat,inthevalleyofthe DunundertheHimalayas,inHazara,in KatakandGanjam,inMysore,and otherplaces.He held agreatconvocationorcouncilofthefaithfulin hiscapitalatPataliputra,and,on itsdissolution,missionaries were sent tospreadthereligionin theYavanacountry,whosecapitalwasAlexandria,near thepresent cityof Kabul. Others weredespatchedtoKashmirand Gandhara;one wassent to the Himawanta thevalleysof theHimalaya,andpossibly partof Tibet;othersweredespatchedto the Maharattacountry,and toMysore,toVanavasiinKanara,and toAparantakaor the north Konkan.Two missionaries were sent toSuvarnabhumi,now knownasThatunon theSitangriver,inPegu,and,traditionsays,hisown son anddaughterweredeputedtoCeylon.2All thosecountries,infact,whichmightbe calledforeign,were thensoughtto be converted to the faith. Healsoformedallianceswith Antiokhos theGreat,Antigonos,and withPtolemyPhiladelphos,Alexander ofEpeiros,andMagasofCyrene,1For thisperiod,see M'Crindle's|-'All theseparticulars,it needhardly'Ancient India as describedby Megasthenes and Arrian'(1877) ;the 'Inva-sion of IndiabyAlexander the Great'(1896);and'Ancient Indiaas describedin Classical Literature'(1901).besaid,are taken from the 1 2th and15thchaptersofthe'Mahawansa,'whichrelates thetraditionsof atime six centuriesandmorebefore itscomposition.20 HISTORY OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.for the establishment ofhospitalsand theprotectionof hisco-religionistsin their countries. More than allthis,he builtinnumerabletopesorstupasand monasteries all over thecountry; and,thoughnoneof thosenowexistingcanpositivelybe identified as thoseactuallybuiltby him,there seems noreason fordoubtingthat thesculpturedrails atBodh-GayaandBharaut,the caves at Barabar inBihar,some ofthose atUdayagiriinKatak,and the oldest of those in the WesternGhatswereall erectedorexcavatedduringtheexistence of thisdynasty,if not under himself.These,withinscriptionsandsuchhistoriesasexist, makeupamassofmaterials forapictureofIndiaduringthisdynastysuchasnoothercanpresent ; and,aboveall, theyoffer acomplete representationof thereligiousforms and beliefs of thekingsandpeople,which renderanymistakeregardingthemimpossible.1It wasBuddhism,butwithouta deifiedBuddha,and with Tree andSerpent worshipcroppingupineveryunexpectedcorner.Thereiscertainlynodynastyin the wholerangeofancientIndianhistorythat would betterrepaythe labour of anexhaustiveinvestigationthan that of theseMaurya kings.Notonlyweretheythe first in historical timeswho,so faras weknow,unitednearlythe whole of India into onegreatkingdom,buttheywerepracticallythefirstwhocamein contactwithEuropeancivilisation and Westernpolitics.More thaneventhis,it isprobablyowingto the action ofthe thirdkingof thisdynastythatBuddhism,frombeingthereligionofanobscuresect, became,at onetime,the creed of solargeaproportionofthehumanrace,andinfluencedthe belief and themoralfeelingsofsuchmultitudesof menin Asia.It is tothisdynasty,and to itonly,thatmustbeappliedallthosepassagesin classical authors which describe the internalstateofIndia, andtheyareneitherfewnorinsignificant. ThoughtheHindusthemselvescannotbesaidtohavecontributedmuchhistory,theyhavegiven us,in thecMudra-Rakshasa,'2apoeticalversionof thecausesof the revolution thatplacedtheMauryasonthe throne.But,puttingtheseaside,their owninscriptionssupplyus with aperfectlyauthenticcontemporaryaccount ofthereligiousfaithandfeelingsoftheperiod;whilethenumerousbas-reliefs of the rails at Bodh-Gayaand Bharaut afford apictureofthemanners,customs,andcostumesoftheday,andagaugebywhichwecan measure their artistic status andjudgehowfar their art wasindigenous,howfar influencedbyforeign1For fuller information about ArokareferencemaybemadetoEdm.Hardy'sKonigAsoka,'andV.A.Smith's 'Asoka,theBuddhistEmperorofIndia.'2Wilson's'HinduDrama,'in'Works,'vol. xii,pp. 151et siedition1871.hisINTRODUCTION. 