history
TRANSCRIPT
World in 1000
Population: 310 million
Overall warm climate encouraged greater harvests equaling population growth
Civilizations were Western Europe, Byzantine Empire, Islamic states, Song China, Mayans
Norse and Polynesian exploration leads to establishment of settlement in North America and New Zealand.
Holy Roman Empire (800-1805)
Collection of largely German states in Central Europe, states presided over by Holy Roman Emperor (Otto III)
Initially part of Frankish empire, now loose confederation subject to will of the Emperor.Frequently at odds with the Catholic church over succession and investiture of bishops and cardinals
Feudal system weakened Emperor’s power
Feudal System and Serfdom
Feudalism: Post Roman relationship between King and Noble in which land is exchange for military service
Noble (vassal) was expected to use land revenues to equip himself and men at arms at the kings behest
Serfdom: form of slavery in which peasants are legally bound to lands governed by nobles
Frequently abused when royal power was weak. Nobles conducted themselves independent of royal authority.
Both systems endorsed and abused by church
Vasselage not hereditary, son had to renew
The Age of the Vikings (8th to 11th centuries)
Norse raiders from Scandinavia forced by over population to go “raiding”
Viking raids reached as far as Paris and Mediterranean. Practiced looting and slavery. Also served as mercenaries for Byzantine Empire.
Established colonies along Volga and Dneiper rivers. Found Kievan Rus state
995: Eric the red establishes colonies in Iceland and Greenland.
1003: Leif Erikson found short lived colony in Vinland (North America)
Credited with introducing legislative assembly, trial by jury
Kievan Rus (880’s-1240)
Medieval state established by Norse traders in modern day Russia
Established dominance over local slavic peoples incorporated city of Kiev as capitol
Reached high point during reigns of Vladimir and Yaroslav
Adopted Greek orthodox Christianity after “audition tour”
Drop in trade and internal conflicts lead to decline in 12th century
State destroyed during Mongol conquests
Norse Settlements of North America
982: Exiled Erik the Red establishes colony attempts to “attract” settlers by naming it Greenland
Settlement eventually grew to 5,000 benefiting from overall warm period
1002: Leif Erikson explores North American coast, makes landfall on Baffin Island. Establishes temporary settlement in modern-day Labrador
From Northmen to Normans
911: French King Charles (the Simple) grants Duchy of Normandy to Norse war leader Rollo
Norse settle in and intermarry with local population. Adopt French language and culture
1013: Alliance forms between King Ethelred II of England and Duke Richard II of Normandy
1052: King Edward the Confessor supposedly recognizes Duke William of Normandy (bastard) as heir.
Norman Invasion and Conquest of Britain
1066: Death of English King Edward the Confessor leads to between Harold Godwinson (England), Harold Hadroda (Norway), and William of Normandy (bastard)
25 September 1066: Viking army destroyed and killed Hadrada at battle of Stanford Bridge. Meanwhile William corsses England channel and lands at Revarsey.
English army force marches south, meets Normans near town of Hastings
October 14th 1066: at hard fought battle of Hastings, Godwinson is killed and English army destroyed at battle of Hastings
Christmas Day 1066: William is crowned William I of England
Legacy of Norman Conquest of England
William orders construction of White Tower of London as fortification and residence
First comprehensive survey of English people and property ordered under, Domesday Book
Preconquest of Old English language merges Norman French
Anglosaxon centralization of government continues, eventually replacing continental feudal system
Conflicting claims over territory and vassalage leads to Anglo-French rivalry that will continue until mid 19th century
Norman conquests include Sicily, southern Italy. Become much in demand as mercenaries. Form backbone of first crusade
Great Schism (1054)
Caused by gradual divergence of Greek and Latin Christianity
Differences include language, the divine nature of Christ, the worshipping of icons, celibacy for priests, the authority of the Emperor.
1054: Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX and Pope Leo XI issue simultaneous writs of excommunication on the other
Despite attempts at reconciliation, rift remains
Investiture Controversy
Dispute between religious and secular powers over the authority to appoint (invest)Bishops and Abbots
1075: Pope Gregory VII declares that papal power was universal and superceded all secular authorities
Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV Appoints Bishop of Milan, Pope responds with excommunication
1077: Facing rebellion at home, Henry prays for three days in the snow outside the Papal residence at Canossa
Henry II and Thomas Becket
Henry II (1133-1189): Powerful English King whos domain included England, Wales, Ireland, Normandy, Brittany, Aquitane, and Anjou.
1163: Henry attempts to establish authority over English church. Appoints close advisor Thomas Becket Arch the Great bishop of Canterbury.
Becket instead opposes Henry and flees into exile from 1164-1170.
Becket returns to England but is murdered by four knights on December 29 th.
Facing excommunication, Henry endures public scouring and penance. Becket’s tomb becomes popular pilgrimage spot until 16th century.
Byzantine Empire (324-1453)
Founded by Roman Emperor Constantine the Great.
Roman in organization but Greek in culture.
Would continue to claim descent from Roman Empire.
Prospers through control of Asia-Black Sea-European trade.
Greek church often conflicted with Roman church.
Islam and the Arabs
632: Prophet Mohammed dies, rule passed to Umayyad Caliphs.
632-711: Umayyad launch series of conquests that spreads Arab control over Middle East, North Africa and Spain.
661: Dispute over succession leads to splitting of Muslim world into Sunni and Shia factions. Sunni believe the followers should pick leader, Shia believe it should be passed down through family.
750: Abbasid Caliphate is established in Baghdad. Umayyad Caliphate is forced to flee to Spain.
909: Shia Fatimid takes control of Egypt and most northern Africa.
11th century: Seljuk Turks come out of central Asia and convert to Islam, sweep over much of Middle East, become major threat to Byzantine Empire and Western Christendom.
Golden Age of Islam (8th-13th centuries)
Called by historians the first “universal civilization”.
Known as “Islamic Golden Age” for its cultural, literary and scientific achievements.
Arab scholars preserved, studied, and expanded on ancient Persian, Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Chinese, Indian texts.
800s BCE: Arab adopt Chinese use of paper.
Religious tolerance attracts Muslim, Jewish, and Christian scholars to Damascus, Baghdad, Alexandria.
Universities founded in Morocco, Egypt and Syria.
Islamic mathematicians credited with developing algebra, trigonometry, decimal system, Arabic numbers.
10th century: Arab scholars translate and publish Persian Book of Thousand and One Nights. Also introduce philosophical and science-fiction genres.
Christian crusades and Turkish and Mongol invasions bring an end to Arab learning.
Islamic Agricultural Revolution (8th-13th centuries)
Period of technological and economic reforms within Arab domains.
Credited with disseminating new crops from Asia/ India through Middle East and Mediterranean.
Includes sorghum, rice, citrus fruit, mangoes, cotton, bananas, sugar cane, and wheat.
Period also sees wide-spread adoption of crop rotation, water mills, dams, etc.
Abbasid Caliphate provides incentives to scientific farming, environmental reforms, and privatization of farmlands.
Assassins (1090-1295)
Persian word given to followers of Nizari branch of Shia Islam.
Term derives from followers supposed ingestion of Hashish (Hashshashin) during religious services.
1090: Hassan-i-Sabbath breaks away from Fatimid Caliphate and establishes stronghold in mountain fortress of Alamut (Iran).
Followers become expert at covert warfare, infiltration, and murder.
Assassins become terror of both Islamic and Christian kingdoms.
1295: Cult attempts to intimidate Mongols advancing into Middle East. Alamut destroyed, cult all but wiped out.
Current Aga Khan traces descent to Assassins.
Seljuk Turks (1037-1194)
Central Asian tribe that migrated south and west beginning 9th century.
1037: Empire founded by Tugrul Beg and named to honor dynasty founder Seljuk.
1071: Alp Arslan expands Turkish empire into Persia. Converts to Sunni Islam and conquers Armenia and Georgia. Threatens Byzantine Empire province of Anatolia.
Battle of Manzikert (1071)
Fought between Seljuk Turks under Alp Arslan and Byzantine army under Emperor Romanos IV.
Heavily- armored Byzantines out-maneuvered by Turks, drawn into Anatolian mountains, further restricting mobility.
Romano’s reserve forces desert the emperor, who is captured by Arslan.
Seljuks overrun most of Asia Minor. Byzantine Empire enters period of decline.
The Call for Crusade (1095-1272)
1071: Turkish victory at Battle of Manzikert persuades Byzantine Emperor Alexis I to appeal to Catholic West for help.
Roman Pope Urban II regards appeal as opportunity to reunify Roman and Eastern churches and assert Papal authority in the West.
Also seen as opportunity as an outlet to belligerent and opportunistic western warriors.
1092: Convenes Council of Clermont and calls for crusade against infidels. Pope promises remission of sins and opportunity to participate in “just war”. Supposedly concludes with Deus lo Volt! (God wills it)
First Crusades
1096: “Peoples Crusade” led by Peter the Hermit sets out for Holy land. Consisting of 40,000 peasants but few warriors, crusade makes it as far as Asia Minor when they were captured and sold into slavery by Turks. They ask to be sent to Holy Land and when they get there they’re killed and the rest were sold into slavery.
Crusader call favorably received by lesser sons of Western nobility. First crusade travel by land and sea to Holy Land. Defeat lightly armed local Muslims using knights.
1099: Capture Jerusalem and subject it to violent sack. Estimated 40k killed. Establish kingdom of Jerusalem. Through this, they introduce feudalism to the Middle East
The Military Orders
Groups of warrior/monks charged with defending the Holy land and protecting Christian pilgrims
1119: Knights Templar formed. Name comes from headquarters supposedly on site of Solomon’s temple.
Knights Hospitaliers also provided care for sick and injured.
Members expected to turn over all wealth and property and take vow of poverty.
Military orders establish banking system in Holy Land.
Establishes reputation as fierce warriors. Become mounted shock force for Christian crusaders.
To become a knight you must give up everything (land, money, etc)
The Second Crusade fails and the rise of Saladin
1147: Call for second crusade in response to Turkish conquest of county of Edessa.
Crusade led by Louis VII (France) and Conrad III (Germany)
Turks adopt to Crusader tactics, use horse archers to counter mounted knights.
1871 first german united state
Crusaders torn by internal dissention. Attempt to besiege city of Damascus, but defeated by Turkish troops.
Second Crusade destroys relations between Christians and Turks, discredits Pope, but does liberate city of Lisbon and Moors. One of which was just taken on the way there.
Saladin and the Third Crusade
Saladin: Kurdish Muslim who becomes Sultan of Egypt and Syria in 1174.
Attempts to live in peace with Crusaders but is provoked into war.
1187: destroys main crusader army at battle of Hattin. Recaptures Jerusalem, which brings on third crusade.
