highway engineering lecturer notes chapter 1 2

8/11/2019 Highway Engineering Lecturer Notes Chapter 1 2

1/77

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

ECG 304

Intan Shafika Saiful Bahri

Faculty of Civil Engineering

UiTMPP

1

2

3

4

5

6


2/77

Course Outcomes

1. Describe the process involved in the development andconstruction of highways

2. Carry out simple traffic studies and apply the

knowledge in highway geometric design and traffic

control devices by using recommended standards andspecification

3. Perform simple flexible pavement design according to

JKR Arahan Teknik (Jalan) method and the selection

of appropriate material for used in the construction.4. Supervise road construction, identify road defect and

recommends appropriate solution.

5. Perform the standard highway laboratory tests and

data analysis.


3/77

Programme Outcomes

1. Ability to acquire & apply basic knowledge of science,mathematics & engineering.

2. Ability to communicate effectively, not only with engineersbut also with the public.

3. Ability to identify, formulate & solve engineering problems.4. Ability to function on multi-disciplinary teams.

5. Ability to act effectively as an individual and in a group,with leadership, managerial & entrepreneurial capabilities

6. Understanding the social, cultural, global & environmental

responsibilities & ethics of an engineering personnel & theneed for sustainable development

7. Recognizing the need to undertake lifelong learning &possessing the capacity to do so.


4/77

Course Description

Historical development of highways in

Malaysia

Traffic Engineering theory Road geometric design

Traffic control devices

Pavement design

Road construction and maintenance


5/77

Chapter 1

Content:

1. Development of highway

transportation

2. Highway classification and

administration

3. Feasibility studies and route location

4. Road safety and current issues


6/77

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Describe the process involved in thedevelopment and construction of roads andhighway as general as well as in Malaysia.

Describe the general aspects of highwayclassification and administration

Explain the importance of feasibility studies andidentify the route location consideration factors.

Discuss on way to improve road safety andcurrent issues (transportation challenges).


7/77

Development of

highway transportation

Transportation :Everything involved in moving either theperson or goods from the origin to thedestination.

Transportation

Mobility

Accessibility

Movementsdifferent modes

e.g walking, driving etc

Entry and exit


8/77

Why do we provide and develop roadinfrastructure?

To expedite economy recoverydevelopment

May benefit the surrounding areas -upgraded to reduce accidents, congestions

Investment in mode and roadinfrastructure to meet the demands and

private transportation

Development of highway transportation (cont)


9/77

History of road construction

Roman Roads

Metcalfs Road (1717)

Telfords Road (1757)

Mac dams Road (1756)



10/77

Roman Roads

Paving Stones

Fine Concrete

Broken Stones

Rubble Stones

Used by horses,chariot, wagon

pulled byanimals

Made-up fromthe stone blocksplaced closedtogether



11/77

Metcalfs Road

Gravel

Excavated Road

Material

Large StoneFoundation

Insisted on gooddrainage andfoundation orsubbase

carriageway wasarchedassistsurface waterdrainage

Crossing soft ground,he introduced asubbase raft ofbundled heather



12/77

Telfords Road

Gravel

Broken Stone

Hand Pitched

Stone

Improved ride ability- sandwich smaller

stones between the

boulders smaller stones filled

voids between the

stone blocks

compacted until

smooth surface

obtained



13/77

Mac dams Road

Camber

Gravel

Several layers of compacted stones Foundation improvementremoving the

topsoil



14/77

Last decade beforeindependent tar roadconstructed in cities

and town Mac Adam

Animal drawn carts to

mechanical andmotorized vehicles


15/77

Pre-Independent Era

Before independent walking or animalscart and few motorized car by means of

footpath and bullock cart tracks Rubber plantation and tin mining increasedemand for a better serviceability of roadnetwork weak laterite

Planning of road in Malaya BritishAdministration



16/77

Now, Malaysia has one of the finest systemsof road network system in the world

Bituminous or concrete road provideaccessibility to residents (urban or rural) Expressway stretching from the north to the

south of peninsular Malaysia (PLUS) Federal highway links between states

Post-Independent Era



17/77

Post-Independent Era
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/NorthSouth-Expressway.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:FederalHighwayKL.JPG


18/77

Highway/Road Classification

Roads are divided into two groups by area: -

Rural Urban

*Located outside

of cities

* Serve as links

between population centers

*Used for commuting

shopping trips

* Serve areas of

high density land


19/77

Rural Road

Expressway

- divided highway for through traffic

- full access control and grade separation at all

intersection.

- speed limit is 110 km/h

Highway

- link up directly/indirectly federal capitals, state capitals.