21elements. The dates of thekingsof thisdynastyare alsoapproximatelyknown,andthewholeframeworkoftheirhistorydependssocompletelyoncontemporarynativemonuments,thatthereneedbenorealuncertaintyregarding anyof the outlinesof thepicturewhen once thesubjectisfairly graspedandthoroughlyhandled.It is thefirmeststandpointwe havefromwhichtojudgeofIndiancivilisationandhistory,whetherlookingtothepastortothefuture,and it is one thatgivesavery highidea of thepositionat which the Hindus had arrived beforetheycamepracticallyinto contact with the civilisation ofthe West.SUNGADYNASTY,B.C. 180 TO70.KANWAYANADYNASTY,B.C.70TO36.Historyaffords us littlebeyondthelengthsof thekings'reignsfor the nexttwodynasties,and we areobligedto trustto thegeneralcorrectness with which these are recorded in thePuranas,andbydegreeswe arecollecting inscriptions,andweknowofcavesthatbelongtotheirtime,sothatwemayhopetobreathe life into what has hithertoappearedonlyadrylist ofnames.Possiblythe Kanwas hadusurpedthepowerof theSungas,sothatthetwofamiliesmayhave beennominallycon-temporary duringtheperiod assignedto thelatter,and thatboth came to an end about40B.C.Anyhowwe know thattheAndhrashadrisen topoweron the declineoftheMauryas.Thesedynastieswerenot, however, apparentlyknown to theGreeks,andpossibly,being Buddhist,arepassedover in com-parativesilence in the Puranas. It is thusonlyfrom theirmonumentsthatwecanhopeto recover theirhistory. Uptothepresent time,the mostimportant inscriptiondiscovered isthatofaprinceDhanabhutiwho"in the time oftheSungas"erected agatewayat theBharautstupa.ANDHRADYNASTY,ABOUT B.C.170TO A.D. 220.Thedynastythat ruled the Dekhan atleast,contemporarywith these Rois faineants is after theMauryasthe mostimportantofall thoseabout thisperiodof Indianhistory.Totheclassical authorstheyare known as theAndrae,in thePuranasasAndhrabhrityas,andin theinscriptionsas.Satakarnisor.Satavahanas;but under whatevername,notwithstandingoccasionalperiodsofdepression,they playeda mostimportantpartin thehistoryofIndia,duringmore than four centuries.Theywere aSouth-Indiandynasty,first mentioned in aHISTORY OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.Khandagiri inscriptionabout B.C.I5O.1Theircapitalwas atDhSnyakataka,on the lowerKrishna,close to Amaravati;but,at a laterdate,theyhad a secondcapitalat Paithan ontheupperGodavari.Theyruled over Malwa and theDekhanfrom sea tosea,but about the end of the 1st orbeginningof the 2ndcenturytheprovincesnorth of the Narbada seemtohavebeenconquered bySaka.satraps,whowereoverthrownabout A.D.125, by Gautamiputra Satakarni,who raised thedynastyto theheightof itspower.Thekingsof this racehave, however,leftmanyand mostinteresting inscriptionsinthewesterncaves,and traces of their existence occur inmanypartsofIndia.Architecturally,theirhistory beginswith thegatewaysof theTopeat Sanchi;the southern of these was almostcertainlyerectedduringthereignof the first Satakarni aboutthe middle of the 2ndcenturybefore our era and the otherthree in the course of thatcentury.It ends with the com-pletionoftherail atAmaravati, whichwasprobably commencedin the istcentury,andcompletedbeforetheendofthe2nd.2Between these two monuments there is nogreat difficultyinfilling upthe architecturalpicturefrom thecaves,atNasik,Kanheri andAjanta,and otherplacesin westernIndia,andmore materialsmaystilleventuallybe discovered.Thehistoryofthisdynastyis morethanusuallyinterestingforourpurposes,as it embracesnearlythewholeperiodduringwhichBuddhismreignedalmostsupremein India. Itbecamea Statereligion,it istrue,somewhat earlier underA^oka,butthere is no reason forbelievingthat the VedicreligionorBrahmanism then vanished.Duringfour or fivecenturies,however,after the A-roka Erawe have not a trace ofa Hindubuildingorcave,and,so far asanymaterial