Crusade (1187-1192) fought between Saladin and Richard the Lionheart. Many battles and Sieges, but neither gains advantage over the other. Treaty is signed given Muslims control of Jerusalem, but allows Christian pilgrims to visit holy sites.
They give each other a lot of respect, an assassin tells Richard he’ll kill Saladin and Richard turns him over to Saladin to be killed. Richard is most respected in England but hated it, has a statue in front of parliament house but was only ever even in England just to loot taxes to pay for his crusade. Saladin credited by Christians like Aristotle, Plato, etc. Saladin gets ice for Richard from the mountain tops when he has a high fever.
King John and the Magna Carta
1199: Richard I dies while on campaign. Succeeded by his brother John (Lackland (nickname because he had no title or land attached to him), Softsword)
1207: Dispute with church over investiture triggers papal interdict (suspension of ALL church services, no christenings, no funerals everyone who dies goes to hell all children born are not christians) in England. He signs England over to the church and is then under the power of the pope.
1215: Faced with rebellion from his nobles, John signs the Magna Carta, guaranteeing individual rights, recognizing due process and accepting that the king was subject to the rule of law. Spends the rest of his rule trying to nullify it.
Magna Carta lists series of rights and liberties of free man, says what the king cannot do. Really the rights were only given to all nobles, protecting nobility. Historically it is good because it sets standard for new laws/rules. That’s why there is only one English King john, because he sucked.
The Fourth Crusade and the Byzantine Empire
1198: Pope Innocent III calls for new crusade to free the Holy Land. Almost no response.
1201: Army of 34,000 men (including 4500 knights) from France and Germany agree to take to Crusader cause. Contract Venice to ships and transportation.
1202: Unable to pay Venetians, Crusaders agree to attack competing Byzantine Empire
1204: Constantinople falls to Crusaders and is subjected to brutal sack. Reorganized as Latin states, but retaken by Greeks in 1261.
Crusade excommunicated by Pope. Rift between Greek and Latinchurches made permanent. Once powerful Byzantine empire fatally weakened.
Legacy of the Crusades
Church’s influence over international politics begins to wane.
Trade contacts between Europe and Asia briefly reestablished. Post-Crusade efforts to reopen trade would influence 15th century voyages of exploration.
Arab advancements in mathematics, optics and engineering influence European science.
Similar crusades take place in Spain, Baltic.
First crusade begins tradition of organization of violence against Jews in Europe.
Mesoamerica in the 11th century
Major civilizations include the Toltec and Mixtec (central America) and Wari culture (South America)
North America dominated by Mississippian cultures.
Famous for “mound cities” such as Cahokia.
Capable of developing sophisticated economic/social structures and culture, but lacked knowledge of ironworking and wheel technology.
Hinduism (1700 BCE)
South Asian (Indian) religion based on diverse collection of traditions and origin tales.
Classical Hindi religion divided into Sruti (revealed) and Smriti (remembered) texts. Oral culture versus written culture. Best known Smriti is Rig Veda.
Word Hindu is actually Persian term for follower of Indian tradition.
Features pantheon of deities with both human and animal characteristics. Individual deities often embrace multiple aspects depending on tradition.
Religion reflects diverse interwoven nature of Indian society and history. Also influences establishment caste system.
Chalukya Empire (973-1189)
Dominated southern and western India.
Practiced Hinduism, but largely rejected caste system.
Civil unrest and rivalry with neighboring Chola empire lead to Chalukya’s decline and fall.
India under the Cholas
Chola: southern Indian dynasty who ruled from 300 BCE to 1279 CE.
Particularly known for their use of the sea for trade, communication, and conquest.
Reaches peak from 1010-1200 with territories including part of Sri Lanka, Burma, and Malay Peninsula.
Credited with furthering trade and knowledge exchange from Asia through Indian Ocean to Western world.
Buddhism (6th century BCE)
Religion/philosophy based on the life and teachings of 6th century BCE Prince Siddharta Gautama.
Central tenets include the endurance of suffering and the search for self enlightenment (Nirvana)
Includes belief of rebirth where indivual soul may be reincarnated several times before achieving enlightenment.
Followers required to embrace Four Noble Truths and follow Eightfold Path.
Major sub divisions of Buddhism include Theravada (south) and Mahayana (north)
Heian Japan (794-1185)
Named after the Imperial capitol city (modern day Kyoto)
Considered the last division of classical era in Japanese history.
Buddhism and Taoism introduced into Japan. Competes with and merges with indigenous Shinto religion.
Particularly known for its contributions to art and literature.
Imperial Court slowly loses control of government. Becomes puppet of Fujiwara clan (damiyo). They have themselves named the teachers of the emperors sons. They do this to become the power behind the throne.
Damiyo run provinces as their own little kingdoms for emperor. (They aid him by doing this)
Japanese Literature (990-1021)
990: The Pillow Book is published by Imperial consort Sei Shonagon.
Works consists of personal experiences and observances of life at the Japanese Court.
1021: World’s first novel, The Tale of Genji is published by Murasaka Shikibu.
Story centers of life of handsome Prince Genji’s romances and search for true love.
Shinto (2000 BCE-800 CE)
Refers to collection of legends, traditions and folk tales indigenous to Japan.
Begins with twin deities Izanagi and Izanami creating Japanese islands.
Features existence of Kami (spirits) that influence man and nature
Would be partially supplanted by Buddhism but not wholly replaced.
Does not require belief in Shinto to perform rites or rituals or to receive blessings.
Would remain major religion in Japan until present-day.
Decline of Imperial Rule and the rise of the Damiyo
1000: Increasing ineffectiveness of Imperial Court to maintain power leads to economy based on exchange of rice.
Power begins to be exercised by provincial lords (Damiyo) who controlled rice production.
Through marriage or regency appointments, Fujiwara clan is able to control imperial throne and emperors.
Fujiwara no Michinaga (966-1027) becomes grandfather to three emperors, father or grandfather to thirteen empresses or consorts.
Emperor Go-Sanjo (1068-1073) attempts to rule without Fujiwara advice, didn’t have the infrastructure to withstand
1158: Fujiwara clan loses power during struggle with rival Taira clan, which establishes first samurai dominated government.
Emperors and heirs can be replaced, by controlling the heirs you control the government.
Gempei War (1180-1185)
Fought between Taira and Minamoto clans.
Taira draw support from the control of the Imperial Court, while the Minamoto Yoritomo builds power base in Kamakura province.
April 25, 1185: Naval battle of Dano-Ura sees destruction of Taira clan at end of war. Emperor Antoku (7 years old) commits suicide by drowning rather than be taken prisoner. One of the few naval battles during its time. Every year on this day their ancestors go to a shrine and remember them.
Yoritomo assumes title of shogun (general) and relegates Imperial Court to de facto status. He is assumed by the court as a barbarian, and he assumes them as stuck-up and not real men.
Rules through military-style dictatorship called Bafaku (Tent government) and establishes feudal-style relationships with Damiyos. The Damiyo still serve the emperor but are answerable to the shogun. The shogun is only first amongst equals, he is still Damiyo. If he is weak or lazy or inefficient the other Damiyo will see it as their chance to seize power.
Damiyo serve at emperors wim, but the Damiyo control the land, so they can pretty much do what they want, the emperor-Damiyo relationship is mostly cosmetic.
Religion in China (600-479 BCE)
Laozi (600-400 BCE) Chinese philosopher who stressed harmony with nature and self-enlightment. Wrote Tao Te Ching (the classic way to truth) and is regarded as the founder of Daoism.
Confucius (551-479 BCE) Thinker and social philosopher during the spring and autumn period.
Emphasized harmony within society and importance of the individual’s obligations to parents, clan, family, and emperor. Needs of the individual come second to the needs of society.
Writes Analects (with his students?), which becomes the template for the “perfect” Chinese society. Becomes required study for generations of scholars and administrators.
The Mandate of Heaven
Chinese philosophy of rule dating from the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BCE)
Based on the tenet that the rule to rule derives from Heaven, which show their approval through good fortune for the nation.
As there is only one heaven, there can be one ruler. The ruler is expected to exercise wisdom and virtue.
The right to rule need not be limited to one dynasty and rebellion be justified by success.
The Mandate can not only legitimize a ruler, it can also legitimize his removal. Things like earthquakes and typhoons were seen as signs from the gods deeming the current ruler unfit. Mild winters and good harvests meant the Mandate was in the graces of the gods. The emperor is the Mandate, the emperor is the winner among everyone and this is so because it was believed that the gods helped him to win.
Song Dynasty (960-1279)
First ruler, emperor Taizu, with capitol at Kaifeng.
Ended internal strife of Ten Kingdoms period. He brings them together by force.
Rule divided into Northern (960-1127) and Southern (1127-1279) Periods.
Best known for social and scientific advancements.
Song Dynasty
Chinese military consolidated under trusted commanders answerable directly to the throne
Border units limited to three-year tours with commanders chosen by Bureau of Military Affairs
First Dynasty to establish standing navy featuring paddle-driven warships
Military control of provinces gives way to civilian merit-based bureaucracy
First to nationalize education
Examination System
Orignially established in 605 CE during Sui Dynasty
Consisted of various levels of examinations ranging from the local to Imperial court
Theoretically, exams open to all Chinese males regardless of class and birth. 10 hours of studying a day to move on to provincial court.
Curriculum limited to study and knowledge of Confucian philosophy and ethics. If there was a famine you would have to answer in relation to how Confucius would answer.
Degree of success in exams could lead to position in civil service or even Imperial court advisor. People would commit suicide because of the shame from failing.
If you were southern Chinese you didn’t speak Mandarin so to have to translate Analects in a language you don’t understand you just can’t do it. It was not unheard of for brilliant students to rise all the way to the top (such as counseling the emperor).
Song Dynasty Technology
Bi Sheng (990-1051) develops system of moveable type and printing. However, complexities of Chinese language (7000+ characters) and use of clay blocks makes system impracticable. System never really catches on because there are too many characters and clay blocks were too weak.
960: Song government introduces first paper currency. Economy flourishes, Chinese mercantile firmly established. Replaces metal, coins, etc. provides centralized government control of economy because they are who is allowed to print money. Fiat economy, the money is worth what they say it is, they can use this currency to jump start trade, technology, etc. leads to overall prosperity of economy.
Song military adopts gunpowder-based weapons. Gives brief, but major advantage over enemies.
1086: Scholar Su Song builds mechanical clock tower. They can now track time.
Network of canals speeds travel and commerce in central and south China. Connects major rivers and seas.
Introduction of improved rice grain leads to doubling of Chinese population to 100 million by 11 th century.
Decline of Song Power (1101-1127)
Jurchen tribes of eastern Manchuria unify and form Jin Dynasty.
1122: Emperor Huizong allys with Jin against tradition Khitan. Jin destroys Khitan, then turns and attacks Song.
1127: Jin sack Kaifeng. Emperor dies in captivity.