- serve long to intermediate trip lengths

- speed high to medium (not important as expressway)

- smooth traffic with partial access control


20/77

Primary road

- major roads within a state

- serve intermediate trip lengths medium travelling speed

- smooth traffic with partial access control

- link up state capitals, district capitals and major towns

Secondary road

- major road within district

- serve intermediate trip lengths with partial access control

Minor road

- apply to all road other than mentioned earlier

- serve mainly local traffic, short trip lengths, no access

control

Rural road (cont)


21/77

Urban Road

Expressway

- as mentioned in rural road

Arterial

- continuous road with partial access for through

traffic within urban area

- Convey traffic from residential area to CBD

- smooth traffic flows and carry large trafficvolume


22/77

Collector

- Serve as collector or distributor between the

arterial and local road system

- partial access control

- penetrate and serve identifiable neighbourhoods,

commercial areas and industrial areas

Local street

- basic road networks within a neighbourhoods

- serve direct access to abutting land

- links to the collector road short trip lengths

- through traffic should be discouraged

Rural road (cont)


23/77

Highway Administration

Federal State

City Hall, Municipal orLocal Council

Kampung (District Office)

Roads

depend on

jurisdiction

Under Federal Road Ordinance

Linking State Capitals, airport,

railway station and ports

Road within the FELDA land

scheme those with other regional

land scheme constructed with

Federal funds

Constructed with state

funds

Local Authority

Private


24/77

Traffic census

Class of Road

Capacity

RouteLocation

EnvironmentalImpact

Assessment

Feasibility

Study

Structures

Finalizing the

Route


25/77

Route location

Consideration Factors:

Topography terrain

Soil condition Environment

Economy/socioeconomic

Politic History


26/77

Example:

7- Keep grades and

curvature to minimum

6- Avoid sudden changes in

sight distance, especially

near junction

1- Avoid crossing

waterways2- Flat area rather

than mountainous

3- Avoid

destruction/removal

man-made culture

4- Avoid deep cuttings and

expensive tunnel

5- Locate near to sources

of pavement material

8- Avoid ground of

mining subsidence

9- Locate highway on soil

that need least pavement

thickness above it

10- River crossing should be right

angle

Route location (cont)


27/77

Road Safety in Malaysia

How to improve?

Multimedia RoadSafety Campaign

Ops STATIK and Ops SIKAP

Intro to Defensive DrivingProposedAmendments ToRoad Safety Act

1987

Increase awareness and

understanding of road

safety

Improve heavier

penalties on drivers

including mandatory jail

Drivers offences

recorded and

summonses were given

Upgrading quality of

instruction, instructors

and training facilities at

driving school


28/77

Safety helmet &safety clothing

Proposal forDedicated

Motorcycle Lane

Proposal to Limit

Max Speeds ofMotorcyclists

Road Safety in Malaysia (cont)

How to improve?

Safety campaigns

at state district

level

To reduce

accidents and

fatalities

Still under study

by The Ministry of

Transport

Be a policy

decision for

proposed new

highway


29/77

Standard application to

Malaysian Roads

Higher design speeds for roads those

provide long distance travel

Lower design speeds for roads those

serve local traffic, where the effect of

speed is less significant

Higher standard for roads with heavier

traffic


30/77

In Malaysia, design standards for roads areclassified into 7 groups for urban & rural

categories. The reason why road designstandards in Malaysia need to be standardizedparticularly with their geometric design featuresare as follows:

To provide a uniformity in the design ofroads based on the performance requirements

To provide consistent, safe and reliable road

facilities for traffic movementTo provide a guide for less subjectivedecisions on road design


31/77

Agencies Involved In Highway &

Traffic JKR (The Pub l ic Work s Department)

- Implementation of development projects(federal road, state road, bridge & airport)

- make sure all roads are in a good condition & safety

JPJ (The Road Transport Department)- increase road safety through observation ofmotorized vehicles & drivers

- implement the Road Transport Act 1987

- Update the road tax system

LLM (Malaysia Highway Authori ty )

- plan, design, construct & maintain highway links &facilities.

- collect the toll & other payment which are related.


32/77

Benefits of Highway Privatization

Reduce government financial burden

Cost saving due innovation in const.techniques

Users enjoy improved standard ofservice & greater accessibility

Earlier implementation and completionof highway project

Create more job opportunity


33/77

Roadway Ideal Conditions

Lane width 3.6 m

Clearance 1.8 m

Free-flow speed of 100 km/h

No No Pass ing Zone on two-lane highway

No parking near the curb

Level terrain

No pedestrians

Only passenger cars in the traffic stream (no

heavy vehicles)


34/77

TransportationSystem Challenges

Transportation system exists to meetperceived socialandeconomic needs.