evidencegoes,itseemsthatBuddhism at thetimewas thepredominantreligionoftheland. It isnot,ofcourse,to besupposedthattheHinducult waswhollyobliterated,but it wasdormant,andinabeyance,and,touse a Buddhistexpression,theyellowrobes shoneoverthelengthandbreadthoftheland.It wasduringthe rule oftheseAndhras,thoughnotbythem,that the fourth convocation was heldbyKanishka,inthe north ofIndia,and the newdoctrine,theMahayana,1 'EpigraphiaIndica,'vol. ii.pp.88-89.2For fuller details of theSanchiandAmaravatiStupas,the reader is referredto 'Tree andSerpent Worship,'whichispracticallydevoted to adescriptionof them. For a further account ofAmaravati,and a rectification of thedates in accordance with later dis-coveries,referencemaybemadeto'TheAmaravati andJaggayapetaStupas'(1887);and to Dr. R. G. Bhandarkar's'EarlyDekhanDynasties'intheBombayGazetteer,vol. i.pt.ii.INTRODUCTION.23introducedby Nagarjunaachangesimilar to that madebyGregorytheGreatwhen heestablished theChurch,asopposedto theprimitiveforms ofChristianity,at about the same dis-tanceof timefromthedeathof thefounderof thereligion.Thisconvocation wasprobablyheld about B.C.40.Certain at leastitis,that it wasabout,orverysoonafter,that time thatBuddhism was firstpracticallyintroduced intoChina, Tibet,andBurma,andapparently bymissionaries sent out from thisastheywerefromtheA^okaconvocation.KSHATRAPAS OFKATHIAWAR,A.D. I2O TO388.GUPTAS, 320TO ABOUT535.VALABHIS,ABOUT600 TO770.The Andhrasdisappearfromhistory earlyin the3rdcentury;theKshatrapasofGujaratheldswayin the westfor acenturyand a halflonger,whentheyweresupersededbytheGupta dynastywho,at the end ofthe4th centuryofourera,seem to have attained to thepositionof lordsparamountin northern India.Theydate theirinscriptions,which are numerous andinteresting,from an era establishedbytheGupta king,ChandraguptaI.,dating242yearsaftertheSaka era ofA.D.78,or in320 ;but it was notapparentlytillunder the thirdking, Samudragupta,about380,thattheyreallyobtained theempireof northernIndia,whichtheyretained till the death ofSkandagupta,about theyear 465,or itmaybe a little later.1ItwasduringthereignoftheGuptasthat FahHianvisitedIndia(A.D. 400).As hisobjectsindoingso wereentirelyofareligiousnature,he does not allude toworldly politics,norgiveus aking'sname we canidentify ;but thepicturewegatherfrom his narrative is one ofpeaceandprosperityinso faras thecountryisconcerned,and ofsupremacygenerallyfor hisreligion.Hereticsare,it istrue,mentionedoccasionally,buttheyare few and far between. Buddhism was then thereligionof thenorth,especiallyin the north-west of India;but even then there weresymptomsofachangein thecentralprovincesandoutlyingpartsofthecountry.It isduringtheir rule thatwe firstperceiveinhighplacesthegermsof thatchangewhich wasgradually creepingoverthereligious systemof India. That theGuptaswere notinimical to Buddhismmaybe inferred from thegiftsthatAmarakardava,an officer ofChandragupta II.,made to the1TheGuptasand theirinscriptionshavebeendealtwithbyDr.J.F.Fleet,in hiswork,'InscriptionsoftheEarlyGuptaKings,'Corp.Inscr.Ind.,vol. iii.24HISTORY OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.stupaat Sanchi in theyearA.D.412,and recorded on the railof thatMonument,but their otherinscriptions,on the lats atAllahabad,Junagadh,andBhitari,show a decidedtendencytowards Hinduism of the Vaishnavaform,but which wasstillfarremovedfromthewildextravagancesofthePuranas. Thereseems little doubt that the boar atEran,and thebuildingsthere,belongto thisdynasty,and areconsequentlyamongtheearliest if not theveryoldesttemplesinIndia,dedicated tothe newreligion,which was thenraisingits head in defianceto Buddhism.Fromtheir coins andinscriptions,wemayfeel certain thattheGuptas possessed,when in theplenitudeof theirpower,thewhole of northern India with