A Brief History of Urban PlanningPrior to the 18th century, the vast majority of cities and towns had populations of about two to three thousand people, with 85-90% of the population living in small agricultural hamlets and villages of 300-400 people scattered across the countryside. Generally, a market town would likely develop at a suitable place to serve the needs of the surrounding villages - usually defined as being within a convenient one-days walk (approximately 12 miles). This was of course back in the days when farmers brought their goods to market on donkeys or horse-drawn carts so that populations needed to live close to the land that fed them - thus limiting the size of cities and towns. As a general rule, what larger cities and towns that did exist at this time in history generally had their origin as either A) a consolidation of several neighboring villages; B) a key transportation point (such as a river-crossing or harbor); or C) proximity to a power-center such as a castle, palace or key religious institution.In pre-industrial Europe of that time, there were perhaps 20-30 cities in the 10-20,000 population range with another half-dozen in the 50-150,000 range (Florence, Rome, Milan, Venice, Paris & London). In every case, these larger urban centers were located either on the coast or on navigable rivers - a necessity for food supply given the lack of refrigeration. All of these old cities and towns have intricate and complicated street patterns in their oldest districts - often called organic pattern as the streets generally follow the topography of the land - twisting and turning in odd directions.It is only with the advent of the 18th century industrial revolution where we see the beginning of a steep rise in urban development and city sizes. The city is where industry was usually located or developed and this attracted more and more people looking for work and/or higher wages or opportunities. Thus, throughout the 18th & 19th centuries, urban populations all over Europe and North America rose rapidly, with London and Paris passing the million mark by 1800 and many other cities in the 100,000-500,000 population range. Even at this time, all of these large cities were located upon coastlines or navigable rivers.Between 1840 and 1960, a veritable spider web of canals, railroads and highways was laid down across Europe and North America. With the assistance of electrical power and the wonders of refrigeration, it was now possible for many cities to grow ever larger, outgrowing the old need for coastlines and navigable rivers. Elaborate systems for the supply of fresh water, sewage, garbage, public health services and public transit were developed to address the needs of a vast growing metropolis.

THE GRAND MANNER OR BAROQUE STYLEThe first notable trend in urban planning arises with renaissance era political authorities, most notably absolutist-minded princes of Europe, seeking to fortify or to perfect their capitol cities. The spoked wheel was deemed to be the most perfect city shape for the purpose of military and civil defence - to allow easy routes for the movement of troops to quell riots in the center of the city - or to move rapidly to defend the walls against external enemies. The city of Palmanova in Italy (built 1593-1623) is an almost perfectly preserved example of this type of radial starburst design with extensive fortifications and outworks.But military and civil control were not the only driving passions of these renaissance princes. Artwork and beautification were also high on their minds, with figures such as Michelangelo laying out new streetscapes in Rome. In the hands of a great artist, these new corridor streets became Grand Avenues, cutting through the old fabric of the organic city and linking together key landmarks with well placed sight-lines for optimal viewing pleasure and taking advantage of dramatic topography. Wherever possible, these avenues were set wide to admit of being lined with trees. Monuments, Cathedrals, Government Buildings, Palaces or Museums would serve as focal points for these avenues and promenades. Plazas, gardens, waterfalls, equestrian statues and/or public fountains used for dramatic effect in marking the route. These grand avenues would serve for ceremonial processions of the princely power. This Baroque or Grand Manner style is also often associated with neo-classical architecture, with a focus upon symmetry, marble columns and government buildings that look like ancient Roman Temples.Rome (Renaissance & Mussolini eras), Paris (post-Haussmann), Versailles, Washington D.C., and St. Petersburg are some of the most notable examples of this Grand Manner in urban design applied in practice.

THE GOTHIC REVIVALIn the face of growing problems associated with the early industrial city, such as high-density urban slums, poor health and sanitary conditions, industrial pollution and smog, one of the first attempted solutions was a throwback to the now cherished medieval past. Thus was born the idea of the industrial village - patterned upon an old medieval village. Instead of peasants in their cottages working in the feudal lords fields, we had workers in their cottages (or dormitories) working in the company factory - away from the ugliness of the newly industrial city. A focus upon planned picturesque suburbs is associated with this period - a reaction against the ugliness of the industrial revolution and the absolutist political character of the Grand Manner. This trend or style that is called Gothic Revival celebrates the human scale and seeks to recreate the natural organic street pattern of old medieval towns and villages. In many ways, this style or trend is anti-city as it seeks to escape from urban squalor by working with a smaller scale in the countryside, and taking advantage of modern forms of transportation - such as canals and railroads - to link up with distant markets. This era also coincides with a revival of medieval-gothic styles of architecture in residential as well as institutional buildings. Government legislature buildings in many British colonies display this favoured style of the 19th century.THE CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT: GARDEN CITIES OF TOMORROWSetting up a series of small industrial villages in the manner of the small English mill or mining towns was only partially successful because the enormous scale of industrial production required, or encouraged, ever larger cities as centers of production and consumption. While elaborate sewage systems and public health services went a long way to curbing the worst problems, many challenging problems remained. Big industrial cities were deemed to be inhuman in scale, reducing human beings to mere cogs in a machine. Big industrial cities were still decried as filthy, polluted and congested.The first signs of this new response to the ugliness of the industrial city comes in the form of several late 19th century plans for new ideal cities laid out in an entirely different pattern.. The various parts of a city were to be separated and isolated into industrial, commercial, public service and residential zones - insulated from each other with greenbelts of parklands and plenty of trees. Straight arterial roadways would carry the traffic, while low density residential zones would be laid out with meandering or curving streets reminiscent of the medieval village. Riverside, Illinois and Glendale, Ohio are two notable 19th century examples from the USA of this type of ideal planned town. Frederick Law Olmsted was a noted practitioner of this style and his design for Central Park in NYC are considered a classic example of this new style.In 1898 Ebenezer Howard published his landmark book To-Morrow, A Peaceful Path to Social Reform - later renamed and republished in the USA as Garden Cities of To-Morrow. Here the ideal of the self-contained and modestly scaled city is laid out with precision. Howard believed that this style of urban planning was really only possible with socialistic or communal property laws. Nevertheless, Unwin & Parker, two early 20th century British urban planners, picked up on Howards ideas and put many of them into practice with traditional private property holdings. The most notable example is Letchworth in England, a garden-city commuter town served by rail from London. In the 1920s & 30s, many of these garden-city inspired commuter suburbs were built all over England, France and North America, surrounded by green-belts of parkland.THE MODERNIST CITYDeveloped around the same time as the ideas of Garden Cities, and in response to the same problems of the industrial monster city, Modernism in urban planning goes in the opposite direction as that of the Garden Cities. Modernism celebrated the density, excitement and egalitarianism of the modern city and strove to improve upon it with new ways of urban living. Many noted modernist architects criticised the old European cities as tradition-bound and inefficient for modern living. Modernism required new open spaces to showcase modern skyscrapers and an efficient traffic network. Le Corbusier (a notable French modernist architect) made many practical suggestions for a graduated road-network (fast traffic on arterial roadways, local traffic on smaller side streets and a network of pathways to serve pedestrian traffic) to serve the needs of modern living.Modernism in urban planning also came to be associated with large scale renewal projects after WWII in both Europe and North America. Many large bombed out cities or decrepit industrial slums were bulldozed and laid down as if new - with huge blocks of residential buildings and efficient road networks.CITIES OF TODAYThe one thing that is most notable in many of todays larger cities is that all of the styles described here are often all present together and co-existing. Certainly the City Beautiful movement admired several aspects of the Grand Manner - as well as having its roots in The Gothic Revival movement. Modernism has placed its stamp with a network of highways and system of graduated roads, along with forests of glass skyscrapers and odd-shaped cantilevered buildings. And once again, there is a gothic revival of sorts going on with a popular movement towards preserving older buildings, building on a smaller or more human scale and mixed-use zoning laws with less reliance (and favortism) upon automobiles for inner city transportation. One thing is certain - large urban cities remain as popular as ever with major cities continuing to grow ever larger as more and more people are attracted to the bright lights of the big city.