Emperor Gaozong withdraws south of Yangtze River and establishes Southern Song dynasty. New capitol established at city of Hangzhou. Dynasty revives and succeeds in halting Jin expansion using gunpowder weapons.
Jin Dynasty (1115-1234) is established in northern China. Captiol city Beijing, but soon faces new threat from Mongols.
Mongols
Nomadic peoples of Northern Central asia possibly related to the Xiongnu peoples (Great Wall).
Culture and society centered around horse.
Economy based on herding, trade, and raiding.
Also related to Jurchen and Kitian.
Established loose confederation of tribes governed by Kuriltai (tribal elders/council)
From Temujin to Ghengis Khan
Born in 1160’s, son of tribal chieftan killed by Tartar tribe. Harsh childhood, brief period as captive. He was a slave.
Builds allegiances with local tribes. Establishes reputation for cruel terror and military prowess. If you did him wrong at some point, he would eventually come back to get you. Those who enslaved him, any taller than an axel cart were beheaded. The tribe who killed his father was wiped out. He never forgets an enemy or a friend.
All but exterminates Tartar and Taichi’ut tribes (cart axle). Defeats friend and rival Jamuka. Jamuka ran away when he saw his army defeated. Two of his generals turned him over to Temujin believing it was in their best interest. Jamuka is saved because they are blood brothers, he saved Temujin’s wife’s honor and Temujin respects this. Jamuka realizes as they are both alive there will always be turmoil because they both want to lead so he wants to be put down without bloodshed. Temujin grants his wish and breaks his back.
Ignored traditional tribal and clan loyalties in favor of permanent military organizations. Wants his warriors to quit thinking in terms of clans and tribes, but as Mongols. He is creating the Mongol state by doing this, by uniting all into one.
1206: Temujin is elected Universal Ruler (Ghengis Khan) of all Mongols.
He observes all traditions which maintains his control of power.
Mongol Conquests begin
1206-1215: Mongols conquer Xia Kingdom
Ghengis Khan organizes nomadic tribes into standing military units up to 10,000 man Tuman. Promotions primarily merit-based.
Mixed generosity and atrocity to enhance Mongol military reputation.
Mongols invade eastern Asian nation of Khwarizm. Millions killed.
1223: Mongol expansion reach Persia, Ukraine, Crimea.
1227: Ghengis Khan dies of natural causes. Son Ogedei named successor.
Westward Mongol Conquests
1237: Mongols overrun Kingdoms of Georgia and Armenia. Invade and destroy Kievan Rus. Moscow and Novgorod submit.
1241: Mongols confront and destroy medieval Polish army. Advance continues into Hungary.
Mongol advance halts upon word of death of Ogedei Khan and new election.
European and Central Asian domains ruled by Golden Horde until 1500’s.
If you stop conquering then the Mongols will fall apart and just become Nomadic again so that’s why they’re always just taking shit over.
Mongols invade Middle East
1251: Mongols under command Hulagu (Ghengis Khan’s grandson) invade Persia, exterminate Assassin cult.
1258: Mongols destroy Baghdad and bring down Abbasid Caliphate. Millenia-old irrigation system devastated. Land quickly reverted to desert.
Crusader states form hasty treaty with Egyptian Mamluks.
1260: Mamluks halt Mongol advance at battle of Ain Jalut.
Mongols establish Il-Khanate in Persia. Convert to Islam. Would rule religion until 1353.
Mongol invasions credited with ending Arab and Seljuk Turkish empires. Prolong existence of Crusader and Byzantine states.
Mongols Conquer China
1234: Mongols complete destruction of Kin Dynasty, turn on Song.
1260 Kublai claims title of Great Khan. Refusal of brothers Kaidu and Hulegu to recognize claim leads to end of united Mongol Empire.
1271: Conquest of Song Dynasty completed. Kublai proclaims Yuan Dynasty. Adopts Chinese government and attire, but retains Mongols in overall control. Capitol established in Beijing.
Yuan conquests include Korea and Indochina. Attempt two invasions of Japan.
Yuan authorize extensive program of road and canal construction.
The Mongol Legacy “Pax Mongolica”
Mongol rule leads to a period of security and stability in Central Asia. The “Silk Road” of trade routes is reestablished and commerce between Europe and Asia resumes.
Silk, spices, paper, and gunpowder reaches Europe. Islamic science and technology spreads throughout Asia.
Roman Catholic missions established in Yuan Dynasty China and India.
Increased trade also allows spread of bubonic plague from Asia to Europe.
Disintegration of centralized Mongol state and outbreak of Black Death leads to collapse of overland trade, but would inspire search for sea route.
The Mongol Postscript: Tamerlane (1336-1405)
Warlord of Mongol Descent who conducted campaigns of conquest from his capitol of Samarkand.
Controversial figure who portrayed himself as faithful Muslim and devoted Mongol, but who attacked both. Grew up in the city unlike Ghengis Khan and so he likes palaces fine clothes etc.
Self-styled intellectual and philosopher who was famous for gruesome atrocities (skull pyramids) said to have built a 50000 stack of skulls. Had a great deal of respect for science and philosophy. While he raided and killed people in cities he would save all the scientists and philosophers and have discussions with them.
Realm stretches from India to Middle East.
Credited with reviving Central Asian culture at expense of neighbors.
“Tamerlane’s curse” – placed upon anyone who would violate his tomb. Said they would get a plague worse than him. The Russians opened it June 20th 1941 and two days later Nazi Germany invaded the soviet union for the first time which started a war that killed 22 million Russians. The body was returned two days before the victory at Stalingrad.
Japan during the Kamakura Shogunate (1185-1333)
Also referred to as “feudal Japan”
Authority exercised through military-style Bafuku (tent government) with emperor as powerless figurehead
1199: Minamoto Yoritomo dies and Shogunate comes under regency administered by Hojo clan
Pure land and Zen Buddhist movements established and gain popularity amongst peasants and warriors (samurai)
1221: Emperor Go-Toba attempts rebellion against Shogun but is defeated.
Daimyo
(Large land-owner) Provincial warlords ruling Japan from 12th-19th centuries.
Started around the 9th century as the nobles military heirlings to do their work for them while they were in court at the side of the emperor. After a long enough time they just eventually started to run the provinces. They run them through their own power with an occasional nod to the emperor.
Originally warriors administering provinces for Imperial Court. Later, ruling provinces in their own right.
Zen Buddhism
Sect of Buddhism introduced in Japan around 8th century.
Emphasis placed on meditation and individual experience over subordination to learned doctrine and instruction.
Popular amongst samurai for its austerity and search for clarity.
Mongol invasions of Japan (1274, 1280)
1274: After several attempts by Mongols to force Japanese submission. Yuan fleet of 800 ships and 23000 men (Majority Chinese and Korean) land on southern island of Kyushu
Samurai warfare was very ritualized but Mongols came in with different style. Because of this samurai warfare becomes more standardized.
Japanese frustrated by Mongol mass tactics and gunpowder weapons. However, ferocity of Japanese prevent Mongols from landing entire force.
Large typhoon scatters Mongol fleet and forces withdrawal of expedition.
Hojo Regency orders mobilization of all samurai and prepares for second invasion.
1280: Mongols return and attempt landing at Hakata Bay. However, coastal defenses and stiff Japanese resistance repel invaders.
Second typhoon destroys Mongol fleet killing est. 120,000.
Invasions seen as defining moment in Japanese history. Samurai gain in stature while Hojo authority is undetermined.
From Hojo to Ashikaga (1336-1573)
1331: Last Hojo regent falls and Emperor Go-Daigo begins brief period of direct rule.
1336: Shogun power reestablished under new class, the Ashikaga. However, all shoguns must be of Minamoto blood.
Bafuku retained, but centralized government is replaced by series of alliances between shogun and Daimyo.
Dispute between Hosokawa and Yamana clans escalates into eleven-year Onin war. Kyoto devastated.
Inability of Ashikaga to maintain order and peace encourages other clashes between Daimyo. Eventually leads to “Warring States” period.
Samurai
Meaning “one who serves,” warriors accepted by Daimyo.
Originally specialists in mounted archery, would become infantry by Mongol invaders.
Only individuals authorized to carry two swords (Daisho).
Those who weren’t accepted into service = Ronin. Even if t hey attained weapons etc. they were considered as nothing in Japanese society (beggers).
Later, would gain authority of summary capitol judgement. Meaning a samurai had the right to kill anyone who committed a crime. In reality, if the samurai takes the wrong person’s head (one valuable to the Daimyo) he would have to take his own life in return.
Traditional pay for samurai one koku (180 liters) or rice. Often would be granted land in lieu of rice. When the Daimyo didn’t have enough rice to give to all the samurai they needed they granted them land instead.
Samurai’s are hired swords, they are not the knights the West thinks they are. They are supposed to serve who they are under until death. They are known to turn their backs when they receive a better deal.
Samurai Weapons
Katana: Single-edged curved sword between 23-27 inches long.
Developed using “folding steel” technique. Smiths would take a layer of steel and fold it back upon itself. Katana’s could resembles hundreds of thousands of layers of folding, result = very light but very strong sword.
Wakazashi: 20 inches long short sword paired with Katana. Considered “honor sword”, is never removed.
Samurai also expected to be expert with pole-arm (naginata) mounted archery (Yabusame) and later Westrern Arquebus.
Enemies of the Samurai
Ronin: (wave-men) warriors not bound in services. Often survived through banditry or as mercenaries.
Ikko-Ichi: (single-minded) loosely organized mobs of disaffected peasants, priests, and Ronin. Siezed control of Kaga and Mikawa provinces in 15th century.
Sohei: Warrior monks of Pure Land Sect. Formed private armies and warred against other temples and Bafuku. 40 years of survival
Sengoku (Warring States) 1467-1573
Period of civil and political unrest brought on by increase of trade and declining power of Shogun.
Features conflicts between Daimyo for land, wealth, and prestige.
Begins with Onin war (1467-1477) as factions struggle over control of Shogunal heir.
One-on-one samurai duels give way to set-piece, large-scale battles.
First use of professionally-trained peasant infantry (Ashigaru).
Also involves uprisings by clashes with Sohei and Ikko-ichi.
Post-1500’s contract with Europeans bring introduction of firearms.
The ashigaru are equipped with muskets as soon as Japan discovers how to manufacture their own. This is dangerous because they can now kill the samurai at a distance.
Ninja
Modern-day term given to legendary of spies and assassins. Thought to have been created in the last two centuries.
Most likely based on Daimyo employment of covert agents during 15th-17th centuries.
Supposedly used weapons taken from common usage such as Kusarigama.
Most “knowledge” from popular culture. Extremely scanty historical evidence to suggest existence.
Battle for Kwanakajima (1153-1164)
Series of five battle fought between Daimyo Takeda Shingen and Uesuji Kenshin for control of Kwanakajima River.
