hist390horsetradepaper
TRANSCRIPT
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Tyler Michael Howard
November 30, 2013
HIST 390
Dr. James Hastings
Blazing Trails
Horses were vital to many aspects of daily life within Asian societies. For
thousands of years, horses have been integral to economic, militaristic, and globalization
all across Eurasia. People and horses are connected in the process of globalization.
Without horses, humans would not have been able to make the” advancements in
technological innovations and foster trade relations with other empires and kingdoms”
(Olsen, 152). This essay will consist of the domestication of horses, their importance,
and how they have impacted the region today.
Around 3500 B.C, horses were believed to be domesticated around the steppes of
Kazakhstan and Central Asia around the Russian border. At first, they were used for
horse meat and furs; however over time they were used for more menial jobs (Krader,
306). Over time, in-breeding was used to produce different breeds that were better suited
for their selective environments. These horses are thought to be the descendents of
pastoral animals such as llamas. They were believed to be used for herding sheep and
cattle. Horses with their swift speed were able to corral animals together for farming or
herding. While horses could be used for meat, it became more practical to use their
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abilities for more pastoral purposes (Krader, 313-315). The livestock such as pigs, cattle,
and sheep were used for meat and also for clothing such as furs. Horses were used to pull
chariots for military and ceremonial purposes across the regions from China to Rome.
However, it became impractical due to the terrain. Mountainous regions were not ideal
for chariots. With horsemanship being seen from nomads, it was seen that horseback
riding would be more suited than chariots. “Saddles, bridles, and bits were created to
make riding more comfortable for both the rider and horse” (Olsen, 164). Horses were
not easy to domesticate for riding, however over time riding horses became regular.
Horses had evolved from being used as a source of meat, to menial jobs, and to becoming
of great importance for many reasons that the paper will continue to elaborate on.
Horses were used to make communications and other aspects of daily life much
faster. For example, men were able to move their furs and other goods across large areas
quickly. Horses were able to transport goods much quicker than oxen or yak and needed
less upkeep. Horses were able to travel large distances at high rates of speeds without
food or water. There are a few issues with the using horses to transport goods across long
distances. While horses are able to transport goods over long distances, they are not able
to carry many goods in terms of weight. Horses were used for transporting rare
commodities such as silk and spices. These goods were low in weight in high in value
making it profitable to trade a low amount for a high lump sum. In terms of other goods
such as salt, timber, and other less valuable goods, high bulk was needed to make a
substantial profit. This meant that larger animals such as oxen and yak were needed to
transport the heavy weight. Travel would be slowed by the speed of the animals. More
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food was needed for the caravan and time was needed for rest and feeding the animals.
More supplies were used on these long caravan journeys which meant a decrease in
profit. Another negative to using horses was their expenses. Horses needed new shoes in
order to be able to travel and not become lame. Horses were considered to be elegant
creatures and could not just survive in any type of environment.
Geographically, horses need grassy flatlands in order to graze and thrive. There
are very few areas in Asia that were able to sustain and domesticate horses. The steppes
of Mongolia were one of the few areas that were able to successfully domesticate and
raise horses. The climate must be rather temperate. Tropical areas such as those of
Southeast Asia are not ideal locations for raising horses. This made horses valuable for
trade not only for domestication but for wealth and power in the military. Horses were
seen to be a rare commodity just like silk and other spices. Horses could be seen as the
foundation of a growing empire and a sign of impeding wealth. The next section will
discuss the role of horses from a military perspective.
The role of horses within the military have shaped and created empires for
centuries. Horses have revolutionized the way in which war was conducted. The role of
the horse within the military was deemed as the cavalry. Before the role of cavalry,
warfare was conducted by men on foot. These men were primarily formed into regiments
or legions. These legions were formed by hundreds of men with bulky armor and heavy
weaponry. Infantry units such as these made for rather slow, drawn out warfare that
could incur much cost to achieve a victory or suffer a defeat. Warfare was seen to be
simplistic and barbaric before the introduction of cavalry because men would just charge
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at one another and fight hand to hand combat. With the introduction of the horse and
cavalry, battle tactics began to change.