Our Iloilo CityHistory of Urban Growth of Iloilo CityPre-Spanish PeriodAs with other civilizations, Filipino settlements began along bodies of water. In Iloilo, the typical dwelling was the hut made of bamboo and grass or palm, which lined up along the coasts or the banks of Jaro, Iloilo and Batiano Rivers. Rich landscape of forests, ricefields, mountains or brush and bamboo thicket provided the natives with materials for clothing, shelter and tools. The simple ways of Ilonggos were reflected in the lack of public buildings or places of worship.Spanish PeriodUnder Spanish colonization the early type of dispersed settlement called barangays evolved into towns (pueblos) and provinces (alcaldias). Parish churches, beside the nearby town hall (casa tribunal) and town plaza, became the heart of town plans. From the town center, residences filled up the streets which radiated in a grid-iron pattern. Today, the town plaza remains a center of public and religious celebrations.The seat of government was first set up along the coastlines of Arevalo, which was always under the threat of Muslim or Dutch pirates. Political survival prompted the Spaniards to transfer the seat to Ogtong (now Oton) and eventually near the mouth of Iloilo River (now Fort San Pedro). Since its establishment, a radial road network which radiates from the fort is still being used today.American PeriodIn Iloilo, the American Period brought about further economic development through road networks. The British cannot only be credited for strengthening the booming sugar industry. In 1857, Nicholas Loney, the first British vice-consul in Iloilo, was responsible for the kilometer long Road Calle Progreso (now Isidro de Rama Street), which linked the warehouse (bodegas) of sugar with the Iloilo towns. Loney also led the gradual reclamation of the whole western bank of the river and eventual relocation of the business center to the nearby Calle Real (now J.M. Basa Street).The 1920s witnessed the introduction of the working class districts (barrio obreros) to accommodate the low-income labor sector. Barrio Obrero was established in Lapaz to the north of the Iloilo Rivers mouth. During this time, Art Nouveau and Neo-Colonial architecture also flourished in the citys downtown. Typical designs were arcaded ground floors set back in near straight alignments.Although Manila was the focus of planning then, Iloilo was elevated as chartered city on 16 July 1937. During this time, Ilonggos, who received American grants to study architecture abroad, returned and brought American architecture to their homes. Usual Commonwealth elements were the eagle, scroll and olive leaves.By the end of World War II, Iloilos blooming economy was in ruins. The decline in sugar economy and exodus of people and investors to other cities such as Bacolod and Cebu, led further to its economic demise.Iloilo gradually recovered as the planning focus was on reconstructing and reviving war-torn Philippines. In 1959, Iloilo City joined other chartered cities in implementing the urban planning strategies and policies of the National Planning Commission.Modern PeriodThe next three decades saw the moderate growth of Iloilo City with the establishment of fish ports, an international seaport, and other commercial firms. Iloilo City also became the Regional Center of Western Visayas.In 1977, a Comprehensive Urban Development Plan for Iloilo City was approved and was adopted by the Sangguniang Panlungsod. The Land Use Plan and Zoning Ordinance was the implementing tool. However, the 1977 Plan was unable to cope with the demands of rapid urbanization.By the end of 1993, a multi-sectoral group prepared the 1994-2010 Comprehensive Development Plan of Iloilo City to amend the old plan and address the present and future challenges of urban development. The plan, however, was not carried pending the approval of the Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board (HLURB).The word Iloilo City came from the shape of the city, cut by the river which looks like the shape of a nose, Irong-Irong, nose-like, later became Iloilo. Other accounts point the origin of the name to a fish.Monicker:Most Loyal and Noble City or La Muy Leal Y Noble Ciuded de Iloilo in Spanish. This is an inscription in the Coat of Arms from the Royal Decree of 1896 in recognition of the peoples loyalty to the Spanish crown.A replica of the Spanish Crown architechtural structure can be seen in the Arevalo District of the City.Zip code:5000Area Code:33Land Area:78.34 square kilometersPopulation:442,511 (projected SEP 2010)Population Density:5,649 persons per square kilometer (Updated as of 2011 projection)Number of Households: 85,518 (2007 Census)Population Growth:1.86% (2007 Cesus)Coastline Area:21.3 kilometersRiverfront:113 kilometersLiteracy Rate:92.8 %Lingua franca:Filipino, Hiligaynon, Kinaray-a, English

Economic activity:Service sector : 82%Industry : 14%Agriculture : 4%ClimateIloilo Citys climate is monsoonal and has two (2) pronounced seasons namely, the dry and wet seasons.The following are the tables of the 2009 Meteorological Profile, Climatological Data and the Tropical Cyclones.

Political BoundariesThe City of Iloilo is composed of six (6) Districtsand One Hundred Eighty (180) barangays, namely:

DistrictNo. of BarangaysTopography

Land features is flat and low level mass.90% of land mass has an elevation of 2.637meters above the main level water.10% of land mass has an elevation of 5.19meters.

Arevalo14

City Proper45

Jaro42

La Paz37

Mandurriao18

Molo25

Total180

Source: Iloilo City Planning and Development OfficeChronological OrderI THE BIRTH OF THE ILONGGO NATION:

Sometime in the 13th Century:The Maragtas legend explained that sometime between 1200-1250s; Ten (10) Malay Datustogether with their families, households and subordinates fled the tyrannical rule of Makatunaw, the Shri-Vijaya Sultan of Bornay (Borneo).Led by Datu Puti, the Sultanate Minister, they landed in the Island of Aninipay or Panay. They bartered their gold and jewelries with the local Ati Chieftain Marikudo for the lowlands, plains and valleys of the Island they called Madya-as or Paradise. The land where time began; the birth of the Ilonggo Nation and the cradle of ancient Filipino civilization.For about 300 years before the coming of the Spaniards, the Ilonggos lived in comparative prosperity and peace under an organized government, the Katiringban et Madia-as or the Confederation of Madya-as and with such laws as the Code of Kalantiaw.

II THE SPANISH CONQUEST:

-1566: The Spaniards under Miguel Lopez de Legaspi came to Panay and established a settlement in Ogtong (now Oton, Iloilo). The conquistadores, subjugated our forebears not only with superior weapons and the sword; but likewise, with the Cross.-1581: The encomienda, the seat of Spanish power was moved from Ogtong (Oton) to La Villa Rica de Arevalo.-1616: Due to recurrent raids by Moro pirates and foreign privateers, the Spaniards moved close to the mouth of Irong-irong river and built the Fort San Pedro;-1688: The Spaniards shortened Irong-Irong or Ilong-Ilong to ILOILO, which became the capital of the province.-1855: The rapid economic growth of the place, led to the opening of the port of Iloilo to world trade. Thanks to British Nicholas Loney, Iloilo soon emerged to be the biggest center of commerce and trade in Visayas and Mindanao, second only to Manila. Thus, earned the title Queen City of the South.-1896: The Ayuntamiento on Iloilo (City government) which was established in 1890 under theBecerra Law was given the honor by virtue of the Royal Decree of having a Coat-of-Arms with the inscription La Muy Leal y Noble Ciudad de Iloilo.This is considered a sham and an act of ignominy by todays patriotic ilonggos. Like the title Queen City of the South which is being disputed as bestowed upon us for being the Queen Regents minions, TUTA or pet City. III THE REVOLUTION AGAINST SPAIN:

Meanwhile, centuries of Spanish subjugation; cruelty and injustice; apathy, greed and misconduct of the elite; the immoral and abusive theocracy alienated the populace. These created a social volcano of an angry enslaved society in despair and discontentment, especially among the masses.-1586: The Igbaong Revolt (Igbaras-Ogtong) started when the local leaders protested against the cruelty and abuses of the encomienderos and friars due to conscription or forced labor, either to work in their haciendas or construction of churches.-1663: Tapar, a babaylan and nativist of Oton, Iloilo waged the Tapar Revolt. Poorly armed these early movements were easily quelled. But the Ilonggo patriots did not give up; they continued their struggle for freedom.-1889: February 15 In Barcelona, Spain the first issue of La Solidaridad a political propaganda publication founded by Graciano Lopez Jaena of Jaro, Iloilo City was published. With Jose Rizal, Marcelo del Pilar, Antonio Luna and others; they advocated reforms for the welfare of the Filipino people.The La Solidaridad-El Filibusterismo and Noli mi Tangere; notwithstanding, difficulties since circulation was strictly banned in the Islas; was the spark that ignited the event that changed Filipino history.-1892: July 7-The Katipunan KKK was founded by the Great Plebeian Andres Bonifacio and fellow workers in Tondo, Manila that planned and initiated the Philippine Revolution.-1896: December 30 Dr.Jose Rizal of Calamba, Laguna; an illustrado-reformist of many talents, who was not in favor of the planned Revolution was executed by the Spaniards at Bagumbayan now Luneta. This emboldened the Indios, including the elite and other illustrados to join in the revolution.-1897: May 10 Andres Bonifacio and his brother Procopio were executed in Cavite after a bogus trial for treason. A black chapter in the history of the Revolution. A victim sacrificed in the altar of ambition and self-serving interest of the illustrados as personified by Emilio Aguinaldo.-1898: March 18 The Comite Conspirador was formed in Molo, Iloilo which was the nucleus that started the well organized Ilonggo Revolutionary Movement, who fought the foreign invaders.-1898: June 12 Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo declared in Kawit, Cavite the Independence of Filipinos and birth of the Philippine Republic; its flag unfurled for the first time while Marcha Nacional Filipinas was played which became the Philippine National Anthem.NOTA BENE: According to Dr. Luis C.Dery, an eminent Filipino Scholar:Expounding the extent of Aguinaldos Philippine Army; the Bangsamoro nations Mindanao, Sulu, and the rest of its islands never fell under Aguinaldos politico-military control and sovereignty.In fact as late as August 1898 much of northern Luzon, southern Luzon, the Visayas, and Mindanao remained outside of the control of Aguinaldos Republic. Thus, several military expeditions were sent to these places to bring them to recognize the First Philippine Republic. IV THE ILONGGO NATIONS INDEPENDENCE!