Fourth battle best known for one-on-one fight between lords.
Struggle ultimately a draw, but remains legendary in Japanese history.
Is said that Takeda fended off 7 blows from Uesuji’s katana when he broke his line into his headquarters.
Respect: Shingen is running out of salt and Kenshin sends him more saying “wars are fought with swords not salt”
Oda Nobunaga 1534-1582
Began as samurai who overthrew his lord (Gekokujo)
Defeated rivals by equipping Ashigaru with western muskets.
1571: Defeated and destroyed Ikko-ichi and Sohei in separate campaigns. Eventually exercised control over one-third of Japan.
Encouraged development of manufacture and trade. Patronized tea ceremony and Kabuki theater.
1582: Betrayed by lieutenant forced to commit seppuku (so he wouldn’t have the shame of defeat, seppuku=suicide). Lieutenant let him have safe passage through his lands then turned his back on him and attacked.
Toyotomi Hideoyoshi (1536-1598)
Peasant-born and is an orphan, began career as Nobunaga’s sandal carrier. Eventually become a general.
Reunited Oda clan after death of Nobunaga. Completed conquest of Japan and ended Segoku Period in 1590.
Unable to assume shogun, Hideoyoshi was instead named Kampaku (regent) to child shogun. He unites Japan for the first time in 100 years, named monkey because of how ugly he was all his life.
Hideyoshi in charge (1588-1598)
1588: Orders “sword hunt” confiscating all swords held by non-samurai.
Establishes rigid division of Japanese society into Noble, Samurai, Peasant, and Merchant classes. Forbids samurai from owning land. There is to be no elevation from one class to another despite his own case.
Patronizes tea ceremony.
1592: Assumes title of Taiko (retired regent) but desires legacy-establishing accomplishment. Uniting Japan isn’t enough because it was the plan laid out by Nobunaga and all he did was carry it out. Launches invasion of Asia.
Japanese invasions of Korea
First began in 1592. Approximately 200,000 Japanese involved.
Japanese succeed in capturing Korean capitol, but attract the intervention of the Ming Dynasty. The Japanese were not natural mariners. They’re navy consisted of any merchant ships they had armed with samurai. Samurai couldn’t get near turtle ships because near the mouth of the dragon on the ships there was a flamethrower and spikes on top of the ship so no one could board it.
Japanese sea communications subjected to constant harassment by Korean “turtle ships”
Japanese withdraw in 1593.
Second invasion launched in 1597. Ended with Hideoyoshi’s death in 1598.
Tokugawa Iyeasu (1543-1616)
Son of Daimyo, served Oda Nobunaga, allied to Toyotomi Hideoyoshi.
Named one of five Regents to watch over Toyotomi’s son. Instead, power struggle ensues after Hideoyoshi’s death.
Builds alliance with other eastern Daimyo. Secures support of child shogun. They were split into east and west factions.
October 21, 1600: Battle of Sekigahara ends in Tokugawa victory. Tokugawa not of Minamoto descent, gets around this by being adopted into the Minamoto clan (honors the tradition). Wins the battle by having one of the generals switch sides in the middle of the battle (bribes him).
1603: formally named shogun. Clan would remain in power until 1868.
END OF TEST 1 NOTES
The life and legend of Miyamoto Musashi (1584-1645)
Famous swordsman and duelist. Supposedly won 60 duels starting from age 13.
Mastered variety of weapons. Notorious for using “tricks” in gaining the advantage. Didn’t want to serve under a Daimyo. One trick he would use would be to set a time to fight and then he would show up late which would enrage his adversary which would cause a greater chance of a mistake. He fought an opponent with a stick once as well which meant he thought he wasn’t on his level. He agreed to fight a man on an island in a lake and just left him there because he thought he was below his level.
Twice fought against Tokugawa forces and lost yet lived.
Studied Zen Buddhism. Incorporated it into his fighting style. He doesn’t really see killing a guy as proving a point, just keeping his reputation in tact.
1643: Begins writing Go Rin No Sho (Book of Five Rings) on weapons, strategy, philosophy.
Regarded as quintessential samurai but spent most of his life not in service.
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)
Replaced Yuan Dynasty. Last dynasty ruled by native Han. (native Chinese)
Founded by peasant-born Zhu Yuanzhang who led rebel Red Turban movement. Defeated Yuan and took the name Hongwu (vastly martial aka great general) Emperor and began Ming (brilliant) Dynasty. Ming dynasty known for its military prowess and ability. Unify all of China.
1368 he took over and began the Son appointed by the gods.
Ming Reforms
Emperor Hongwu instituted land reforms and encouraged peasant ownership of land.
Reduced the number and role of eunuchs at Court. Expanded size of military to million-plus.
Hated scholars and philosophers. Only scholar he ever liked was one who impressed him by manning up (walked up and criticized him which thought would lead to his death so he brought a coffin)
Ruthlessly suppressed dissent and criticism. Especially suspicious of scholars and merchants.
Developed comprehensive legal code.
To be a eunuch you have to be castrated. Reason being is because there main job was to protect the imperial wives (queen/s)
Zhang He (1371-1435)
Ming Dynasty mariner, explorer, diplomat and fleet admiral.
Persian by birth, practiced Islam, castrated and entered Imperial service as eunuch.
1405: Selected by Yongle Emperor to undertake voyages of exploration and diplomacy.
Would undertake seven known voyages, sailing to Indonesia, Middle East, India, and the eastern coast of Africa.
Ming “Treasure Ships”
Primary ships of Zheng He’s voyages.
416 feet long by 170 feet wide, ships featured multiple masts, watertight compartments and displaced 1500-2000 tons.
Expeditions consisted of 62 treasure ships and 190 smaller support ships.
Largest wooden ships ever built.
Voyages end
1435: Zhang He dies while on seventh boyage and is buried at sea.
New Emperor Zhengtong (8 years old) is persuaded by traditionalist faction to end voyages and sever all contact with the outside world. Eunuch’s tell him these voyages are a waste of time, (making contact with inferior people, why do that?) Not Chinese = barbarian
China enters period of self-isolation. Lasts until 19th century.
European Transition
Avignon Papacy
1305: French-born Pope Clement V relocates Papacy from Rome to Avignon. Forms close alliance with French King Philip IV and assumes appearance of secular wealth.
1378: Pope Gregory XI returns papacy to Rome. French Cardinals remain at Avignon and elect separate Pope. Each excommunicate the other.
1415: Schism finally ends with election of Martin V at Council of Constance.
Papacy seen as political and secular, undermining confidence and creditability with faithful. People now openly question “Is this really what God wants?”
The Hundred Years War Phase I (1337-1389)
Who gets the french throne, Edward III or Phillip IV (this is what started the war)
Was really 124 years long
Salic law says descent cant be traced through the female so his claim is bullshit.
Taking advantage of turmoil in France, English King Edward III asserts his claim.
Really into battle because it shows class levels. Knights lead in society and they are supposed to lead on the battlefield.
26 August 1346: English win crushing victory over the French at the Battle of Crecy. French outnumbered them something like 3 to 1.
Battle seen as beginning of end of medieval warfare.
1356: French again defeated at Battle of Poitiers. French King John II taken prisoner. John dies in captivity because the French nation is so poor it cannot afford to pay his ransom.
1360: Treaty of Bretigny temporarily ends war with Britain controlling half of France.
1361-1389: France resurges and recaptures some territory before truce declared.
Black Death (1348-1350)
Microbes on the fleas on the rats that transmitted the plague
Name given to series of plagues spreading throughout Western and southern Europe
Plague originates in Asia. Spreads via trade routes to Italy, France
Most common form, Bubonic plague
Estimated 45-50% of European population perished during plague. Estimated death toll world-wide 75-200 million
Political, Economic, and Social Impact of Plague
Attempts by superstitious peasants to defeat plague lead to attempts to wipe out cats, Jews, witches
Church temporarily discredited. Local cults of self-flagellants form
Trade collapses. Lack of workers trigger crop failures and runaway infiltration prices
Plague becomes backdrop for literary classics such as Decameron and Divine Comedy
Although scenes of greatest fatalities, towns gain new importance in medieval society
Decimation of peasant class leads to high demand for laborers and of social rules and strictures
Outbreaks of plague reoccur until late 18th century
Hundred Years War: Phase II
1415: English King Henry V renews claim on French throne. Invades country
Fields were very muddy, when horses couldn’t move and knights fell off in 80 pounds of armor it was a little heard for them to move. English claim they will cut the three middle fingers of all bowmen they capture because those are the fingers they use to pull the bowstring back. This eventually turned into the middle finger.
25 October 1415: Henry inflicts catastrophic defeat on French Battle of Agincourt
1420: Henry recognized as heir to French throne, but dies in 1422
1428: Jeanne d’Arc (Joan of Arc) inspires French to victory at Orleans and shifts war back in French favor. Joan later captured and executed by English
1453: French win Battle of Castillon, last engagement of war. Also first use of artillery
Wars end with France in control of all nation except Calais
France united, England in civil war
Wars of the Roses (1455-1485)
Struggle for power between the English Royal Houses of York (white rose) and Lancaster (red rose)
Triggering events include loss of Hundred Years War and increasing mental instability of King Henry VI (Lancaster)
1461: York gains upper hand, names Edward the IV King.
1483: Edward’s dies, leaving throne to 12-year old son. Brother Richard named Regent
The two brothers were supposedly kept in a tower to be safe then they were never seen again. Supposedly their uncle killed them so he could take the throne.
Edward V’s sudden death allows uncle to be named King Richard III
Revolt by English nobles leads to 1485 Battle of Bosworth Field
Richard is killed and Henry Tudor becomes King Henry VII, their rose was pink (mix of both houses)
Rise of the Italian City-States
Includes Genoa, Milan, Siena, Pisa, Florence, and Venice
Because of relative isolation created by terrain, cities were generally able to escape conquest and develop independently.
Economy based on trade and commerce
Large populations suffered through plague, but recovered quickly
Became centers of education and culture
Humanism (14th-15th centuries)
Late 13th century philosophic movement that sought to separate human identity from religious dogma
Began amongst city-states of Northern Italy. Genoa and Venice
Sought to incorporate Greek classic directly into medieval society without “filter” of scholasticism. Particularly favored Epicurean philosophy (if it feels good do it, it was about enjoying life, the church said the only purpose of life was to praise god then die)
Although technically at odds with Christian church, many church leaders were humanists
Emphasized placed on development rather than technique
Petrarch (1304-1374)
Born Francesco Petrarcha. One-time priest, specialized in collecting ancient Latin manuscripts
Credited with coining term “Dark Ages”
1327: Chance encounter in church courtyard inspires Petrarch to begin writing poems to mysterious “Laura”
Later collected into Il Canonziere (song book). Emphasis on passion rather than romance, emotional rather than ideal, “courtly love”
Traditionally regarded as “Father of Humanism.” (how much more humanistic can you get rather than talking about love, never got the girl though) Credited in inspiring Italian Renaissance of 15 th century
English Humanist Thinkers
Roger Bacon: (1214-1294) English-born Franciscan priest who rejected Church-sanctioned scholastic ideal in favor of experimentation and experience. Suggested that the Bible was not above interpretation and criticism. Conducted important work in mathematics, science, and technology (microscopes, steam power). Died from seeing how long someone could last in icy water, he got in an icy lake caught cold and died
William of Occam (1288-1348) Famous for his “razor” dealt with application of direct reasoning to problems and pioneered nominalism
John Wycliffe (1320-1384) English lay preacher and church critic. Founded Lollard anti-cleric movement. Most famous for translating Latin Vulgate into English.