The introduction of raids and swift invasions became possible by use of the horses
to swiftly dismantle infantry units and be able to flank opposing units. The ability to
have a fast moving unit that is able to round out an opponent’s opposing regiment is a
crucial component to achieving victory on the battlefield. With the introduction of the
horse onto the battlefield, generals were able to conduct strategies to take advantage of
their soldiers on horseback. One can see this through the history of the success of the
Mongols led by Genghis Kahn. The Mongols were tribes that were nomadic and pastoral
herders. Mongols were great on horseback and with the bow and arrow. The
combination of a swift attack combining all ranges of distances made for a formidable
unit of attack. Another positive with cavalry is the ability to make quick retreats. Riders
on horseback were able to devise quick and decisive attacks and penetrate the lines.
When the attacks were complete, the cavalry were able to retreat at a safe distance to
regroup for another attack. Cavalry made it possible for long range attacks as well in the
case of archers. Mongols archers had been trained from an early age the skills of
horsemanship. Being able to ride a horse while shooting a bow from any direction made
for a highly reliable unit in battle.
Horses provided flexibility that had not been seen before. While riding, a
horseman was able to use a spear, sword, or bow which meant for a myriad of strategic
opportunities. From the raiding done by Mongols, we see our first example of blitzkrieg
or lightning warfare. This is seen as a type of fast, decisive attacks that are meant to
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cripple and strike fear into the hearts of the enemy. Mongols were seen throughout Asia
as ruthless, barbaric, and fearless. Due to the skills on horseback, the Mongols were able
to navigate Asia with relative quickness and ease. Horses allow the Mongol warriors to
travel quickly across the Silk Roads into Persia and into mainland China. This allowed
ground to be covered quickly and the spread of influence to be covered over thousands of
miles.
The value of the horse as a military asset was seen up through the twentieth
century through World War I. The horse could be seen as a great vehicle that
revolutionized the way that war was conducted. Technology was seen to be the great
innovator of war, but the horse provided the path for this technology. With horseback and
cavalry, new strategies and more tactics could be achieved. The tanks are the new
version of the horse. Horses have played critical roles of decisive military victories for
centuries. Through the legendary cavalry units of the Civil War to the cavalry warfare
that took place in battles during World War I. Horses were seen to be the answer to
quicker and more effective warfare. With the horse, a soldier was able to maneuver
quickly, and take a number of offensive positions.
Horses were quick enough to be able to close the gap of mid-ranged combat, but
also be able to get to a safe distance to use the bow and arrow for long ranged attacks.
Mongols were the first to utilize the horse to its full potential. Units consisting of only a
few hundred to thousand horsemen could easily rout an army consisting of thousands of
infantry troops. Much of this has to do with the ability of the horse being able to retreat
and maneuver. The armies led by Genghis Khan often baited enemies by faking a
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withdrawal from the battlefield. This led to the enemy giving chase to the horseman and
by doing so, causing divisions within the units. Units would get separated from the
commanders and would be flanked by Khan and his men. Horses were able to cover
twice the distances that a man could travel in full armor. For military purposes the
“Horses could, without exaggeration, be referred to as the intercontinental ballistic
missiles of the past” (Rossabi, 114).
The role that the horse played within China was seen as evolutionary. China has
been long considered the dominant player within Asia. The Chinese possessed resources
that were traded and used to fund military and the numerous dynasties. While China had
access to many resources, horses were the one commodity that rested outside of its
borders. The neighboring Xionghu who were along the northern border of China traded
horses to the Chinese in exchange for silk, spices, and other commodities (Creel, 656).
While the two were neighboring rivals and often at odds with one another, it was
necessary that the two sides come together as trading partners with one another. Each
had something the other needed. The Chinese needed horses in order to further expand
and increase their military strength. The horse was seen as the vehicle that moved the
Chinese empire. With horses, the Chinese could continue to strengthen their empire to
conquer that of the neighboring nomadic Xiongnu. Horses played an important role in
the culture of China. Chinese saw the horse as important sign of royalty and importance
to the people. In folklore and literature, the horse was seen as a hero alongside a famous
leader or general. Horses became seen as important within all realms of Chinese society.
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The role of the horse in Persia and Middle East was important due to the climate
and environment of the region. Some of the most elegant thoroughbreds came from this
region. The regions of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Iran were all areas where horses
were able to successfully prosper. Breeds such as the Arabian and Caspian were desired
by leaders from as far as China. These horses were vital to the trade of the region. The
region consisted of many cities such as Kabul, Kashmir, and Kandahar were prized for
their steeds (Gommans, 229). Along with steppes along the Russian border, this region
was one where horses were primarily domesticated and raised to trade along the Silk
Roads. With many of the towns such as Kashmir and Kabul being located along the
halfway point of the Silk Roads, these thoroughbreds were accessible to those farther east
into China, south into India, and as far west as the Europeans (Beckwith, 154). The Silk
Roads connected the Middle East together with China and Southeast Asia. While sea
trade was a way of connecting the two together, it was the horse as well as other animals
such as the camel that made the trip along the Silk Roads (Beckwith, 171). Persian horse
breeds were some of the most sought after in Asia. As with China, horses were important
in all aspects of society. In literature, poets would depict the horse as great, mythical
creatures that were hard to tame.