As the transportation system itself evolves, situationsarise as a problemserve as challenges to thetransportation engineering profession.

These challenges are

1. Managing congestionby demand or supply measures

2. Improving safetytraffic accidents concern

3. Providing equal accesspoor, elderly, and physically

handicapped4. Protecting the environmentEIA

5. Incorporating new technology - ITS

6. Securing financial resources - funding


35/77

Current Issue

Serious urban traffic congestion Highway-related crashes

- Over 40,000 traffic fatalities each year Delay Parking difficulties

Pollutionnoise and air (CO,NO, hydrocarbons)


36/77

Chapter 2

Content:

1. Spot speed studies, design speed,

operating speed, running speed and

speed limit

2. Traffic volume characteristics, flow

rate, highway capacity and Level of

service (LOS)


37/77

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

1. Carry out simple speed studies and apply the

knowledge in highway geometric design by usingrecommended standards and specification.

2. Carry out simple volume studies and apply theknowledge in traffic signal design by using

recommended standards and specification.


38/77

Contents

Traffic Stream ParametersMicroscopic

Macroscopic

MeasurementsManual

Inductive loops

Speed guns

Traffic Stream ModelsGreen shield's speed-density relationship

Fundamental diagram


39/77

Traffic Studies

Three (3) main categories:-

1. Inventories

A list or graphic display of existing information

street widths, parking spaces, transit routes, etc2. Administrative

Existing engineering records, available in

government agencies & departments

3. Dynamic

collection of data under operational conditions

speed, traffic volume, travel time & delay,

parking and crashes.


40/77

Traffic

measurements

Plan, improve road system

Distribution & performance of existing

traffic

Traffic flow & speed

Traffic planning studies

Implemented with the help of 3-Es(Engineering, Enforcement and Education)


41/77

Microscopic vs. Macroscopic Measures

Microscopic measures: individual vehicle

1. Time headway: hi (sec/veh)

2. Space headway: si (ft/veh or km/veh)

3. Speed of individual vehicle: ui (mi/hr or km/hr) Macroscopic measures: average of n vehicles

1. Flow: q (veh/hr or vph)

2. Density: k (veh/mi or veh/km)3. Speed: u (mi/hr or km/hr)

q = uk


42/77

Spot Speed Studies

Study of speed of traffic atone point or spot on atraffic way

Aimsto determine theenforceable speed limits

To estimate the speeddistribution of the trafficstream

110

km/j 80

km/j90

km/j30

km/j

60

km/j


43/77

Time of day & Duration

1. Establish posted speed limits2. Observe speed trends

3. Collect basic data

4. Response to citizen complaints

reflects the nature of complaints

Duration at least 1 hour and the sample sizeis at least 30 vehicles.

Traffic is

free-flowing,

usually off-

peak hours


44/77

Where to make spot speed studies?

Free flow

Junction

High frequency of accident rateImportant locations for traffic operation

Representative location for basic data survey


45/77

Factors affecting spot speed studies

Driver

Vehicle

Roadway

Traffic

Environment

OROR

OR


46/77

Application of spot speed data

For trends in the

operating speed

For speed at

problem location

For traffic

operationspeed

limit & safe speedat curve

For geometric

design features

For research

studies

110

km/j


47/77

Methods of Measurement

Manually Automatically

200m

0 sec

Speed = distance/time

= 200m/8sec

V = 25m/s = 90kph

8 sec

Speed Studies

-Road detectors

-Radar speed meter

(commonly used)

Or Sonic detector

-Time laps camera


48/77

Manual

Observe the time required by a vehicle to

cover short distance.

Direct timing procedure

Two reference points are located at aroadway, fixed distance apart.

Observer starts and stops a stopwatch as

a vehicle enters & leaves the test section.

It is most uncomplicated way.

Disadvantages: Parallax effect


49/77

Road detectors

Classified into two general categories:

a) Pneumatic road tubes two tubes laid across the lane

an impulse is recorded when the frontwheels pass over the first tube, secondimpulse is recorded when the front wheelspass over the second tube.

time elapsed between the two impulses &

distance between the tubes are used tocompute the speed.

b) An inductive loop rectangular wire loop buried under the roadway

surface.


50/77

Advantages:

a) human errors are reducedb) accurate results

Disadvantages:a) devices rather expensive

b) affect driver behavior

c) wear & tear


51/77

Speed Meter

Two types:

a) Radar speed metertransmit signal onto a moving vehicle

change in frequency between transmitted signal

& reflected signal = speed.

operating distance about 45 m

b) Sonic detector meterusing ultrasonic tone (18-20 kHz)

output in current voltage that is proportional to

vehicle speed.


52/77

Advantages:

a) portableb) reduced the influence on driver

behaviour.