Condemned by church for supporting royal authority over papal. Declared heretic after death, remains ordered exhumed, convicted, burned.
Gutenberg’s “revolution”
Johannes Gutenberg (1398-1468) German-born goldsmith and tradesmen
Movable type: System of printing that uses moveable components to reproduce documents. First developed in China in 11th century, probably came to Europe via trade routes
1439: Gutenberg develops printing press using metal type faces
1454-5: Gutenberg produces first printed bibles. Estimated 180 copies produced.
Printing technology spreads, greatly increasing spread of information and knowledge. Intrumental in Renaissance and Reformation
Fall of Constantinople (1453)
Since 4th crusade they were always in a decline
Fall of Byzantine Empire is last connection to the ancient glories of Rome
By early 15th century, Byzantine Empire is limited to city of Constantinople and colonies in Aegean and Black seas
Had 1 million people, now in 1453 it was a tenth of that
1451: Turkish Sultan Mehmed II begins preparations to besiege city. Appeal by Emperor Constantine IX for help from the west meets with indifference
1453: Turkish city of 200,000 launches first attacks on city defenders 7000 strong
Triple walls of city resist storming attempts, but prove vulnerable to Turkish cannon fire
May: Turkish warhips seize Golden Horn. Complete encirclement of city
May 29th 1453: City falls to Turks and is subjected to terrible sack
Eastern Europe now open to Turkish expansion, but flow to refugees to Italy bring ancient Greek works and books. Helps fuel renaissance
Fall of city and trade routes prompt Western Europe to seek ocean route to Asia
The origins of portugese exploration
1139: Portugal is freed from muslim occupation and establishes independence
Prince henry the navigator (1394-1460) majors major sponsor of voyages of exploration and conquest
Development of new methods of ship design and construction leads to development of ocean-going vessels like the caravel
1427: Portugal establishments on azores islands and continues to explore African coast
1460: Portugal establishes outposts in gulf of guinea. Trade in gold, ivory, sugar and slaves
Reaching the indies (1460-1497)
Spice islands: another name for east indies. Source for spices such as nutmeg, cloves, mace, pepper. Used for preserving and flavoring meat.
1488: bartolomeu dias passes cape of good hope and enters Indian ocean, but is forced by crew to turn back.
1497- vasco d agama reaches Indian coast and establishes trade outposts at Goa and Calicut
The Reconquista ends and the inquisition begins
1469: queen Isabella of castile and king Ferdinand of Aragon marry, unifying the two largest Christian kingdoms in Spain
1480: the Spanish inquisition targets Jews and Muslim converts to Christianity (converses) and try them as spies
Anto de fe “act of faith” public penance for condemned heretics and apostates
1492: reconquista ends with seizure of last moslem city in Spain, Granada
1492: crown orders all Jews to leave Spain
Christopher Columbus goes sailing
1485: Genoese-born Chrisoforo Columbo approaches Portuguese Crown asking for financing of voyage to Asia by sailing west. Rejected.
Believes that Japan is 2400 miles from Canary Islands.
Eventually financed by Spanish Crown
12 Oct. 1492: Reaches island he names San Christobal in West Indies
European colonization conquest of N. and S. America begins
Dividing the world: the treaty of tordesillas
Continuing exploration and colonization by both Portugal and Spain raises concerns of competing claims and conflicts of interest
Pope Alexander VI mediates negotiations
1494: treaty of tordesillas decrees all lands west and south of canary islands belongs to Spain, while eastern lands belong to Portugal
1506: Portugal successfully appeals to have line moved further west, placing brazil under their control
Treaty provisions ignored by rest of Europe
The age of the conquistador (15th-18th centuries)
Conquistador: term given to Spanish soldiers who explored, discovered and conquered Americas for the Spanish crown
Inspired by reconquista. Motivated by personal ambition, wealth, religious zeal
Often privately funded and organized
Advantages included: steel weapons, muskets, horses, war dogs
The fall of Mesoamerica
1519: Herman Cortes leads expedition of 530 soldiers on Aztec empire. Forms alliance with Tlaxcala people.
After bloody series of battles, Cortes takes control of Aztec capitol and conquers populace.
1532: Francisco Pizzaro leads expedition into South America against Incan Empire
Takes advantage of local dynastic struggle and civil unrest
Despite filling three 22x17 ft rooms with gold and silver, Pizzaro has emperor Atahualpa garroted
The real conqueror: disease
European diseases introduced by explorers and conquistadors: Cholera, Typhus, smallpox, Bubonic Plague, Typhoid, measles, chicken pox, malaria
Indigenous populations had no resistance to diseases. Estimates of population loss range from 50-80% in century following first contact
The Columbian exchange
From Europe to America
Bees,cats,cattle,sheep,chickens,goats,geese,horses,rabbits,pigs
Almonds,apples,apricots,bananas,beets,cabbage,carrots,coffee,citrus,garlic,hemp,lettuce,mango,oats,olives,onions,peach,pears,rye,sugarcane,tea,wheat,watermelon
From America to Europe
Alpaca, guinea pigs, turkeys
Avocado, cahews,chili peppers, cocoa, cotton, papaya, peanut, pecan, pineapple, potato, pumpkin, rubber, strawberries, tobacco
Would trigger massive population expansion in Europe from 17th-until 19th centuries.
The Encomienda and bartolome de las casas
Encomienda: quasi-feudal system of land and labor management in which Spanish colonists are given land and specified number of natives as laborers
Frequently abused as natives were subject to exploitative, brutal treatment
Bartolome de las casas (1484-1566): Dominican priest who exposed the cruelties of the encomienda and attacked the enslavement of Christian natives
1552: de las casas publishes A short account of the destruction of the indes. Is instrumental in ending the encomienda
De las casas is himself criticized for advocating the importation of African slaves.
Atlantic slave trade (1502-1860’s)
Introduced to provide workers for plantations and mines
Primary source of captives West African. Often sold by Africans or Arabs
Main transporters English and Dutch
Est. 8-12 million forcibly transported along “triangle route” of Europe/Africa/Americas
Italian Renaissance
Regarded as opening phase of renaissance that sweeps across Europe
Centered in Northern Italian cities, although effects also felt in Rome
Based on rediscovery and interpretation of ancient Greek and Latin works
Championed and patronized by wealthy Italian nobles such as Lorenzo de Medici (the magnificent)
Primarily known for its cultural achievements
Impact of Renaissance (con’t)
Architecture: Movement towards grand, but open and light filled structures. Heavy use made of Greek columns and Roman arches
Renaissance music moved away from strictly religious themes and masses. First concertos and operas composed
Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)
Native of Florence, Italy. Sought patronage from Medici family
The Prince (written 1513, published 1532) describes various means of ruling a state and that the first goal of a ruler is to promote stability and security
Dedicated to Lorenzo de Medici, Machiavelli uses Cesare Borgia as model of “ideal prince”
Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564)
Born in Tuscany, patronized by Medici family
Specialized in sculptures like Pieta, David
Also painted frescoes of Sistine Chapel, designed dome of St. Peter’s Basilica
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
Born illegitimate, worked in Rome, Bologna, and Venice. Spent his final days in Paris
Intensely curious, dabbled in medicine, engineering, painting, sculpture, optics, anatomy
Among most famous works, 1490’s fresco The Last Supper
Came up with ideas for things like helicopters airplanes submarines
Fillipo Brunelleschi (1377-1446)
Regarded as one of the foremost engineers and architects of the Renaissance
All his works located in Florence
Best known for his dome of Santa Maria del Fiore
Renaissance Warfare
Shift from feudal levies and mounted knights to professional infantrymen
Condottieri: Private mercenaries armies hired by rulers to fight for them
Firearms and cannon prompt development of new style of fortification: Trace Italienne (star fort)
This fort limits noble authority because it is the best type of defense which no one can afford but a king and this eventually brings Europe to a centralized state
Renaissance Popes
More concerned with securing political power then religious affairs
Papacy plagued by scandals: Nepotism, Bribery, Adultery, Abuse of power
Popes also great patrons of Renaissance artists and writers
Indulgences and the Papacy
Indulgence: Church certificate confirming full or partial remission of sins
In theory only to be issued after confession and penance
During middle ages, indulgences were sold in order to raise funds (St. Peter’s Basilica)
Sale of indulgences (real and fraudulent) became source of criticism both within and without church (Martin Luther)
Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498)
Domincan priest, became ruler of Florence after overthrow of Medici family
Ultra-conservative, opposed Renaissance, predicted end of the world and God’s judgment on city
1497: Ordered “Bonfire of the Vanities” confiscation and burning of mirrors, combs, chess pieces, artwork, cosmetics, dresses etc.
Quarreled with Pope Alexander VI
1498: Arrested, tortured, convicted of Hearsay. Executed by immolation (burned to death on the very bonfire he started)
Jan Hus and the Hussite Wars
Inspired by philosophies of John Wycliffe, Czech priest Jan Hus criticizes Catholic church for its corruption and opulence
1415: Hus is tricked into attending Council of Constance. Is convicted of heresy and sentenced to death by burning
1420-1431: Rebellion by followers of Hus (Hussites) in Bohemia resist five papal crusades before submitting
First European use of hand-held gunpowder weapons
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Born into German middle-class. Rejected career as lawyer in favor of the priesthood
Criticizes church for its opulence, sale of indulgences and involvement in secular politics
October 31st 1517: Nails list of 95 theses to door of Wurttemberg church. Also distributes Theses (in German) to populace
1521: Luther is summoned to Diet of Worms to be judged by Emperor Charles V. Luther refuses to recant and is condemned as a heretic
While in hiding, produces German version of bible and organizes new church
The Reformation spreads
1529: Luther formally calls for reformation and creation of new church. Is supported by humanists and some German nobles
New protestant denominations include Anabaptists, Calvinism, Anglicanism, and others
Anabaptists didn’t believe in baptizing newborns because they yet have the knowledge on whether they want to become a Christian or not
What they all share is that there is no central leader, no equivalent to a pope
It is not necessary to go through the Church to talk to God, only for advice and for help down your path
Struggles between Protestants and Catholics would trigger Thirty Years War (1618-1648) that devastated central Europe
King Henry VII of England
Ruled 1509-1547
Considered chasimatic and dynamic figure. Credited with establishing Royal Navy
Most famous for his six marriages and leading the English Reformation
He was never supposed to be king in first place, it was supposed to be his brother Arthur. At 17, Arthur dies, he inherits crown and wife
English Reformation (1531)
Triggered by Pope Clement VII’s refusal to grant Henry’s request for an annulment with Catherine of Aragon
King demands that Church of England recognize him as head of the church and supreme authority over both spiritual and secular matters. Church yields without comment
In response to 1538 excommunication, Henry moves to dissolve all monasteries in Britain. Proceeds from sales apply to Royal Debt.