-1898: November 5 After outsmarting and defeating the Spaniards, Gen. Juan Tan Juan Araneta and Gen. Aniceto L. Lacson declared in Bago Plaza, Negros Occidental the Independent Republic of NegrosEarlier, Gen. Marciano S. Araneta led the revolutionarios attacked and captured the SpanishCuartel General in Mangkasnow La Carlota City; while Don Diego de la Vina and his men overthrew the Spanish authorities in Dumaguete, Negros Oriental.-1898: November 6- Don Diego de los Rios, last Governor-General of Spain in the Philippines formally surrendered to Independent Republic of Negros revolutionary leaders: Gen. AnicetoLacson Presidente, and Gen. Juan Araneta-Secretary of War in Bacolod City. The people ofNegros at last won their freedom!!!-1898: November 17 Gen. Martin Delgado proclaimed at Sta. Barbara, Iloilo the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Visayas and Mindanao.This was later changed by the Iloilo elite to Federal Republic of the Visayas since they did not want to recognize the supremacy of Aguinaldo and the Tagalogs.They preferred instead a federal arrangement composed of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao as a logical substitute because of its indigenous elements.-1898: December 10 -The Treaty of Paris to end Spanish-American War was signed.Spanish commissioners argued that Manila had surrendered after the armistice and therefore the Philippines could not be demanded as a war conquest, but they eventually yielded because they had no other choice, and the U.S. ultimately paid Spain 20 million dollars for possession of the Philippines.-1898: December 23 In Iloilo City, last Capital of the Spanish Empire in Asia; Governor-GeneralDiego de los Rios formally surrendered to the Independent Federal Republic of the Visayas thru Iloilo Citys Alcalde Jose Ma. Gay.The Revolutionary Forces led by Gen. Martin Delgado(Gral. en Gefe) and Gen. Pablo Araneta -Island Commanding General, had by then taken all the towns in Panay and encircled the City.-1898: December 24 Defeated and after the formal surrender to the Ilonggo Nation in Negros and in Iloilo; Don Diego de los Rios, semblance of the last Spanish authority in the archipelago evacuated for Zamboanga on the way home to Spain together with his entourage.-1898: December 25 -Following the departure of the Spaniards, Gen. Martin Delgado and theIlonggo Revolutionarios made a triumphal entry into the City of Iloilo with victorious parade to Plaza Libertad.-1899: January 21 Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo proclaimed the Malolos Republic with a Constitution drafted by Gregorio Araneta- Secretary General and other illustrados of the Malolos Congress.-1899: January 23 -The First Philippine Republic with Emilio Aguinaldo as President was formally inaugurated and the Constitution ratified in Malolos, Bulacan. V THE AMERICAN INVASION OF THE ILONGGO NATION:

-1898: December 27 Just two days after gaining Independence, a 3,000-strong American Military Force led by Gen. Henry Miller arrived in four US warships (USS: Baltimore-Boston-Concord & Petrel) to Iloilo harbor to demand the surrender of the City. When the Ilonggos refused, the Americans began the bombardment of Iloilo upon expiration of their deadline.-1899: February 2 An American naval force appeared along the coastline of Negros to engage the islanders. Gen. Aniceto Lacson-President of the two month acquired Independence, seeing no chance of winning against the new invaders opted not to fight and ceded control when guarantees of property rights were made.-1899: February 6 US Congress ratified Treaty of Paris:After an intense fight in the United States Senate, the treaty was finally ratified by a margin of just one vote. The ratification of the treaty indicated that the United States was committed to take possession of the Philippine islands and that it would oppose the Filipino independence movement.-1899: February 14 American troops landed at Iloilo and took it by storm. Thus, started another Ilonggo Nations war for freedom; this time against American invaders.-1899: February 22 The Fall of Iloilo to the Americans. Ilonggo troops fought the Americans in pitched battles in towns around Iloilo City. The resistance continued even after the surrender Gen. Martin Delgado.-1899: March 19 The Queen Regent of Spain ratified the Treaty of Paris.-1899: Apr 11 Exchange of treaty ratifications in Washington by both Spain and the UnitedStates.It was only at this point in time the treaty was actually formalized and became internationally binding; officially ending the Spanish-American War. Thus, consummation of the anomalous Philippine purchase.-1899: May 1 US Secretary of State John Hays handed to French Ambassador Jules Cambon the amount due to Spain under the Treaty of Peace (Paris) at the US State Department.-1901: February 2 Surrender of the Panay Forces to the Americans.The Ilonggos resisted but, weary of war and poorly armed, they were soon overwhelmed by the new and well-armed enemy.Many of the leaders surrendered and relative peace was restored.-1902: Jul 4 President Theodore Roosevelt officially ended the Philippine-American War by issuing the Peace Proclamation and Granting of Pardon/Amnesty to the Insurrectionists who in reality were patriots.-1907: Dionisio Papa Isio Sigobeyla was captured by the Americans in the hinterlands of Negros.After the arrival of the Americans and the surrender of Gen. Aniceto Lacson; Papa Isio, ababaylan declared himself the head of the Revolutionary Government of Negros. He fought the American troops for about eight more years.-1925: In Central Iloilo-Panay: Florencio Entrencherado, obsessed by the Napoleonic saga declared himself Emperor of the Philippine. While his declaration was treated as a joke at first, within a year his stand against heavy taxation and foreign interference had gained him several thousands of peasant followers. -1927: In May Entrencherado was captured and imprisoned in Manila, where he died two years later. His armed followers staged an uprising, and burned haciendas of abusive American and local landowners in several towns.