theprovinceofGujarat,buthowfartheboastsofSamudragupta(3/0-380)ontheAllahabadpillarwerejustifiedisbyno means clear. If thatinscriptionis to bebelieved,the whole of the southerncountryas far asCeylon,togetherwith,orupto thebordersof AsamandNepal,weresubjecttotheirsway.Howeverbrilliantitmay havebeen,theirpowerwas of short duration.Gujarat,withKathiawar,fromabout A.D.500,was heldbythe MaitrakasofValabhi,atfirst as feudatories oftheGuptas,but,as theparamountpowerdeclined,the Valabhi chiefsgraduallyassumedindependence,and founded aseparate kingdom,which sometimes includedwesternMalwa,and lasted into the middleof the8thcentury.Althoughit was evident in the time of theGuptasthatachangewascreepingover thereligiousbelief ofIndia,it wasnot then that the blow was struck whicheventually provedfatal,butbyadynastywhichsucceededthemin Central India.THESIXTH CENTURYAND AFTER.TheGupta powerseems to havegiven waybefore theinroadsofSakas orHuns,chieflyunderToramanaandhis sonMihirakula,who succeeded him about515,and was a bitterpersecutorof the Buddhists in the North-West. A coalitionwasformedagainsthim,and underYa^odharmanofUjjainhewastotallydefeated about530.At thisperiodthe'Raja-tarangini'describesVikramaditya-HarshaofUjjainas solesovereignofIndia,thedestroyerof theSakas,andpatronofpoets,whoplaced Matriguptaon the throne of Kashmir. Itispossiblethat this Yajodharman andVikramadityaareonlybirudas or titles of the samesovereign,whomayhave ruledtill550orthereabouts.1Further,theperiodseems tosuggest1Taranitha states thatVikramaditya-IMlechchhas,massacringthemaiMultan,Harsha abolished theteachingof the|and was succeededbyilia. The Man-INTRODUCTION.that thismayhave been thatVikramaditya,who,byhisliberalityandmagnificence, acquireda renownamongtheHindus,onlysecond to that obtainedbySolomonamongtheJews. Byhispatronageof literature and hisencouragementofart,his famespreadover thelengthand breadth of theland,and to thisdayhis name isquotedas thesymbolofall that isgreatandmagnificentin India. What is more toourpresent purpose,he was an undoubtedpatronof theBrahmanicalreligion,and no tradition associates his namedirectlyorindirectlywithanythingconnected with Buddhism.Unfortunatelywe have nobuildingswhich can be attributedto him. But the main fact of a Brahmanicalking reigningandacquiringsuch influence in Central Indiaat thattimemaybesignificantofthedecliningpositionofthe Buddhistreligionat thatperiod.Hissuccessor,Pratapa-rila-Siladitya's reignwould fall aboutthe end of the 6thcentury,and he isspokenofbyHiuenTsiangas apatronofBuddhism.1Butit wasusualwithHindukingstoshowfavour tothe various sectsamongtheirsubjectsindiscriminately,and the Chinesepilgrim'sstatement thatduringhislong reignof aboutsixty yearshe honoured theBuddhists and theirdoctrines,is noproofof hispersonalreligiouscreed.Inthebeginningofthenextcentury,aftera shortperiodofanarchy,we find anotherSiladitya,Harsha-varddhana,seatedon the throne ofKanauj,and,duringaprosperous reignofaboutforty years (606-646), exercising supreme swayin thatcountry.It wasduringhisreignthat the Chinesepilgrim,HiuenTsiangvisitedIndia,andgavea muchmore full andgraphicaccountofwhathesawthan hispredecessorFahHian.Nothingcan be more characteristic of the state ofreligiousfeeling,andthespiritoftolerationthenprevailing,thanthefetegiven bythiskingatPrayagaor Allahabad in theyear 643,at which thekingsofValabhi andKamarupa (Asam)werepresent.The firstdaysof the festival were devoted to thedistribution,amongthe followers ofBuddhism,ofthetreasuresaccumulatedduringthepreviousfiveyears,and thencametheturnoftheBrahmans,whowere treatedwithequalhonourandliberality ;then followed the fete of the othersects,amongwhom theJains appear conspicuous.All were feasted anddasorinscriptionsof A.D.532-534,describeYarodharman as onewhoruledfrom theBrahmaputrato the westernocean,and to whom even