“New” Church of England remarkably similar to Catholic Church. Nevertheless, becomes first example of “nationalized religion”
Henry claimed to be Catholic till his last breath, he said he didn’t leave the Catholic Church but that it left him
Six wives of Henry VII
Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536) Spanish princess originally married to Henry’s brother. Marriage annulled 1533. One daughter Mary I
Anne Boleyn (1507-1536) Was queen from 1533-1536. Produced one daughter (Elizabeth I) but no sons. Would be accused and convicted of adultery and executed. Not with an axe but a sword. Supposed adultery with a married man her brother her father
Jane Seymour (1508-1537) Was queen for one year, produced one son (Edward) but died of post-natal complications
Anne of Cleves (1515-1557) marriage annulled after less than five months.
Catherine Howard (1521-1542) married sixteen months before being convicted of treason then executed
Catherine Parr (1512-1548) Last of Henry’s wives. Reigned four years before King’s death
Scientific Revolution (15th-18th centuries)
Period of new discoveries and methodologies partially based on Greek texts
Employed empiric approach of observation and experiment
Would lead to heliocentricism, planetary movement and gravitation
Geocentric Model (2nd-15th centuries CE)
Proposed by Aristotle and Claudius Ptolemy, adopted by Catholic Church
Assumes that earth was at the center of the cosmos with all other bodies orbiting around it
By 15th century questions arise concerning movement of Mars, Venus
Model still used in modern astrology
Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543)
Born in Pland, earned Doctorate degree in Canon law
Developed helio-centric (sun-centered) theory of solar system, contrary to Church’s geo-centric model
Feared persecution by church, withheld publication of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the revolution of the heavenly spheres) until after death
Criticized for suggesting that orbits were perfectly spherical
Follow-up to Copernicus
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) Danish astronomer
Disagreed with helio-centric view and offered geo-centric model that incorporated elements of the Copernican model. Tutored Kepler
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) modified Copernican model by proposing all orbits were elliptical
Developed three rules of Planetary Motion. Lays groundwork for Newton and Scientific Revolution
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Born in Pisa, taught geometrics, astronomy and mechanics at University of Padua
Introduced methods of experiment and observation in answering questions on motion and gravity
1610: Developed improved model of telescopes and makes observations of cosmos. Discovered moons orbiting Jupiter
1632: Called before Pope to recant his own writings or risk trial by inquisition. Submits, sentenced to house arrest
Spent last 5 years in house arrest, his writings were banned by church
Early Enlightenment Thinkers
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) French mathematician, philosopher and physicist. Founded analytical philosophy
Championed deduction as correct means of deducing truth and definition of human identity. (Wax experiment) Coined phrase Cogito Ergo Sum(I think therefore I am) what defines a human is his ability to think/reason
Isaac Newton (1643-1727) English physicist, mathematician, and scientist. Co-created calculus
Developed three universal laws of motion and scientific method of theory/experiment/observation/proof
Also Christian scholar. Believed in God, but rejected Trinity and divinity of Christ (didn’t believe Christ was the son of god)
END OF TEST 2 NOTES 1400-1700
The Enlightenment (1637-1805)
Less an specific philosophy than a new means of approaching different philosophies and ways of thinking.
Distained tradition and precedent in favor of critical inquiry and scientific rationality. Fond of “natural” solutions
Begins in western and northern Europe but spreads across continent and Atlantic Ocean
Typical enlightenment scholar was middle-class, wealthy, educated, but saw Enlightenment as accessible to all. Maintained generally optimistic view of humans and humanity
Many scholars were critical of the Church and religion, but supported monarchial rule “Enlightened Despots”
Beginning and end dates debatable
Thomas Hobbes and Leviathan
Hobbes (1588-1679) Supporter of King Charles I
In Leviathan (1651) Hobbes theorizes that the state (leviathan) is comprised of individuals who exchange freedom for security
The authority of the sovereign must be absolute, but is guided by the welfare of the people
The state must exist lest society degenerate into anarchy. Man in his natural state leads lives that are “nasty, brutal, and short”
Establishes base of what will become social contract theory
The Glorious Revolution and John Locke
1688: Catholic King James II is deposed in bloodless “Glorious Revolution” Dutch Elector William III invited to co-rule along with wife Mary-Stuart
Locke (1632-1704): Supported revolution removal of James
William’s wife Mary is the sister of James. Parliament brings him in to be king because he is protestant
James goes into exile in France still claiming to be King, William reigns but does not rule
1689: Publishes Two Treatises on Government. Builds on social contract theory (picks up where Hobbes left off), but states that royal authority is subject to the will of the people, who have the right to remove government that is inefficient, corrupt, or tyrannical. The people can rule out their government
Establishes fundamental rights of “life, liberty, and property” Franklin copied this to the tee, replaced one part with pursuit of happiness
Major influence on American philosophers such as Addams, Franklin, Jefferson
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)
Written by Locke. Attempted to address foundation of human knowledge and understanding
Thesis was all are born with a “blank slate” (tabula rasa) and that all ideas are based on experience. Rejects notion of social class and birth
Considered important work in empirical philosophy and fundamental human equality
Contradicted by Locke’s involvement in slave trade (investor) said he never meant to include Africans, that they aren’t human
Later English Philosophers
Adam Smith (1723-1790) Developed theory of capitalism and “Laissez-faire economics” in his Wealth of Nations (1776) He says its up to you to get unlimited amount of toys, best to have everyone act in their own self interest, everyone wants to be rich so let them, best thing government can do is keep out of it, he doesn’t address that people acting in their own self interest limit others because they cut them off
Edmund Burke (1729-1797) Political moderate who supported American Revolution, but opposed French Revolution. Considered father of conservatism
Thomas Paine (1731-1809): English-born writer who migrated to America and promoted Revolution through pamphlets like Common Sense and American Crisis
France, the Enlightenment, and the Philosophies
Philosophies: French intellectuals who supported enlightenment
Addressed wide variety of interests from art and literary criticism to political and economic progressivism
Generally supported royal authority and opposed feudal system and organized religion
Often met in public salons to debate issues of the day
1751-1772: Philosophies Denis Diderot and Jean Rond’Alembert edit 35-volume Le Encyclopedie, a comprehensive collection of information written by French Enlightenment thinkers
The Storming of the Bastille
High unemployment and food prices LEAVE Paris overrun with starving and jobless
July 11th: Louis fires popular Finance Minister Joseph Necker
Stories of King’s attempts to shut down National Assembly leads to street riots. Supported by Paris Guard
Bastille: Fortress/prison/armory located in middle of Paris
July 14th: Mob storms Bastille after several hours fighting. Liberates seven prisoners and thousands of muskets
July 17th: Louis XVI visits Paris and accedes to mob demands. Necker is restored and Louis dons the revolutionary cockade
Throughout the Revolution if Louis had held a strong hand to things, things would have been different. In public he says he supports the Revolution but behind the scenes he tries to resist it and his character isn’t strong enough to do this
The Revolution Continues
August 27th 1789: French National Assembly approves Declaration of the Rights of Man (no women). Includes guarantees of freedom of speech, press, religion, and property are included. Feudalism abolished
Thousands of French nobles flee the country and become émigrés
October 5th: Thousands of French women march on Versailles demanding lower of food prices and that the King return to Paris under protection of National Guards
The Catholic Church is systematically stripped of its protected status. Church lands are confiscated and auctioned
July 12th 1790: The Civil Constitution of the Clergy is passed, placing the Church under government control and authority
The Revolution: Phase II
Political factions begin to form within assembly. The Jacobin Club gains wide-spread popularity throughout the nation
Louis XVI becomes increasingly resistant to further reforms and lessening of royal power
June 20th 1791: King and family attempt to flee France in Flight to Varennes. Caught, they are returned to Paris and placed under detention. Louis credibility shot because of this betrayal
August 27th 1791: Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II and Prussian King Frederick Wilhelm II issue Declaration of Pillnitz, calling on the restoration of Louis XVI as absolute monarch or risk intervention
National Guards placed on war footing
The Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)
Inspired by France’s adoption of Declaration of Rights of Man, free blacks in colony of Haiti began demanding citizenship and right to vote
1791: 100,000 African slaves rise up in revolt. Seize 1/3 of the colony and kill some 4,000 Europeans
French troops sent to quell revolt are decimated by disease. Approx. 100,000 slaves and 24,000 Europeans perish
1801: Rebel leader Toussiant L’Overture declares Haiti independent
First example of successful slave revolt
French Revolutionary Army
1791: Threat of foreign invasion prompt development of Republican Army. Based on Royal Army, but weakened by loss of noble-born officer corps.
Troops highly motivated, but poorly equipped and trained
Army reorganized into demi-brigades of one Regular and two volunteer regiments
August 20th 1972: French Army confronts invading Prussians at Battle of Valmy. Prussians retreat after massive cannonade
Many opportunities for common-born soldiers to advance in rank and leadership based on ability
Missing Thursday and Wednesday
Napoleon’s Egyptian Campaign (1798)
Napoleon leads 45,000 man Armee l’Orient to Egypt for possible move on Brtish India
Accompanying Napoleon are 100 scientists, archeologists, linguists, and historians. Begins study of Egyptology
July 21st: Napoleon decisively defeats Mameluk army at Battle of Pyramids
French soldiers become rich “fishing for Mameluks”
Among French discoveries is the Rosetta Stone, which becomes the key to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs
Napoleon loved to read, brought his private library on campaign 100 book deeps, played cards in his spare time and won every time because he cheated blatantly he’d always give the money back cause it was only about winning, taught himself Arabic and read the Qur’an
The Battle of the Nile (August 1st 1798)
French fleet of 13 sail-of-the-line versus British fleet of 13 SOL’s commanded by Nelson
French ships caught at anchor with much of their crew ashore
British envelop French line and engage on both sides
Battle climaxes at 10pm with explosion of French flagship L’Orient
Two French ships sunk, nine captured. Napoleon and his army marooned in Egypt
Sailors of his flagship HMS Vanguard, souvenir coffin made from the wood of the French ships
Nelson’s “Band of Brothers” and Emma Hamilton
Term popularly given to ship captains serving under Nelson during Nile campaign
All of them except two would become Nelson’s rank
Would be taken into Nelson’s confidence and included in his tactical planning. All but two would reach flag rank
Term since applied to any group of close-knit soldiers
Emma Hamilton (1761-1815): Wife of 67-year old British envoy Sir William Hamilton. Becomes mistress of married Horatio Nelson. Would delve in Italian politics and ignore sea duties
Would return with Hamilton’s to England. Emma becomes pregnant and delivers a daughter, Horaitia.