Haussmann's ParisThe Art History Archive- Architecture

Architecture in the Era of Napoleon IIIBy Emily Kirkman - 2007.During a time of industrial change and cultural advancement, Paris became the new home for many, overcrowding the ancient districts and spreading disease. The city, which had been untouched since the Middle Ages, was in dire need of reflecting the new modern ways and putting an end to the spreading medical epidemics. The tight confines of Medieval Paris were hindering the citys potential for growth and desire to transform into a well-organized urban center. Napoleon III set about bringing order and structure to the chaotic, cramped city and putting an end to its' identity crisis. Baron Georges-Eugene Haussmann, chosen by Napoleon III to lead the project, created new roads, public parks, public monuments, as well as installing new sewers and changing the architectural faade of the city. With the aid of the public, Modernist Napoleon III set out to undertake one of the largest urban transformations since the burning of London in 1666.Louis Napoleon III, who became emperor in 1852, had a great deal of interest in developing Paris into a new modern city after the Industrial Revolution.Napoleon had a keen interest in architecture and could often be found modifying the blueprints of Paris to include the roads that he wanted to construct. This interest in modifying the layout of the city would manifest itself into a project that would encompass all aspects of urban planning, from streets to sewers, and completely change the shape of Paris as everyone knew it. As stated by Anthony Sutcilffe in his book Paris: An Architectural History, the project coincided with the first surge of French industrialization, beginning in the 1840s and lasting until the Great Depression of the 1870s. The Second French Empire, ruled by Napoleon III, had complete control over the country, and he set out to begin construction on his plan that would bring Paris into the modern era and establish its dominance as a western city. With the induction of Baron Georges Haussmann as prefect of the Seine, Napoleon had an ally in the government to carry out the modernization. While neither one were trained in the arts, both men had ideas for how they wanted the city to look. Napoleon had a greater interest in the techniques and new materials that were to be used, while Haussmann paid more interest to the aesthetic quality of the modernization project. Yet both men adhered to the classical style, creating a metropolis of neoclassical wonder.In 1853, Haussman had outlined and began construction on a series of basic projects that had been planned since the decision had been made to modernize the city. The projects included creating a north-south axis in the city, developing the quarters around the Opra, as well as the annexation of the suburbs to make them outer arrondissements, the sewer system, and the water supply. In the early 1860s it is to be known that upon the completion of the original projects, new projects were put in to development, including annexing newer arrondissements, and putting the city into debt.Haussmann molded the city into a geometric grid, with new streets running east and west, north and south, dividing Medieval Paris into new sections. His plan brought symmetry to the city, something it was lacking beforehand. No Parisian neighborhood was left untouched by Haussmans hand. The new streets were also wider than most of their predecessors, for reasons of public health and traffic engineering. During a time when the city was filled to the brim with people, disease was a large risk.The widening of the streets would relieve the cramped city and allow for the people to get around more easily. It also allowed for an increase in height of the buildings, providing more room for the people of Paris to live and thrive in. Running alongside the new roads, which had been widened to accommodate the rising number of people living within the city limits, were rows of chestnut trees, which allowed Haussmann to maintain the geometric and symmetrical aesthetic that he had created with the new roads. And where he struggled to maintain his visual order, new public spaces and monuments were erected. In David P. Jordans article Haussmann and Haussmannisation: The Legacy for Paris, it is noted that Haussmanns strict plan had its flaws. Turn off any number of his new streets and you will find the old Paris: the Avenue de lOpra or the Boulevard Saint-Germain are good examples. Despite his desire to create a well organized and symmetrical city, his lack of skills as an urban planner got the best of him and he was forced to work around existing streets in order to adhere to his desire for symmetry in the city. The existing architecture in Paris proved to be his greatest enemy when laying out the new roads. The respect for the ancient monuments outweighed the need to unify the city completely and the river Seine served as a natural barrier separating the two sides of Paris and the roads that once had the ambition to link the riverbanks. His new roads have been admired since their unveiling. They not only served as new roadways for general use, but also as streets leading to the center of Paris from the train stations scattered throughout the city, as well as roads that led to the monuments that were found throughout the city. He was also responsible for isolating Notre-Dame from the city, emphasizing its importance to the city.The next step in Haussmanns plan for the new Paris was to divide the city into arrondissements, or districts. The decision to divide Paris into these new districts came about in 1853, at the same time as the decision to modernize the city completely. The plan implied the destruction of the old, heterogenous quarters in the city center and the creation of large new quarters implicitly dividing the population by economic status. The original plan called for twelve districts, but in 1860, Paris annexed surrounding communities and was divided into twenty districts. The districts started inward, on the banks of the Seine, and spiraled outwards. With the division of the city into arrondissements came the need for a new water and sewer system. When construction on the new Paris began, the city was still served by a medieval network of sewers clustered around the city centre. Aided by his chief engineer Eugene Belgrand, Haussmann developed and began construction in 1857 on a larger sewer system that could handle the large amounts of wastewaters coming from the growing city that would be funneled into the Seine downstream from Paris.With the growing popularity of water closets, particularly in the richer Parisian districts, came a need to funnel human waste into the sewer system as well. The proposal to channel human feces into the sewers that would mix with the storm water and flow into the Seine was an idea Haussmann objected to. To maintain the order of the water and the urban space, Haussmann viewed it as necessary to keep the clean water separate from the dirty water. His objections to human excrement entering the sewer system were not only related to the contamination of the underground city; he feared that the dilution of human waste in water would reduce its value as a fertilizer, and thereby disrupt the organic economy of the city. By keeping the wastewater and contaminated water separate, the human waste could be used as fertilizer for crops to help support the economy and allow for agricultural employment opportunities for those moving to the big city. Also by utilizing the new sewer system for human waste, the city would become cleaner and more sterile, eliminating the smell of rotting waste and lowering the threat of disease from living in cramped, contaminated quarters. Cleaning up the city also led way to the cleaning of the people. Now that the people were living in cleaner areas, they themselves also had to be clean, ushering in an idea of modern narcissism. It would be uncivilized to live in such a clean environment when you yourself are dirty and uncouth. The revamping of the sewer system was an integral part of bringing the city of light out of the Dark Ages and into the Modern era.Quite possibly one of the largest stages of the project, second only to the new roads, was the architecture. To accompany the new streets and provide visual unity to the entire city, Haussmann and his team of architects constructed a unifying architectural faade that changed the shape of Paris. As well as coating the city with a unifying style, they also constructed new public buildings, such as LOpra , as well as many other buildings. During the 18th century and the time of the Enlightenment, architects were no longer content to see their buildings glorify the state, the monarchy, or one specific stratum of society: they aspired to create monuments that would celebrate human greatness, inculcate worthy remembrance, teach moral values. The buildings became expressive and mimicked nature, ignoring the classical norms they once followed. The Baroque and Rococo styles of architectural design were short lived, with people once again wanting a return to the historical classical style that was so prominent throughout Europe. By the fin of the 18th siecle, neoclassicism was becoming the dominant style in both painting and architecture. With the widening of the Parisian streets, Haussmann and his crew were able to add an extra story of height to the buildings that lined the roads. The additional height increased the amount of living space within the city limits, easing up on the overcrowding, but not changing the affordability of the housing. The change in height can be seen best in the apartment buildings found rampant throughout the city. They are noted by their simple decoration and adherence to the classical style. An emphasis on the horizontal can be seen in the faade, following the horizontal of the streets they sat next to, adding to the symmetry and geometric unity that Haussmann wanted the new Paris to have. By using a much more austere and modern style for the faade, the cost for the buildings could be kept low and the buildings would appear timeless in a changing city. The apartment buildings were typically five stories with the ground floor and the in between floors having thick walls. The second story usually had a balcony with elaborate stonework, while the third and fourth floors resembled the second floor without the balcony. The fifth floor or top floor generally had an undecorated balcony that traveled the length of the building. The facades were also constructed out of large stone blocks, adding to the simplicity of the structure and the lack of decoration made the building seem larger than it actually was. Inspired by the Industrial Revolution, the new apartment buildings mimicked the products produced by the factories. Each item was the same and could be built quickly by those with only a small amount of knowledge of architecture or design.

With the rise of the nouveux riches came the need for htels or living spaces for the rich within the city. Unlike the simple, austere apartment houses, no expense was spared on decoration and they were constructed in the most fashionable districts within Paris. They were not neoclassical in style like the apartments, but a mixture of early Renaissance and the ornate baroque style. The htels were symbols of wealth and status and the rising modernity in Paris.Not only did Haussmann unify the apartment buildings throughout the city and build rich hiotels, but he also established a corps of architects for the city. They were responsible for designing all the municipal buildings throughout the city. From train stations to government offices, the projects architects built interactive Neoclassical monuments that would stand proud in the citys squares and emphasize the importance of modernity.Most notable are the train stations, which linked Paris to the rest of France. They were an integral part in the rise of the Parisian population, and also allowed not only the rich, but everyone, to take day trips and explore the countryside surrounding the city. The stations were simply designed, with a high central vault, adorned with glass and iron tracery, similar to that of the wheel that propels the train along. The train stations were tall and classical in style, decorated with arcades and balustrades, all while emphasizing the speed and power of the steam engine. To many, the trains represented the new modern time, recognized around the world as one of the greatest products of Industrialization.LOpra Paris, designed by Charles Garnier, is known as one of the greatest public works to come out of this time period. Built in 1861, the opera house unifies not only the city and the quarter that it rests in, but the people of Paris as well. With the newfound industry and technology, the new rich now had free time and could enjoy things like traveling to the countryside for a day or taking in an afternoon performance. The new opera house gave them a place to go and be seen. The building itself is a neoclassical wonder, with Baroque elements, drawing influence from the reigns of previous French rulers. The faade of the building is divided into two levels. The lower entrance level has an arcade of arches adorned with sculpture, while the second level is faced with Corinthian paired columns. The building is adorned with carved decoration as well as a central dome that is richly decorated on the interior. Two smaller domes flank the wings of the building adding the magnificent grandeur of this richly detailed public building. It sits alone in a diamond, with three square plazas surrounding it, isolating the building and emphasizing its importance in modern life. The Paris Opera House is much more richly decorated than any other building built during this time period, but it catered to the rich and those with the time to come spend time within its walls. The building served no governmental purpose, but was instead a site of leisure and pleasure, preserved within its architectural design. It is seen even today as a symbol of the nouveux riches and the rise of modernity.With this magnificent transformation of Paris into a modern city, came a big budget. According to the article Money and Politics in the Rebuilding of Paris, 1860-1870, Haussmann calculated in 1869 that the cost of rebuilding Paris since the projects beginning in 1851 was to be 2,500,000,000 francs. As an equivalent expenditure in New York City at present, forty-four times the expenditures in the budget of 1955-1956, would be $78,000,000,000! Haussmann and Napoleon III did not forsee the project costing this much and had not raised the amount of money needed to pay for all of their construction. With the addition of new elements to the project, the budget only soared. Many people living in Paris during the time felt that Haussmann and crew had lied to them about the costs of the renovations and felt that the city had been paralyzed by the never ending construction. With the removal of Haussmann from his office as prefect of the Seine in 1870, the Third Republic took control of the government and the debts that Napoleon and Haussmann had gotten the city into.Since the undertaking of the modernization of Paris in the 1850s, Haussmanns name has become ubiquitous with urban planning. With the help and approval of Napoleon III, Haussmann was able to transform an entire city in a period of twenty years. The once Medieval city was now a modern power house with room to grow. The redistricting of the city, building of new roads, monuments, public spaces and places, as well as new public works buildings and a new sewer system all added to the grandeur of the city. Haussmann not only improved the appearance of Paris, but also the health of the people. By widening the streets and building more housing, he eased the overcrowding and lowered the threat of disease. The new sewer system also helped create a cleaner Paris by channeling the waste water and human waste away from the city to ease on the smell and the dirt that would make Paris seem uncivilized. Haussmanns new buildings proved to be more functional and stronger than the previous buildings in Paris. Georges Haussmann has become known as one of the first great urban planners in history and has inspired many others to take on such arduous tasks as rebuilding a preexisting city. And yet Haussmanns greatest success was leaving us with a legacy known as Paris.