Mihirakulapaid^homage.King Bhoja,thepatronofKalidasaandothers,maybe thesameprinceunderathirdname;andBallala-mLrrasayshereignedforfifty-fiveorfifty-six years.1Conf.'JournaldesSavants,'Oct.1905, pp. 534-548 ;andBeal,'BuddhistRecords,'vol. ii.pp.261, 267.26 HISTORY OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.feted,and sentawayladen withgiftsand mementoes of themagnificenceandliberalityof thegreat king.Pleasant as thispictureis to lookupon,it is evident thatsuch a state of affairs couldhardlybestable,and it was invain toexpectthatpeacecouldlongbe maintained betweenarisingand ambitioussect,and onewhichwas fastsinkingintodecay; apparentlybeneath the load of anovergrown priest-hood.Accordinglywe find that tenyearsafter the death ofHarsha troublessupervenedasprophesied,1and the curtainsoon descends on thegreatdrama of thehistoryofnorthernIndia,not to be raisedagainfornearlythree centuries. Itistrue,wecan still followthehistoryof the Valabhis forsometimelonger,and it would besatisfactoryif we could fix thedate of their destruction withprecision,as it was the eventwhichin the Hindu mind is considered theclosingact ofthedrama. If it wasdestroyed byaforeign enemy,it must havebeenbythe Moslimperhaps bysomeexpeditionunderAmruibnJamal,thegeneralofHasham,ibnAmrualTaghlabi,who was ruler of Sindh about757to776.2Valabhi was aflourishing cityin640,when visitedbyHiuenTsiang,andfromthattime,till the end ofnextcentury,the Moslimswerein suchpoweron theIndus,and their historians tell us theevents of theseyearsin suchdetail,that no otherforeignercouldhavecrossedthe riverduringthatperiod.Ifitperishedbysome internal revolution ofconvulsion,which isprobable,itonlyshared the fate that overtook all northern India aboutthisperiod. Strangetosay,even theMoslims,then in theplenitudeof theirpower duringthe Khalifat ofBaghdad,retired fromtheir Indianconquests,as if theseethingcauldronweretoohotfor eventhemtoexistwithin its limits.Themoresoutherndynastyof theWesternChalukyasseemto have retained theirpowerdown to about757,andmay,uptothattime,have exercised apartial swayto the northof theNarbada,butafterthatwelose allsightofthemformorethantwo centuries till973when thedynastywas restored underTailaII.; while,as aclosingact in thegreatdrama,the'Rajatarangini'boastfully representsthekingof KashmirLalitadityaMuktapida(cir.725-762)asdefeatingYajovarmanofKanauj,conqueringIndiafromnorthtosouth,andsubjectingall the fivekingdoms,into which it wasnominallydivided,to hisimperious sway.Weneednotstopnowtoenquirewhether thiswasexactly1'VieetVoyagesdeHiouenThsang,''Elliot and Dowson's'Historyoftrans,byStanislasJulien,torn. i.p. 215; India,'vol. i.p. 444.orBeal,'Lifeof HiuenTsiang,' p. 156.INTRODUCTION.27whathappenedor not. It is sufficient forpresent purposestoknow that about the middle of the 8thcenturya dark cloudsettled over the north ofIndia,and thatduringthe next twocenturies she was torn topieces byinternaltroubles,whichhave leftnothingbutnegativeevidence of their existence.Duringthatperiodthe Rashtrakutakingsin theDekhan,havingoverthrown the WesternChalukyas,extended theirdominions from theVindhyasto theTungabhadraandKrishnarivers,if not even farthersouth,wagingwar withtheCholas. Butafterfullytwo centuries of successfuldomina-tion,theywere overthrown in973 bythe laterChalukyasof Maharashtra. In the north were a number of smallerkingdomsas the Chandellas inBundelkhand,the KalachurisofChedi,the Paramaras ofMalwa,the Palas ofBengal,etc.Whenlightagainappearsin themiddleof the lothcenturythe scene iswonderfully changed.Buddhism hadpracticallydisappearedin the north and west atleast,thoughit stilllingeredon inBengal,andJainismhadsupplantedit in mostplaces;but the mass of thepeoplehad become followers ofVishnu or Siva. Newdynastieshad arisenwhich, thoughthey tryto trace