Scandal almost wrecks Nelson’s career
Leaves his wife so quick because he’s all about emotion and Emma is too
Napoleon Returns
Napoleon transforms warfare into a struggle between nations (gunpowder, napoleon, atomic bomb)
August 1799: While still in Egypt, Napoleon learns of new French defeats and declining fortunes. Abandons army and returns to Europe
November 9th: Napoleon enters into conspiracy to overthrow Directory and replace it with three-man Consulate led by Napoleon. Results ratified by popular vote 99.9%
Takes command of Army of Italy and defeats Austrians at Battle of Marengo (14 June 1800)
Systematically eases out other consul members. Assumes dictatorial powers as Consul for Life
The British Blockade and “Neutral’s Rights”
Blockade: Closure of French and allied ports by Royal Navy
Ships discovered entering or leaving blockaded port or carrying prohibited goods subject to confiscation
Blockade policy challenged by neutral nations such as Denmark and US. Claim “neutral’s right to trade.”
French privateers and frigates also prey on British and neutral shipping
The Battle of Copenhagen (April 1801)
Battle prompted by Denmark’s refusal to abide by British blockade rules and jointing the anti-British League of the Armed Neutrality
April 2nd: Nelson leads 12 sail-of-the-line against collection of Danish anchored warships, gun and land batteries
S named second-in-command of fleet sent for force Denmark’s submission
April 2nd: Nelson lead Negotiates Concordat of 1801, restoring Catholic Church to France, but placing church personnel under French authority
1:30 pm: Panic stricken British commander hoists command signal to withdraw. Nelson’s “turns a blind eye” and continues fighting
2:30 pm: Danes signal surrender
League of Armed Neutrality collapses British trade resumes
Considered Nelson’s hardest victory
Napoleon as Statesmen (1802-1805)
Negotiated the Concordat of 1801, restoring Catholicism as the major religion in France, but still subject to secular authority. Also extended full citizenship status to Jews
1802: Signed Treaty of Amiens, ending war with England
Reforms include centralized administration, national education, comprehensive tax code, first national bank
Developed law code (Code Napoleon) prohibiting preferential treatment due to birth and guaranteed freedom of religion
Sent troops to put down Haitian Revolution and sold Louisiana to United States
Lingering disputes over French annexation of Piedmont and British refusal to evacuate Malta would lead to resumption of war in May 1803
Napoleon establishes army camp at Boulogne in preparation of invasion of Britain
Creation of La Grande Armee
Principal French army formed from 1804-1808. Initially numbered 200,000 men
Organized into six corps, cavalry and guard. Also includes staff, engineers, supply and medical services
Corps: All-arms formation of between 12-40,000 men. Revived periodically
Day-to-day affairs managed by army chief of staff Alexandre Berthier
Maximum strength 550,000 in 1812
Enlightenment to water loo 1700-1815
French Infantry
Organized into 840-man regiments, napoleon was crazy with his math
Three types: Fusiliers (line) Voltigeur-means jumpers (skirmishers) and Grenadier- they don’t let anyone retreat, used when they need a real big push (elite)
All equipped with Model 1777 smooth-bore musket
Typical formations were line (firepower) column (melee) or mixed. Could also form into squares to defend against cavalry
8 men mess groups
Majority of recruits were conscripts, although opportunities for recognition and promotion were encouraged
Highly-motivated and trained, but considered poor marksman
French cavalry
Light Cavalry: Includes Chasseurs, Hussars scouts and protection against scouts, and Lancers. Used primarily for reconnaissance and pursuit
Braided their hair ended in gold coins, pants so tight had to butter legs
Dragoons: Medium cavalry that could fight mounted or on foot.
Heavy: Cuirassiers (armored breast plate)strong man bullet proof big man big horses) and Carbiniers. Usually kept in reserve until decisive moment
Regiments (800-1200 men) could be parceled out to corps, or concentrated into 6000-man cavalry reserve
Indifferent horsemanship, they knew what a wall of spikes was, knights wanted medal
Napoleon’s “Beautiful Daughters” Artillery
Organized into 6-8 gun batteries according to caliber
Rated by weight of shot, 4, 6, 8, and 12-pounder guns most common
Fired either solid shot (cannon balls) or grape (musket balls)
Deployed as either foot or horse artillery and assigned at division and corps levels. Foot walk ride horse ride
Also, artillery could be concentrated into Grand batteries of 100+ cannon
Particularly feared by Napoleon’s enemies
The Imperial Guard
Self-contained unit consisting of infantry, cavalry, artillery, and support services. Divided into Old (10 year service 6 campaign 5 promotions), Middle, and Young Guard
Members consisted of long-serving veterans with proven records of bravery. Often requires personal approval of Napoleon
Benefits included “high” pay, best food and priority in march and housing
Primarily French, but also included Dutch, Polish, and Italian units
Originally number 3000-men in 1804, would grow to 86,000 by 1812 Served as inspiration to rest of army, but also drained valuable soldiers from rest of army
Napoleon typically wore Chasseur-guard uniform
Support Services
Engineers (Genie) consisted of pontonniers (bridge builders) or sappers (dealt with enemy fortification)
Medical: Primitive by modern standards. French surgeon Jean Larrey develops “Flying ambulance” for quick evacuation of wounded. Traditional was to leave them till the end. Musket ball to the limbs = amputation
Communications: in addition to dispatch riders, use was also made of semaphore stations for rapid transmissions of coded signal
Logistics: French troops typically marched with four days rations, but were also expected to “live off the land”
1810: Napoleon holds competition for new ways to preserve food for troops in combat. Won by Nicholas Appert who develops predecessor of modern canned goods
Napoleon’s Lieutenants
Selected according to proven ability. Represented wide diversity of French political society
Nicholas Davout (1770-1823) From petty nobility, served in Egyptian and Italian campaigns. Superb tactition, one of the few commanders trusted with independent command
Joachim Murat (1767-1815) Son of an innkeeper. Present with Napoleon at “Whiff of grapeshot” served as Napoleon’s cavalry commander
Married Napoleon’s sister Caroline, later became King of Naples. Turned back on Napoleon wanted kingdom
Charles Talleyrand-Perigord. Aristocrat, priest, émigré, and directory member. “I survived” didn’t care who he betrayed
Distrusted by Napoleon, but was appointed Foreign Minister.(1807-1815) secret agent for Russia
Emperor of the French Dec. 2nd 1804
1804: Napoleon survives at least two assassination attempts by royalist sympathizers. Proposes establishing Imperial, rather than Monarchial regime. Styles himself “Emperor of the French” to avoid republican outrage
Arranges to have Pope Pius VII to oversee ceremony, but will crown himself followed by Josephine
Ceremony held on Dec. 2nd 1804 of Notre Dame Cathedral
Emperor Napoleon also distributes titles of nobility to various supports, officials, and generals
Already approved by plebiscite
The Third Coalition forms (1803-1806)
May 1803: Britain declares war on France. Reestablishes blockade
Kidnapping and execution of émigré French noble moves Sweden to join Britain
Napoleon’s coronation as Emperor move Austria and Russia to join coalition. Prussia remains aloof
Austrians plan combined offensive into France, but two week difference between Georgian calendar (Austria) and Julian (Russia) prompt delay
August: Napoleon redeploys La Grande Armee to Austrian frontier
French naval campaign of 1805
March 1805: French Admiral Pierre Villenueve sails 11 sail-of-the-line out of Toulon bound for West Indies. Is joined by 6 Spanish warships. Nelson pursues
Other French squadrons were unable to breakout. Villenueve returns to European waters
Villenueve engages British squadron off Cape Finisterre. Loses two Spanish ships, withdraws to Cadiz
Napoleon becomes frustrated with naval affairs. Turns attention toward Austria
Franco-Spanish in Cadiz now 33 ships, but torn by dissention and lack of confidence. Nelson assembles 27 warships outside of harbor
Oct. 20th: Informed that he was about to be relieved of command, Villenueve leaves port and seeks battle
The “Nelson Touch”
Term given to tactics developed by Nelson
Rejected traditional “line-of-battle” approach in favor of close-action “melee”
Proposed dividing fleet into three columns, isolating enemy elements and defeating them in detail
Shares plan with ship captains
Nelson went with wind, adversaries went against it
While on the attack they first two ships took heavy fire, only 2 front guns to reply
HMS Victory
Construction began 1759. Launched 1765, commissioned 1771
Rate at carrying 100 cannon on three enclosed decks
Highly sought after flagship
Oldest naval ship still in commission
Portsmen harbor, museum ship
Battle of Trafalgar 21 Oct. 1805
British approach Combined Fleet in light winds. Subjected of nearly an hour of enemy fire
1145: Nelson hoists famed signal “England expects every man to do his duty”
1200: Victory breaks French line, engages several enemy vessels. Nelson shot by sniper
Battle continues until dusk. French ship sunk, 22 French and Spanish ships captured
1630: Nelson dies of his wounds
Battle secures British naval superiority for next 100 years
Buried at st pauls because he didn’t want to sink through the ground
1806: Napoleon vs. Prussia
Aug 1806: Prussian King Wilhelm III declares war on France
French army moves into Saxony behind dense screen of light cavalry. Defy Prussian attempts to locate them
Napoleon deploys main force on town of Jena, while Davout’s III Corps circles around Prussian flank at Auerstadt
Oct, 14th: Napoleon defeats rearguard at Jena, while Davout defeats main Prussian army with half as many men
Prussian resistance collapses. Berlin falls Oct. 25th. Napoleon reaches eastern border by Nov. 7th
The Confederation of the Rhine (1806-1813)
Replaces earlier Holy Roman Empire. Consolidates 300+ states into 39
Member states were expected to contribute money and troops to Napoleon, but enjoyed considerable sovereignty
States also benefited from introduction of liberal rights of press, religion, assembly as well as education
Confederation collapses in 1813 but would inspire later German national movement
Napoleon’s Zenith: the Continental System and the Treaty of Tilsit
Continental System: French-led effort to exclude British trade from the European Continent
Announced in Berlin Decree of 1806. Milan Decree of 1807 added that neutral vessels who use British ports or paid British tariffs would be considered enemy shipping
Britain replies with Nov. 1807 Orders in Council prohibiting all trade with ports belonging to France or her allies
Will become centerpiece of French foreign policy and lead to invasion of Spain and Portugal
Treaty of Tilsit: Franco-Russian treaty signed in the wake of the latter’s defeat at the Battle of Friedland
Featured famous meeting between Napoleon and Tsar Alexander on the River Nieman