I. Summary of Napoleon III

Napoleon III, Emperor of the Second French EmpireWe are all familiar with the name of Napoleon, the Frenchgeneral who came to power byway ofcoup d'etatand overthrew the FirstRepublic, thus ending the French Revolution and theostensibly egalitarian democraticrepublic it gave birth to. Napoleon is best known for his classic, bicorn hat, posing for paintings with his hand over his stomach, and conquering most of Europeduring a 20 year-long conflict named after him, the Napoleonic Wars. After his defeat by the British and Prussians at Waterloo in 1815, he was exiled to a lonely island in the south Atlantic named St. Helena, where he died in 1821. What most people don't know is that the BonaparteDynasty didn't end with him. It was revived in the mid-19th century by his nephew, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, later known as Napoleon III.Napoleon III was not a military genius like his famous uncle,but he did initiate many sweeping social, legal, political and foreign policy reforms in France, undoing the republican reversals and foreign policy setbacks suffered under the Bourbon and Orleanist Restorations of 1815-1851.Under his watch, France was no longer in a state of constant geopolitical conflict with Britain, which led to decreased military spending, a balancing of the national debt and finances and increased efforts for national economic greatness. The rising threat of Prussia/Germany in the east caused France and Britain to become close, albeit still suspicious, allies (memories of Napoleon I always lurked beneath the surface). During this time, Franceexperienced rapidindustrialization (with the help of British investment) as well as revitalized efforts to acquire colonies abroad, particularly inAlgeria and sub-Saharan Africa, as well as in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, particularly in Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Polynesia.Although Napoleon I conquered most of Europe, his reign simultaneously experienced the complete divestment of French colonial territory in the New World (namely, the highly lucrative territories of Louisiana and Haiti), thus robbing its access to cheap North American commodities like fur and timber as well as Carribean sugar and slave-labor. Because France still retainedlingering feelings of national resentment over these losses, as well as the fact that hewanted to undo this blot upon the reputation of his uncle, Napoleon III was committed to restoring a strong French imperial presence in the Western Hemisphere.As such, Napoleon III created the penal colony of Devil's Island, off the coast of French Guiana in South America. Here, rather than spend money on jails and protecting the civil rights of imprisoned French citizens, they were sent thousands of miles away to a cheap place where they could be brutalized and used as slave labor on sugar cane plantations. The outpost would also serve as a military base of sorts, where agents and operatives could co-ordinate actions with naval installations in the Lesser Antilles, from which Napoleon III hoped to launch various planned conquests in the region.These policies led to Napoleon III's successful invasion and occupation of Mexico, organized under the pretext of protecting French investors, due to the fact that Mexico defaulted on its enormous national debt to France.Becausethe United Stateswas experiencing severe domestic turmoul during this time, due to rising political instability and the Civil War,it could not enforce the Monroe Doctrine, rendering it unable to intervene.As such, Napoleon III installed a puppet Emperor in Mexico by the name of Maximillian. Through Maximillian, (an Austrian Hapsburg and Archduke) Napoleon III provided the Confederate States of America with countless forms of covert military and financial assistance. He even went so far as to build numerous blockade-running vessels for the CSA in France, because he was promised exclusive shipping rights for southern cotton, if the CSA was able to win.In any event, Maximillian's rule in Mexico was a total failure, aside from bringing accordian music and numerous Vienese-style lager beers to the region, the most famous of which became known as "Corona."In any event, the Mexicans eventually revolted and overthrew Maximillian, an event celebratedin Mexico during the holiday ofCinco de Mayo.In Europe, Napoleon III gave enormous military and financial assistance to Garibaldi and Louis Cavour, King of Sardinia (of the House of Savoy) in their attempt to remove Austrian influence from Italy (Austria ownedmuch of theItalian Piedmont as well as Venice, Florenceand various other artistically endowed citiesin the region)and unify the entire peninsula under a single government.Resulting French tensionswith Austria and its fellow German ally, Prussia (which had been building), led to the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. This led to the widespread destruction of much of Paris (particularly the poorer areas), the collapse of the Second Empire, the short-lived Paris Commune of 1871, the establishment of a unified German Empire under Prussian leadership (the so-called "Second Reich"), and Napoleon III's exile to Great Britain. From this period up until the Vichy Regime of 1940-1944, France would be democratic and governed by the Constitution of the so-called "Third Republic."Despite Napoleon III's enormous impact on 19th century international affairs, he will perhaps most famously be remembered for totally redesigning the ugly, crowded and congested city of Paris and turning it into the most beautiful city on earth.What follows is an analysis of the class-bias and authoritarian intentions underlying this massive policy. It is a story that provides us with many lessons today, as we grapple with issues of declining democratic mores, increasing socio-economic divisions and the role played by urban renewal, urban redesign and gentrification upon the same.II.Urban Reform, Renewal and Redesign in Second Empire ParisHistorically, the crowded, dense medieval city streets of Paris were always spatially and geographically conducive to rebellion. They could be barricaded, turning entire sectors of the city into veritable fortresses from which large mobs could gather, organize and mobilize for assaults upon monarchist/authoritarian strongholds within Paris, such as the Bastille in 1789.A narrow, medieval street in Paris. These streets were the norm, rather than the exception, in the Paris that existed prior to the Second Empire. The ease with which the working-classes could barricade such streets wasn't lost on the governing elites.Throughout the Bourbon Restoration, numerous mini-revolutions, rebellions and insurrections took place in Paris, due to the Bourbon and later, Orleanist attempts to rescind various rights won by the people during the First French Revolution and regime of Napoleon I. There was further rebellion under the Orleanist regime of Charles X, because he was in thrall to big bankers, who were destroying the French economy and causing its industry, agriculture and manufacturing to spiral downwards into an irreparable decline.

Although these later, post-Napoleonic rebellions, most famously illustrated in Victor Hugo's book,Les Miserables(later a famous musical), were always suppressed, they were still able to take advantage of the narrow corridors and winding streets of Paris, with secret alleyways, tunnels and approaches. Turned over carts, barrels, stones from semi-demolished buildings were sufficient to totally blockade streets and prevent government infantry, cavalry and artillery from successfully being brought-to-bear upon pro-democratic patriots. Although subsequent revolutions and revolts were never as successful as the one in 1789 (elites learned their lesson fast, especially in regard to the need to infiltrate working-class organizations, acquire intelligence about the same and used armed force at the initial outbreak of street violence), these narrow, medieval streets always posed a great challenge to authorities, even if they did, in the end, win the ultimate victory.This pre-Second Empire map of Paris shows its narrow streets and lack of broad, central avenues and boulevards. This prevented troops and police from responding to various, often simultaneous civil insurrections and emergencies in various parts of the city. The geographical/spatial difficulty faced by elites in navigating the Parisian streets was a strong factor aiding the republican, pro-democracy patriots during the French Revolution of 1789.When Napoleon III became Emperor, one of his big domestic projects was to make Paris a bastion for order and stability and eliminate, for all time, its geographical and spatial susceptibility to barricades, urban fortresses, rebellion and armed mobs. To do this, he hired a famous French architect and engineer, Baron Georges-Eugene Haussmann. A keystone in this concept consisted of renovating the entire design of the city, removing many of the narrow medieval streets and making them much, much broader. Further, the houses were set back even further from the sidewalks than previously, which would not only provide sufficient space for pleasant sidewalk cafes and scenic vistas, but would also allow sufficiently wide angles for state artillery and rifle fire to be directed through, without being subject to enfilade ambush attacks, perpetrated by armed mobs hiding from troops around a corner, located at a 90 degree angle from oncoming state forces (this tactic was used to great effect during the Revolution of 1789).This map shows the initial broad boulevards imagined by Haussmann, to afford the military rapid transit throughout the urban center, so as to put-down insurrections with greater speed and ease. Notice how they serve as spokes radiating outward, from the police and commerce departments. Here, police and financial powers were planned to occupy the strategic "center" of the city, where they would be well protected. According to strategic opportunities, the police would thus be able to besent-out, to the periphery, to attack rebels and would-be revolutionaries, while affording constant protection to the financial and economic elites located in thewell-protected, island center of the city. This island, too, could be barricaded and poor people prevented from accessing it, through the construction of efficient bridges. Further benefits would be accrued through the annihilation of local, close-knit neighborhood communities in Paris, many of which had their own culture, dialect and insider customs. Here, each little area, cut-off as it was from the rest of Paris except through a few crucial winding streets, could become an island-onto-itself. Local economies thrived, neighborhood youth clubs (that would fistfight or compete athletically with other rival, adjacent neighborhood clubs) and the ability of police to centrally control such areas was necessarily limited. Local neighborhood leaders acted like godfathers and were responsible for law and order, garbage pickup and social welfare. Since many of these towns could only be accessed through a handful of narrow streets, lookouts could be posted atop dilapidated medieval buildings, who could give the local godfather sufficient prior notice of oncoming police or military forces, such that they would have enough time to stop an illegal gambling activity, robbery of an aristocrat or mini-riot.Total result of Haussmann's reforms. The new arterial avenues and boulevards are marked in red.It is very hard for us to understand the inherent unruliness of Paris prior to the Haussmann reforms. Most modern cities have followed the Second Empire reforms of Napoleon III, which put an emphasis on broad, sweeping boulevards, grids and the like. Although these things make transportation through the urban-area more efficient, especially in terms of commercial, military and police traffic, and while they also make directions and finding-ones-way more easier, as it is more conducive to using a map in such an environment, a good degree of local, neighborhood social, political and economic independence is lost.