The role of the horse within South Asia was much like that of the other regions of
Asia. Horses were primarily imported for herding as well as the use of “war-horses”
(Gommans, 230). While India was highly inaccessible by land from routes to the north
due to the mountainous landscape, traders and caravans traveled “through the Khyber
Pass into Hindustan to graze at tributaries and sold at markets in Punjab, Awadh,
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Benares, and Bihar” (Gommans, 235). While the climate of Southeast Asia was
considered to be tropical and not suitable for horses to be domesticated, breeding over a
period of generations allowed for the horses to be able to better adapt to their
environment. Horse fairs were held to examine the stock of the horses to determine
value. The fairs would bring in thousands of horses at once with the major fair held in
Rajasthan could bring in more than 5000 horses at once (Heidorn, 168). The fairs were
held at times during the season such as fall that were the best suited for traders to migrate.
Horses based upon their physical attributes could go for a hefty price. The price of feed
and local crops could also affect the asking price for horses. If the upkeep of horses by
merchants was expensive, it was transcended down to buyers. In the case of many areas
around Rajasthan, if the cost of feed for horses such as grain and hay were high, and then
horses would become more expensive. The increase in expenses attributed to the cost of
transport and breeding (Mishra, 119). Transport into India from Central Asia was long
and arduous. The landscape was hard on caravans for transport and access through the
Khyber Pass was the most accessible way into India.
Horses were seen to be heavenly by the people as depicted through artwork and
other forms of literature. The horse is seen to be an elegant animal that possesses powers
not of the human kind. Horses were depicted as wild spirits that were untamable. Heroes
were seen as riding horses into battle. The horse symbolized aggression and omnipotence
that horses represented. The national emblem of Mongolia represents a horse flying
through the sky as a symbol of eternity. The horse embodied the spirit of travel, trade,
and adventure. With the horse, anything was seen to be possible. Stories of great
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adventure and traders along the Silk Roads show the horse a creature of great resilience.
The horse was seen as a thoroughbred of great strength being able to travel swiftly and
without halt. Through the great military stories, cavalry units are show to strike fear into
the hearts of the enemy. The horse encompassed all the qualities of a great story into one
package.
The value of the horse to globalization is immense. The horse was seen as the
great vehicle that carried the influence of cultures across continents. Horses evolved the
way in which man lived. Horses traveled across territories carrying among their backs
the commodities and rarities of their previous destination (Buell, 4). A case can be made
for horses spreading globalization across Asia. Horses brought together cultures from
Guangdong in Eastern China down to the Bay of Bengal in India. To nomads, the horse
was a vital part of everyday life. Nomads used the horse for herding purposes and to get
swiftly from location to location. Horses were able to connect different cultures in ways
that were not possible before domestication began. While camels, yaks, and oxen were
able to transport more goods to markets and traders, the amount of time to transport
goods was double that of horses. Horses could be seen as an early version of the light rail
train system in that travel was made faster by leaps and bounds. Globalization also
contributed to the development of the horse. With different breeds being purchased and
transported to different areas, it allowed for cross-breeding. By cross-breeding different
horses, this allowed for new breeds to be discovered. These new breeds could be better
suited to different environments causing new adaptations in the different breeds. These
adaptations occurred in the form of physiological makeup. While taller, more masculine
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breeds such as the Fergana, Arabian, Caspian, and Turkoman were desired for military
and role cavalry use, the shorter and stocker builds were desired for herding domesticated
animals and tending to menial jobs such as plows and cart pulling. Horses were a vital
component to the globalization and modernization of the Asian continent.
Throughout the course of this research, it is apparent how the role of the horse
shaped the history of Eurasia and its path to development. The horse was vital to a
myriad of different sectors of everyday life from the use of meat to the herding of animals
and transportation of goods. Horses played key roles in military allowing vast empires
such as the Chinese and the Mongols to expand their sphere of influence westward. Their
impact upon different regions and travel along the Silk Road helped to connect different
cultures and bring new customs to regions. The horse has affected the way in which
history has been written and forever changed the concept of globalization across cultures.