Effectively divides Europe between the two. Russia is given free reign in the Balkans and Scandinavia
Secret agreement calls for Russia to declare war on Britain by the end of 1807
Is often considered high point in Napoleon’s career
Breaking the Continental System
Baltic was a major supplier of “naval stores” to Britain
Sept. 2nd 1807” British forces lay siege of Copenhagen, seize Danish navy. Russia, Denmark declares war on Britain and Sweden
1808: Russia overruns Swedish Finland. Britain trade subjected to effective harassment by Danish oared galleys in maritime guerilla campaign
1809: Swedish king deposed. Britain authorizes large-scale smuggling trade in and out of Baltic
Royal Navy continues to protect trade in Baltic until 1812
The Peninsula War begins (1808)
March 1808: Napoleon forces Spanish King Charles IV and his son to abdicate. Ultimately replaces them with his brother Joseph
February 1808: French troops enter Spain, supposedly en route to Portugal. When French troops begin seizing Spanish cities and fortresses, country rises in revolt
Spanish regular troops routinely defeated. Populace forms guerilla bands that harass French communications and supplies
August 1808: French attempt to conquer Portugal stopped by British army commanded by Sir Arthur Wellesley
Arthur Wellesley (1769-1852)
Born to English aristocracy. Entered military service in 1787 through purchase
Made reputation as the “Sepoy General” commanding troops in India for brother Richard
Participated in 1807 siege of Copenhagen
Aloof, aristocratic, disciplinarian, brilliant. Became Viscount Wellington after 1809 victory at Talavera
British Army
Numbered only 40,000 men in 1793. Eventually expanded to 250,000
Volunteer soldiers, while officers “purchased” their ranks
Infantry known for their battlefield discipline and as accurate marksmen
Cavalry regarded as of highest quality, but poorly led
Almost one-third of British soldiers were non-British
1809 War against Austria
April 1809: 195,000 Austrian troops invade Bavaria
Napoleon arrives from Spain and rallies French defense. Pushes into Austria
May 21-22: Napoleon suffers first major defeat at Battle of Aspern-Essling. Fails to secure crossing of the Danube. Loses 23,000 men
Battle of Wagram (July 5-6 1809)
Climactic battle of 1809 Austrian campaign. Also, largest battle of Napoleonic wars (so far) w/ 136k Austrians vs. 162k French
Also significant for presence of large numbers of French allied troops
Uncharacteristic straight-ahead tactics by Napoleon result in massive casualties
French losses: 37,000 - Austrian: 41,000
Austria sues for peace. Lost a quarter of their territory and a fifth of their population
Austrian Emperor also agrees to marriage between Napoleon and his daughter Marie-Louise
Napoleonic Europe 18010-1812
Napoleonic Empire grows larger, but rule becomes increasingly despotic
Conflict over French occupation of the Papal States leads to the confinement of Pope Pius VII 1808-1814
Napoleon’s placement of his brothers on the thrones of Spain, Holland, and Westphalia and Murat in Naples undermines his “liberal” image
The “Spanish Ulcer” continues to drain French resources and man power
Growing differences on enforcement of Continental System leads to increasing tensions between Napoleon and Tsar Alexander
Russia most dependent on European trade
Revolutions in the New World
1808: Rejecting installation of Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain, Spanish colonies overseas form self-governing juntas
Additional conflicts develop between Spanish landowners ((Peninsulares (Spanish born in Spain) - Creoles (Spanish born in the New World (2nd class)) and poor peasants (Mestizos and Mullatos)
1807: British attempt to take control of the Rio de la Plata ends in defeat
1812: Venezuela attempts independence, but is defeated by loyalist forces
1813: Creole Simon Bolivar leads successful recapture of Venezuela as Jose de San Martin leads independence movement in Argentina
1814: Restoration of King Ferdinand VII moves other juntas to form independence movements, appeal to Bolivar for leadership.
Movements secretly supported by Britain, in search of new markets
1829: Mexico gains independence. Only Puerto Rice and Cuba remain of Spanish Empire in the Americas
Anglo-American tensions and the War of 1812
Primary differences include infringement of British blockade on free trade, British impressments of American sailors and alleged support of native tribes resisting American expansion
British become American just by asking
War encouraged by American “War Hawks” as means to conquer Canada
June 18, 1812. Congress declares war on Great Britain
American warships score impressive one-on-one victories over British, but do not succeed in taking Canada
1813: British troops land in Maryland and burn Washington D.C. are unsuccessful
Dec. 27th 1814: Treaty of Ghent ends war. Maintains status quo
1812 Invasion of Russia
June 24th: Napoleon leads army of 690,000 French and Allied troops into Russia
Envisioned early decisive battle would persuade Tsar to negotiate peace terms. Army only carried 40 days of supplies
Russians practiced “scorched earth” policy to deny invaders forage and supplies. Army retreats eastward. Napoleon pursues
Battle of Borodino
September 7th 1812: Napoleon attacks Russian army fortified around town of Borodina. Surpasses Wagram in number of participants
Napoleon unusually lethargic, exercises little control over battle
French launch repeated frontal assaults on Russian positions. Heavy casualties on both sides
18,000 man French Imperial Guard never committed en masse
French lose 35k Russians 45k
Result of battle inconclusive
Winter Retreat
September 14th 1812: French troops enter Moscow. Find it stripped of supplies. Russian government remains defiant
Four-day fire destroys 75% of Moscow, persuades Napoleon against spending the winter there
October 18th: French begin retreat. Suffer tremendous losses from cold, disease, starvation, Cossack attacks
Only est. 40,000 troops survive combat, return to Poland December 12th.
Regarded as beginning of end on Napoleonic Empire
1813 Campaign in Germany
Napoleon rebuilds shattered army using 16 and 17-year old recruits (Marie-Lousies) but is facing 1.1 million Russian, Prussian, Swedish troops
Napoleon scores early victories, but weakness of cavalry prevents follow-up
Allies avoid confronting Napoleon, but rather attack his subordinates
June 21st: Wellington defeats French at Battle of Vitoria, gains control of Spain
August: Previously neutral Austria joins the Sixth Coalition, adding 300,000 more troops to combat
Napoleon falls back to city of Leipzig
“The Bravest of the Brave”
Name given to Marshal Michel Ney (1769-1815)
Also known as Le Rougeaud (the red-faced) for his complexion and temper
Courageous, but impulsive. Prized by Napoleon for his ability to inspire, but generally kept under tight leash
The Battle of Leipzig (October 16th-19th 1813)
Also known as the Battle of Nations. Largest battle of the Napoleonic Wars, with 600,000 troops participating
Napoleon surrounded on three sides, but is able to fend off each attack
Over 5,000 of Napoleon’s German troops desert during battle
October 19th: Napoleon attempts to retreat across Elster River, but loses 30,000 man rearguard when bridge unexpectedly blows up
Napoleon abandons Germany entirely and retreats to France
Decisive battle in the campaign that Napoleon loses, with it, he loses Germany
1814 Defense of France
Considered as Napoleon’s finest campaign against insurmountable odds
February 10th-16th: conducts six days campaign winning four battles against Austrians, Prussians, Russians
March 30th: Russian troops enter Paris
April 4th: Deputation of generals (including Ney) threaten to mutiny
April 6th: Napoleon abdicates. Is exiled to island of Elba
Restoration of the French Monarchy
May 3rd: New King Louis XVIII (brother of Louis XVI) assumes title of King of France
Adopts several Revolutionary and Napoleonic concepts, issues constitution guaranteeing individual rights
King’s efforts at reconciliation undermined by attempts by returning Nobility to reclaim their lands and reassert feudalism
Calendar is reset to 1793, Napoleonic veterans replaced with Nobles, promised pensions denied
Congress of Vienna (September 1814-June 1815)
Conference intended to resolve issues resulting from the French Revolution, Napoleonic Empire and dissolution of Holy Roman Empire
Attended by over 200 delegates, but majority of decisions determined by “Big Four” GB, Au, Pr, Ru
Factions form: Russia/Prussia vs. England and Austria. Conference saved by France (Talleyrand)
Issues determined at Congress
Slavery condemned and Britain recognized as “Master of the Seas”
Russian gains Poland, Finland
Prussia given territories along Rhine, part of Saxony (2/5)
Confederation of the Rhine renamed German confederation, placed under Austrian control
Divine Right of Kings affirmed, liberalism and nationalism deemed “subversive”
Begins “Concert of Europe” and relative peace for almost a century
The “Hundred Days” (Le Cent Jours)
March 1st, 1815: after hearing reports of dissention in Vienna and dissatisfaction in France, Napoleon escapes from Elba with 1000 men
March 10th: Army sent to capture Napoleon joins him instead. Louis XVIII flees
March 19th: Napoleon enters Paris, beginning the Hundred Days
Government reorganized, army mobilized. General Grouchy promoted to Marshal
Allies respond
Seventh coalition formed. Troops hastily mobilized
Anglo-Dutch army under Wellington stationed in Netherlands
Prussian army commanded by Gebhard von Blucher stationed along Dutch border
French Army
190,000 troops, mixture of raw recruits and old veterans
Largest force Army of the North. Placed under direct command of Marshal Ney
Napoleon reportedly ill and lethargic
Prussian Army
Consisted of 116,000 men. Approx. one-third Landwehr or militia
Commanded by Blucher aka “Marshal Forward”
Fierce, aggressive, but also 72-years old and rumored to suffer from senility
Anglo-Dutch Army
Consisted of 93,000 men of which almost half were Dutch or German
Wellington commands but seconded by Prince of Orange
Dutch troops deemed of uncertain loyalty and ability
British troops mixture of inexperienced and veteran
Battle of Quarte-Bras and Ligny
June 15th 1815: Napoleon launches offensive into Netherlands intending to divide British from Prussians
June 16th: Fights simultaneous battles at Quatre-Bras (British) and Ligny (Prussians)
Wins both battle but countermarching of I Corps prevents either battle from being decisive
Allies fall back, but remain ready to fight
Climax of the Battle
1930: Napoleon commits Imperial Guard to attack on British center
Guard repelled by concentrated volley fire by British. Meanwhile, Prussian troops finally break through
2100: Wellington and Blucher meet. French army in full retreat
July 15: Napoleon surrenders on British on HMS . Is transported to island St. Helena
Napoleon’s Last Days (1815-1821)
Transported by British to the South Atlantic island of St. Helena
May 5th 1821: Napoleon Bonaparte dies. Official cause listed as stomach cancer
1840: Body is removed from St. Helena and transported to Paris. Reinterred in crypt in Les Invalides
Recent theories suggest that Napoleon had died from arsenic poisoning. Not supported by mainstream historians