After the Haussmann reforms, local fruit/vegetable sellers were forced to purchase a license. Previously there were talks about doing this, but the crowded, narrow, labyrinthine Parisian streets always posed an effective detriment to efficient enforcement. After the re-design of the city, occupational licenses and rules regarding the regulation of these working-class occupations proliferated a hundred-fold. No longer would inspectors be afraid of going into bad areas or closed-off areas to enforce regulations, but could travel to such areas with great speed, with sufficiently numerous police escort to ensure security (previously, you were lucky if 4 people walking abreast could squeeze through the narrow streetsvery easy to block them and hold them off).

Cimetiere des Innocents: Large working class square in old Paris where the bodies of paupers were buried in mass graves, above ground. This image from themid 1500s. By the 1790s, the bones would be placed in the catecombs, but the place would still serve as a hot-bed of working class agitation and secret meetings.Haussmann used the pretext of sanitation as a means by which to clear many of the working-class folks from the most densely populated, medievally constructed areas of the city. Saying he was re-locating them for his own good, thousands were evicted and forced to live in the outskirts of the city, far away from aristocratic, upper-middle class and middle class areas of the city. Prior to the reforms, the wealthy, working and middle classes and students lived in close proximity to each other and had to find a way to navigate social intercourse in a mutually beneficial manner. When the wealthy were obnoxiously intransigent about this, there were often rebellions.This is the Boulevard Haussmann, in the Ninth Arrondissement in Paris. This road is typical of the new-model streets designed by Napoleon III and Baron Haussmann.Aside from the uniform building styles, tree-lined sidewalksand lovely mansard roofs, notice the breadth of the road, and how easily this can be utilized to facilitate rapid troop/police movements, as well as afford limited opportunities for barricading.After the reforms, the majority of the poor were simply pushed to the outskirts of Paris, on the periphery, where they would be far away from the crucial state buildings, government facilities, armories and homes of the aristocracy. The western portion of Paris began to be the most wealthy area and the eastern area, the outskirts of the city, one relatively untouched by the reforms, became increasingly poor and impoverished, as many of the poor from other parts of the city were forced to relocate there, either through physical force, or the non-physical, yet no less coercive nature of strategic pricing and policing.Cimetier des Innocents, circa 1750. The graves are slowly being moved away and working class dwellings and agricultural/merchant stands are being established. The space is slowly becoming a public space, albeit one subject to minimal state control.At the end of the day, Paris benefited from a widespread decrease in tuberculosis, crime and rioting. On the other hand, thousands of poor folks were uprooted and they would forever be unable to exert upon the wealthy and powerful the most basic of their democratic rights: the political specter and drama afforded by mass-demonstrations and protests in areas closely proximate to the working and living areas of societys most influential members. By pushing these folks off to the periphery, they were both out of sight and out of mind.

Cimetiere des Innocents, circa 1850. This is just prior to Napoleon III's ascension as leader of France and Baron Haussmann's reforms of the Paris landscape. Notice how all remnants of the former cemetary have been replaced and the area is a thriving working-class, urban marketplace. Still, governmental control is at a minimum and many conspiracies for insurrection, mob-violence, rebellion and rioting took place here. Police and military access was still limited, due to the constricting, narrow nature of the roads leading to this square.Considering the crucial role Parisian insurrections played in the various pro-democracy revolts in France, it could be said that the increasing stability of the French state, rather than being a result of governments growing responsiveness to the people, is instead, perhaps, at least to a degree, the result of governments increasing ability to remove, relocate and effectively silence those whom they do not wish to deal with. Rather than being effected through harsh, oppressive laws impacting free speech and association, these can be done through policies which impact the geographical and spatial aspects of the social/political/economic landscape, such that the same result is achieved, albeit through a less politically provocative manner.What remains of the Cimetiere des Innocents today. This is the same square, presented above, but as you can see, it has been totally sanitized of working-class people and their disorderly, uncontrollable, raw and vulgar outdoor meeting-place and market. It is paved and accessible to pedestrian and motor traffic from four basic directions. There is a major Paris subway station nearby as well as a large, expensive shopping mall catering to the tastes of the affluent. All that remains is the "La Fontaine des Innocent," which has existed in this spot, in some form or another, for almost 500 years. It can be located in what is currently called the La Halles district of the First Arrondissment, in Paris.The issue for us today is how do we analyze current attempts at urban renewal, urban development and neighborhood redesign, in light of the abovementioned history of Paris? Attempts to reconstruct and modify neighborhoods, while often being done under the pretext of sanitation, hygeine, transportation efficiency, economic revitalization and the like, are often code-words for a socio-economic revision of such areas and the desire to remove working-class and lower-middle class people from said areas, so as to make way for middle and upper middle class professionals. In the United States, we have termed this process "gentrification."By sanitizing urban spaces for the exclusive utilization of the upper middle classes (and occaisional working-class consumer, who must travel via public transportation to get there, and when he arrives, only stays for a limited period of time), do we do a disservice to democracy? By keeping poor people "out of sight and out of mind" are we less able and less willing to negotiate social space, political space and economic space with them? Does this minimization of shared contact and shared proximity lead to laws and priorities that are not representative of overall societal need?Do we wind up, in effect, causing thedetrimental social and economic isolation of our political, social, intellectualand economic elites, as well as the so-called lower orders? Without constant interaction, do all classes of society suffer? Ideas from the top do not percolate down and culturally diffuse to the masses. By that same token, the suffering and concerns of the masses to not percolate up and diffuse to the governing, Establishment classes.

The primary critique of Louis XIV and Marie Antoinette was that their isolated, sanitized fantasy world at Versailles prevented them from addressing the everyday concerns of their nation prior to the Revolution. Without these concerns being known by the monarchy, they had no way of addressing them. The resulting chaos of 1789 was a necessary consequence of such geographically-imposed ignorance.Are we, perhaps, committing the same mistakes here, by sanitizing our public spaces and removing/relocating our less privileged and wealthy citizens?In so doing, are we further ruining our already fragile democracy?Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of SpaceThere has long been a dichotomy between Paris and the rest of the nation or between Paris and the provinces. Paris is by far the major urban center, with Lyon following. Not until the 1960s did the urban population surpass the rural population. Four-fifths of the population now lives in urban areas. More than half the urban population lives in suburbs, however. A movement of population back to rural areas, if not back to farming, has existed since the 1970s. Only 3 percent of the population is employed in agriculture. Regions and cities are linked through an extensive rail system controlled by Societ Nationale des Chemins de Fer de France (SNCF). It is headquartered in Paris, with twenty-three regional areas. High-speed trains (TGV) link Paris with Lyons, Bordeaux, Calais, Strasbourg, and Montpellier/Marseille-Lyon. Paris is now linked through the English Channel tunnel to the United Kingdom. Several major highways built during the last few decades have improved movement by car.Architecture ranges from the grand works of the powerful in the cities, such as the Versailles palace and the new National Library in Paris, to the vernacular architecture of rural areas. Buildings dating from the period of state building in the Third Republic are particularly symbolic of nationalism. The architecture of public primary schools built at the turn of the century in small towns and villages symbolizes the presence of the nation-state at the local level. These buildings also house the mayor's office. Churches symbolize the power of the Catholic Church, from Notre Dame in Paris to the village churches whose steeples once dominated the countryside. Vernacular rural architecture varies from region to region, reflecting climate, family forms, and cultural values. Just as each local region had a local dialect, it had its own style of barns and houses.The use of space in rural areas varies considerably. There is a stark contrast between the south, where there is more open socializing outdoors and in cafs and a stricter gender division of spatial use, and the north, where there is less of an emphasis on these factors. In southern areas, where men tend to associate in cafs or in the town square, married women were traditionally not present in such public spheres but were confined to the household. Across the country, however, there is a strong emphasis on privacy within the walls of the house orfoyer. Personal space and intimacy are connected, and close friends and relatives have much closeness and physical contact. Acquaintances and intimates are distinguished, and a high degree of formality is used with acquaintances.Haussmann's renovation of Paris

Napoleon III instructed Haussmann to bring air and light to the center of the city, to unify the different neighborhoods with boulevards, and to make the city more beautiful. Theavenue de l'Opra, created by Haussmann, painted byCamille Pissarro(1898).

Georges-Eugene Haussmann, the Prefect of the Seine underNapoleon III(nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte)from 1853 until 1870Haussmann's renovation of Pariswas a vast public works program commissioned by EmperorNapolon IIIand directed by his theprefectof the Seine,Georges-Eugne Haussmannbetween 1853 and 1870. It included the demolition of crowded and unhealthy medieval neighborhoods, the building of wide avenues, parks and squares, the annexation of the suburbs surrounding Paris, and the construction of new sewers, fountains and aqueducts. Haussmann's work met with fierce opposition, and he was finally dismissed by Napoleon III in 1870; but work on his projects continued until 1927. The street plan and distinctive appearance of the center of Paris today is largely the result of Haussmann's renovation.