theirlineageback to the troublous timeswhen Valabhifell,were new to Indianhistory.Old Indiahadpassed away,and thehistoryofmodern India was abouttoopen.The olddynastieshad becomeextinct,and theRajputraces weregaily steppingforward to assume theirplacestoosoon,alas ! to beengagedin a life or deathstrugglewiththemostimplacablefoe totheirraceandreligionthat India has ever known. It was a cruel Nemesis thattheir victories over the Buddhists should soon have beenfollowedbythe fatalsiegeof Somnath in1025,and thefighton the banks of theGhagharin1193,whichpracticallylaid India at the feet of the Mosliminvader,andchangedthe whole course of hersubsequentcareer.But,as hintedabove,with theappearanceof the Moslim on thescene,ourchronologicaldifficultiescease,and thesubjectneed notthere-forebefurtherpursuedin this introduction.IMMIGRATIONS.From the above brief sketch of ancient Indianhistoryitmaybegatheredthat it is doubtful whether we shall ever beable to clothe with solid flesh the skeleton ofhistorywhich isall wepossessanterior to the advent of Buddha. It is alsopossiblethatpiousfraudsmayhave so confused thesequenceof eventsbetween his death and the rise of theMauryas,that28 HISTORY OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.there will begreat difficultyinrestoringthatperiodtoany-thinglikecompleteness.But for the thousandyearsthatelapsedbetween "therevengeofChanakya"and the fall ofValabhi the materials areample,and when sufficientindustryisappliedto their elucidation there is little doubt that thewholemaybe made clear andintelligible.It does not fallwithin thescopeof this work toattemptsuch a task;but itisnecessaryto endeavour to make its outlinesclear, as,with-outthisbeingdone,what followswill beutterlyunintelligible ;while,atthesametime,oneoftheprincipalobjectsofthisworkis topointout how thearchitecture,which is oneimportantbranch of the evidence and the best aid we can have to theteachingofhistory, maybebroughtto bear on thesubject.No directevidence,however,derivedonlyfrom events thatoccurredin Indiaitself,would suffice to make thephenomenaofherhistory clear,withouttakinginto account the successivemigrationsoftribes andpeopleswho,in allages,so far asweknow, pouredacross the Indus from the westward tooccupyherfertileplains.As mentionedabove,thegreatmaster fact thatexplainsalmostall weknowoftheancienthistoryof India is ourknow-ledgethattwothousandyearsormorebeforethebirthofChristaSanskrit-speakingnationmigratedfrom thevalleysof theOxusandJaxartes. Theycrossed the Indus in suchnumbersastoimpresstheir civilisation and theirlanguageonthewholeof thenorthofIndia,and this to such an extentaspracticallytoobliterate,as far ashistoryisconcerned,theoriginalinhabitants of thevalleyof theGanges,whoeverthey mayhave been. At the time when thismigrationtookplacethepowerand civilisation of Central Asia were concentrated onthe lowerEuphrates,and theBabylonian empirenever seemstohaveextendedacross the Karmanian desert totheeastward.Theroad,consequently,between Baktria and Indiawasopen,andnationsmight passandre-passbetweenthetwocountrieswithoutfearofinterruptionfromanyotherpeople.Ifanyof theancientdynastiesofBabyloniaextendedtheirpowertowards theEast,it wasalongthe coast ofGedrosia,and not in anorth-easterlydirection. Itis, indeed,bynomeansimprobable,as hintedabove,that theoriginof theDravidiansmaybefoundamongsomeoftheTuranianpeopleswhooccupiedsouthern and eastern Persia in ancienttimes,and whomay,eitherbysea orland,havepassedto thewestern shores ofIndia.Till, however,further information isavailable,this is merespeculation, though probablyin thedirection in which truthmayhereafter be found.Whentheseat ofpowerwas moved northward toNineveh,INTRODUCTION.29theAssyriansseem to haveoccupiedthecountryeastward oftheCaspianin sufficient force toprevent anyfurthermigration