Overcrowding, disease, crime and unrest in the center of the old Paris

The Rue St. Nicolas du Charonnet, one of the narrow Medieval streets near the Pantheon on the Left Bank, in the 1850s.In the middle of the nineteenth century, the center of Paris was overcrowded, dark, dangerous, and unhealthy. In 1845 the French social reformerVictor Considerantwrote: "Paris is an immense workshop of putrefaction, where misery, pestilence and sickness work in concert, where sunlight and air rarely penetrate. Paris is a terrible place where plants shrivel and perish, and where, of seven small infants, four die during the course of the year."[2]The street plan on the Ie de la Cit and in the neighborhood called the quarter des Arcis, between the Louvre and the Hotel de Ville, had changed little since the Middle Ages. The population density in these neighborhoods was extremely high, compared with the rest of Paris; in the neighborhood of the Champs-lyses, there was one resident for every 186 square meters; in the neighborhoods of Arcis and Saint-Avoye, in the present Third Arrondissement, there was one inhabitant for every three square meters.[3]In 1840, a doctor described one building in the le de la Cit where a single room five meters square on the fourth floor was occupied by twenty-three persons, both adults and children.[4]In these conditions, disease spread very quickly. Cholera epidemics ravaged the city in 1832 and 1848. In the epidemic of 1848, five percent of the inhabitants of these two neighborhoods had died.[2]Traffic circulation was another major problem. The widest streets in these two neighborhoods were only five meters wide; the narrowest were only one or two meters wide.[4]Wagons, carriages and carts could barely move through the streets.[5]The center of the city was also a cradle of discontent and revolution; between 1830 and 1848, seven armed uprisings and revolts had broken out in the centre of Paris, particularly along the Fabourg Saint-Antoine, around the Hotel de Ville, and around Montagne Saint-Genevieve on the left bank. The residents of these neighborhoods had taken up paving stones and blocked the narrow streets with barricades, and had to be dislodged by the army.[6] The Rue des Marmousets, one of the narrow and dark medieval streets on the le de la Cit, in the 1850s. The site is near the Hotel de Dieu. The Rue du March aux fleurs on the le de la Cit, before Haussmann. The site is now the place Louis-Lpine. The rue du Jardinet on the Left Bank, demolished by Haussmann to make room for the Boulevard Saint Germain. The Rue Tirechamp in the old quarter des Arcis, demolished during the extension of the Rue de Rivoli The Bievre river was used to dump the waste from the tanneries of Paris; it emptied into the Seine. Barricade on rue Soufflot during the1848 Revolution. There were seven armed uprisings in Paris between 1830 and 1848, with barricades built in the narrow streets.Earlier attempts to modernize the city

The second-hand clothing market, the March du Temple, in 1840, before Haussmann.The urban problems of Paris had been recognized in the 18th century;Voltairecomplained about the markets "established in narrow streets, showing off their filthiness, spreading infection and causing continuing disorders." He wrote that the facade of the Louvre was admirable, "but it was hidden behind buildings worthy of the Goths and Vandals." He protested that the government "invested in futilities rather than investing in public works." In 1739 he wrote to the King of Prussia: "I saw the fireworks which they fired off with such management; would rather they started to have a Hotel de Ville, beautiful squares, magnificent and convenient markets, beautiful fountains, before having fireworks." The 18th century architectural theorist and historianQuatremere de Quincyhad proposed establishing or widening public squares in each of the neighbourhoods, expanding and developing the squares in front theCathedral of Notre Dameand the church of Saint Gervais, and building a wide street to connect the Louvre with the Hotel de Ville, the new city hall. Moreau, the architect in chief of Paris, suggested paving and developing the embankments of the Seine, building monumental squares, clearing the space around landmarks, and cutting new streets. In 1794, during theFrench Revolution, a Commission of Artists drafted an ambitious plan to build wide avenues, including a street in a straight line from thePlace de la Nationto theLouvre, where the Avenue Victoria is today, and squares with avenues radiating in different directions, largely making use of land confiscated from the church during the Revolution, but all of these projects remained on paper. Napoleon Bonapartealso had ambitious plans for rebuilding the city. He began work on a canal to bring fresh water to the city and began work on the Rue de Rivoli, beginning at the Place de la Concorde, but only was able to extend it to the Louvre before his downfall. If only the heavens had given me twenty more years of rule and a little leisure, he wrote while in exile onSaint Helena, one would vainly search today for the old Paris; nothing would remain of it but vestiges. The medieval core and plan of Paris changed little during the restoration of the monarchy through the reign of KingLouis-Philippe(18301848). It was the Paris of the narrow and winding streets and foul sewers described in the novels ofBalzacandVictor Hugo- the famous uprising described inLes Miserablestook place in 1832. In 1833, the new prefect of the Seine under Louis-Philippe,Claude-Philibert Barthelot, comte de Rambuteau, made modest improvements to the sanitation and circulation of the city. He constructed new sewers, though they still emptied directly into the Seine, and a better water supply system. He constructed 180 kilometres of sidewalks, a new street, Rue Lobau; a new bridge over the Seine, thepont Louis-Philippe; and cleared an open space around the Hotel de Ville. He built a new street the length of the le de la Cit. and three additional streets across it: rues d'Arcole, de la Cit, and Constantine. To access the central market atLes Halles, he built a wide new street (today'sRue Rambuteau), and began work on boulevard Malesherbes. On the Left Bank, he built a new street, Rue Soufflot, which cleared space around the Pantheon, and began work on the rue des Ecoles, between theEcole Polytechniqueand theCollege de France. Rambuteau wanted to do more, but his budget and powers were limited. He did not have the power to easily expropriate property to build new streets, and the first law which required minimum health standards for Paris residential buildings was not passed until April, 1850, under Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte. Louis-Napolon Bonaparte comes to power, and the rebuilding of Paris begins (18481852)

Napoleon III in 1855King Louis-Philippe was overthrown in the July Revolution of 1848. On 10 December 1848,Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, won the first direct presidential elections ever held in France with an overwhelming 74.2 percent of the votes cast. He was elected largely because of his famous name, but also because of his promise to try to end poverty and improve the lives of ordinary people.[12]Though he had been born in Paris, he had lived very little in the city; from the age of seven, he had lived in exile in Switzerland, England, and the United States, and for six years in prison in France for attempting to overthrow King Louis-Philippe. He had been especially impressed by London, with its wide streets, squares and large public parks. In 1852 he gave a public speech declaring: "Paris is the heart of France. Let us apply our efforts to embellishing this great city. Let us open new streets, make the working class quarters, which lack air and light, more healthy, and let the beneficial sunlight reach everywhere within our walls.[13]As soon as he was President, he supported the building of the first subsidised housing project for workers in Paris, the Cit-Napoleon, on the Rue Rochechouart. He proposed the completion of the Rue de Rivoli from the Louvre to the Hotel de Ville, completing the project begun by his uncle Napoleon Bonaparte, and he began a project to build a large new public park, theBois de Boulogne, modelled after Hyde Park in London but much larger, on the west side of the city. He wanted both these projects to be completed before the end of his term in 1852, but became frustrated by the slow progress made by his prefect of the Seine, Berger. The prefect was unable to move the work forward on the Rue de Rivoli quickly enough, and the original design for the Bois de Boulogne turned out to be a disaster; the architect,Jacques Ignace Hittorff, who had designed the Place de la Concorde for Louis-Philippe, followed Louis-Napoleon's instructions to imitate Hyde Park designed two lakes connected by a stream for the new park, but forgot to take into account the difference of elevation between the two lakes. If they had been built, the one lake would have immediately emptied itself into the other.[14]At the end of 1851, shortly before Napoelon's term expired, neither the Rue de Rivoli nor the park had progressed very far. He wanted to run for re-election in 1852, but was blocked by the new Constitution, which limited him to one term. A majority of members of parliament voted to change the Constitution, but not the two-thirds majority required. Prevented from running again, Napoleon staged a coup d'tat on 2 December 1851 and seized power. His opponents were arrested or exiled. The following year, on December 2, 1852, he declared himself Emperor, under the title Napoleon III. Haussmann begins work - the Croise de Paris (185359)

TheRue de Rivoli, shown here in 1855, was the first boulevard built by Haussmann, and it served as the model for the others.

The boulevards and streets built by Napoleon III and Haussmann during the Second Empire are shown in red. They also built theBois de Boulogne,Bois de Vincennes,Parc des Buttes-Chaumont,Parc Montsouris, and dozens of smaller parks and squares.Napoleon III dismissed Berger as the Prefect of the Seine and sought a more effective manager. His minster of the interior,Victor de Persigny, interviewed several candidates, and selected George Eugene Haussmann, the prefect of Bordeaux, who impressed Persigny with his energy, audacity, and ability to overcome or get around problems and obstacles. He became Prefect of the Seine on 22 June 1853, and on 29 June the Emperor showed him the map of Paris and instructed Haussmann toarer, unifier, et embellirParis: to give it air and open space, to connect and unify the different parts of the city into one whole, and to make it more beautiful. Haussmann went to work immediately on the first phase of the renovation desired by Napoleon III; completing thegrand croise de Paris, a great cross in the centre of Paris that would permit easier communication from east to west along the rue de Rivoli and rue Saint-Antoine, and north-south communication along two new Boulevards, Strasbourg and Sebastopol. The grand cross had been proposed by the Convention during the Revolution, and begun by Napoleon I; Napeoleon III was determined to complete it. Completion of the rue de Rivoli was given an even higher priority, because the Emperor wanted it finished before the opening of the Paris Universal Exposition of 1855, only two years away, and he wanted the project to include a new hotel, the Hotel du Louvre, the first large luxury hotel in the city, to house the Imperial guests at the Exposition. . Under the Emperor, Haussmann had greater power than any of his predecessors. In February 1851 the French Senate had simplified the laws on expropriation, giving him the authority to expropriate all the land on either side of a new street; and he did not have to report to the Parliament, only to the Emperor. The French parliament, controlled by Napoleon III, provided fifty million francs, but this was not nearly enough. Napoleon III appealed to thePereire brothers, Emile and Isaac, two bankers who had created a new investment bank,Crdit Mobilier. The Pereire brothers organised a new company which raised 24 million francs to finance the construction of the street, in exchange for the rights to develop real estate along the route. This became a model for the building of all of Haussmann's future boulevards. To meet the deadline, three thousand workers laboured on the new boulevard twenty-four hours a day, under electric lights at night. The rue de Rivoli was completed, and the new hotel opened in March, 1855, in time to welcome guests to the Exposition. The junction was made between the Rue de Rivoli and rue Saint-Antoine; in the process Haussmann created a new Place du Carrousel, opened up a new square, Place Saint-Germain-l-Auxerois facing the colonnade of the Louvre; reorganized the space between the Hotel de Ville and theplace du Chatelet.[19]Between the Hotel and Ville and the Bastille, he widened the rue Saint-Antoine; he was careful to save the historicHotel de Sullyand Hotel de Mayenne, but many other buildings, both medieval and modern, were knocked down to make room for the wider street, and several ancient, dark and narrow streets, rue de l'Arche-Marion, rue du Chevalier-le-Guet and rue des Mauvaises-Paroles, disappeared from the map. In 1855, work began on the north-south axis, beginning with Boulevard de Strasbourg and Boulevard Sebastopol, which cut through the center of some of the most crowded and unhealthy neighborhoods in Paris, where the cholera epidemic had been the worst, between the rue Saint-Martin and rue Saint-Denis. "It was the gutting of old Paris," Haussmann wrote with satisfaction in hisMemoires: of the neighborhood of riots, and of barricades, from one end to the other." The boulevard Sebastopol ended at the new Place du Chtelet; a new bridge, the pont-au-Change, was constructed across the Seine, and crossed the island on a newly built street. On the left bank, the north-south axis was continued by boulevard Michel, which was cut in a straight line from the Seine to the Observatory, and then, as the Rue d'Enfer, extended all the way to route d'Orleans. The north-south axis was completed in 1859.The two axes crossed at the Place du Chtelet, making it the center of Haussmann's Paris. Haussmann widened the square, moved theFontaine du Palmier, built by Napoleon I, to the center; and built two new theaters, facing each other across the square; the Cirque Imprial (now the Chtelet Theater) and the Theatre Lyrique (now theTheater de la VIlle). The second phase - a network of new boulevards (18591867)

The tree-lined avenue de l'Imperatrice (now Avenue Foch) was designed by Haussmann as the grand entrance to theBois de Boulogne.

The newavenue des Gobelinson the left bank opened a view to thePanthon.

Haussmann'sBoulevard Saint-Germainwas designed as the main east-west axis of the left bank.

The le de la Cit transformed by Haussmann: new transverse streets (red), public spaces (light blue) and buildings (dark blue).In the first phase of his renovation Haussmann constructed 9.467 kilometers of new boulevards, at a net cost of 278 million francs. The official parliamentary report of 1859 found that it had "brought air, light and healthiness and procured easier circulation in a labyrinth that was constantly blocked and impenetrable, where streets were winding, narrow, dark and unhealthy."It had employed thousands of workers, and most Parisians were pleased by the results. His second phase, approved by the Emperor and parliament in 1858 and begun in 1859, was much more ambitious. He intended to build a network of wide boulevards to connect the interior of Paris with the ring of grand boulevards built byLouis XVIIIduring the restoration, and to the new railroad stations which Napoleon III considered the real gates of the city. He planned to construct 26.294 kilometers of new avenues and streets, at a cost of 180 million francs.Haussmann's plan called for the following:On the right bank: The construction of a large new square, place du Chateau-d'Eau (the modernPlace de la Republique). This involved demolishing the famous theater street known as "le boulevard du Crime, made famous in the film "Les Enfants du Paradis; and the construction of three new major streets: the boulevard du Prince Eugne (the modern boulevard Voltaire); the boulevard Magenta and rue Turbigo. Boulevard Voltaire became one of the longest streets in the city, and became the central axis of the eastern neighborhoods of the city. It would end at the Place du Trone (the modern Place de la Nation). The extension of boulevard Magenta to connect it with the new railroad station, theGare du Nord. the construction of boulevard Malesherbes, to connect the place de la Madeleine to the new Monceau neighborhood. The construction of this street obliterated one of the most sordid and dangerous neighborhoods in the city, calledla Petite Pologne, where Paris policemen rarely ventured at night. A new square, place de l'Europe, in front of theGare Saint-Lazarerailway station. The station was served by two new boulevards, rue de Rome and rue Saint-Lazaire. In addition, the rule de Madrid was extended and two other streets, rue de Rouen (the modern rue Auber) and rue Halevy, were built in this neighborhood. Parc Monceauwas redesigned and replanted, and part of the old park made into a residential quarter. The rue de Londres and rue de Constantinople, under a new name, avenue de Villiers, was extended to porte Champerret. TheEtoile, around theArc de Triomphe, was completely redesigned. A star of new avenues radiated from the Etoile; avenue de Bezons (now Wagram); avenue Kleber; avenue Josephine (now Monceau); avenue Prince-Jerome (now Mac-Mahon and Niel); avenue Essling (now Carnot); and a wider avenue de Saint-Cloud (Now Victor Hugo). Avenue Daumesnil was built as far as the newBois de Vincennes, a huge new park being constructed on the east edge of the city. The hill ofChaillotwas leveled, and a new square created at the Pont d'Alma. Three new boulevards were built in this neighborhood: avenue d'Alma (the present George V); avenue de l'Empereur (the present Avenue du President-Wilson), which connected the places d'Alma, d'Iena and du Trocadero. In addition, four new streets were built in that neighborhood: rue Francois Premier, rue Pierre Charron, rue Marbeuf and rue de Marignan.[25]On the left bank: Two new boulevards, avenue Bosquet and avenue Rapp, were constructed, beginning from the pont d'Alma. The avenue de la Tour Maubourg was extended as far as thepont des Invalides. A new street, boulevard Arago, was constructed, to open up Place Denfert-Rochereau. A new street, boulevard d'Enfer (today's boulevard Raspail) was built up to the intersection Svres-Babylon. The streets around the Patheon on Montagne Sainte-Genevieve were extensively changed. A new street, avenue des Gobelins, was created, and part of rue Mouffetard was expanded. Another new street, rue Monge, was created on the east, while another new street, rue Claude Bernard, on the south. Rue Soufflot, built by Rambuteau, was entirely rebuilt.On the le de la Cit:The island became an enormous construction site, which completely destroyed most of the old streets and neighborhoods. Two new government buildings, the Tribunal de Commerce and the Prefecture de Police, were built, occupying a large part of the island. Two new streets were also built, the boulevard du Palais and the rue de Lutce. Two bridges, thepont Saint-Micheland thepont-au-Changewere completely rebuilt, along with the embankments near them. The Palais du Justice and place Dauphine were extensively modified. At the same time, Haussmann preserved and restored the jewels of the island; the square in front of theCathedral of Notre Damewas widened, the spire of the Cathedral, pulled down during the Revolution, was restored, andSainte-Chapelleand the ancient Conciergerie were saved and restored. The grand projects of the second phase were mostly welcomed, but also caused criticism. Haussmann was especially criticized for his taking large parts of theJardin du Luxembourgto make room for the present-day boulevard Raspail, and for its connection with the boulevard Saint-Michel. TheMedici Fountainhad to be moved further into the park, and was reconstructed with the addition of statuary and a long basin of water.Haussmann was also criticized for the growing cost of his projects; the estimated cost for the 26.29 kilometers of new avenues had been 180 million francs, but grew to 410 million francs; property owners whose buildings had been expropriated won a legal case entitling them to a larger payments, and many property owners found ingenious ways to increase the value of their expropriated properties by inventing non-existent shops and businesses, and charging the city for lost revenue. The Annexation of 1860- Paris is enlarged to its modern boundaries

Haussmann presents Emperor Napoleon III the documents for the annexation of the Paris suburbsOn January 1, 1860, Napoleon III officially annexed the suburbs of Paris out to the ring of fortifications around the city. The annexation included eleven communes; Auteuil, Batignolles-Monceau, Montmartre, La Chapelle, Passy, La Villette, Belleville, Charonne, Bercy, Grenelle and Vaugirard,along with pieces of other outlying towns. The residents of these suburbs were not entirely happy to be annexed; they did not want to pay the higher taxes, and wanted to keep their independence, but they had no choice; Napoleon III was Emperor, and h