Disadvantages:

a) difficult for two-lane road

b) expensive


53/77


54/77

SpeedRate of movement of the vehicle, expressed in

miles/hour (mi/h) or kilometers/hour (km/h).

Average spot speed /Arithmetic mean speed /

Time mean speed (*)

- Arithmetic mean of all observed vehicle

speeds. Total of spot speeds/No of vehicles.

Overall travel time

- Time travel including stop and delays.

Overall travel speed/journey speed (*)

- The speed over a specified section of

highway. Distance/overall travel time.

Definition:

O ti d (*)


55/77

Operating speed (*)

- the highest overall speed a driver can travelunder a favorable weather condition w/outexceeds the speed limits

Running speed (*)

- the average speed maintained over a

particular distance which the vehicle is inmotion. Distance/ (Time traveltime delay)

Running delay- delay caused by interference between

components of traffic (stream flow, parking)

Design speed

- the speed determined for design as related to the

physical features of a highway that mightinfluence vehicle operation.

- the max safe speed that can be maintained overa specified section of highway when conditionsare so favorable.

Median speed


56/77

Median speed

- speed at the middle value in a series of spot

speeds that are arranged in ascending order

Modal speed

- speed value with highest frequency

(observation) in a sample of spot speeds.

Pace/Mode

- the range of speed (5-10 km/h intervals) that has

the greatest number of observations.

Standard deviation of speeds

- measure of the spread of the individual speeds.

Space mean speed

- the arithmetic mean of speeds of vehicles

occupying a relatively long section of street or

highway at given instant.


57/77

Analysis and data presentation(refer Ex 4.2 pg 93)

Table

Speed

group

Mean

speed, v

Frequency,

f

fv % f Cumulative %

f

f(v-u)2

1014.9 12.5 0 0 0

Histogram

frequ

ency

Speed, kph

Frequencydistribution

Cumulativedistribution


58/77

Time mean speed vs. space mean speed

Time mean speed

= Total speed

No of vehicles

Space mean speed

= Total distance

Total time

Six vehicles traveling through a section of a ruralsecondary road with the speeds measured at 68, 71,79, 82, 76 and 74 km/h respectively. Assuming everyvehicle was traveling at constant speed over thesection of road, calculate the space mean speed and

time mean speed.


59/77

Volume Studies

collect data on the no of vehicles and/orpedestrians that pass a point on a highway

facility during a specified time period.

Time periodlittle as 15 min to as much as ayear, depends on the use of the data.

Data collectedput into subclasses.


60/77

Types of Traffic Daily Volume

Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)

Average 24 hour volume over a year

Average Annual Weekday Traffic (AAWT)

Average 24 hr volume occurring on weekdaysover a year

Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

Same as AADT, but average over period less

than a year, say, a monthAverage Weekday Traffic (AWT)

Same as AAWT, but average over period lessthan a year, say, a month

Applications of AADT/ADT


61/77

Applications of AADT/ADT

AADT Applications1. Estimation of highway use

2. Estimation of trends

3. Economic feasibility evaluation4. Planning

5. Maintenance

ADT Applications

1. Planning of highway activities

2. Measurement of current demand


62/77

Peak Hour Volume (PHV)

The max no of veh passing a point on ahighway over 60 consecutive minutes

Peak Hour Factor (PHF)

PHF = Peak hour volume4 x The maximum15 minute volume

Mainly used for urban:

1. Highway design (e.g. highway classification, noof lanes, signalization)

2. Traffic management (e.g. capacity analysis,parking)


63/77


64/77

Volume Characteristics

Three basis of traffic flow:

1. Hourly

The traffic flow mostly for a daytrafficvolume varies from hour to hour.

2. Daily

Distribution of traffic flow every day fromSunday to Saturday in a week.

3. Monthly

Distribution of traffic flow for each monthfrom January to December in a year

Refer figure 4.14 pg 110 in your textbook


65/77

Traffic Count

The duration can be 1 hour, 1 day or 1 year

Unit: no. of vehicle or passenger car unit

(PCU)

Traffic can be divided into type & class ofvehiclecar, motorcycle, bus, lorry, etc

PCUstandard unit of measurement

designed to give the effect of an

equivalent numbers of passenger cars.


66/77


67/77

Methods of Conducting Volume Counts

Manual method

Involves one or more persons recording

observed vehicles using a counter. Advantages:a) not required specialized

b) accurate results

Disadvantages:a) labour intensivecan be expensive

b) cannot be use for long periods of counting


68/77

Automatic Method

Laying of surface detectors (pneumatic road tubes)or subsurface detectors (magnetic or electriccontact devices) on the road.

Detect the passing vehicle & transmit the

information to a recorder. Advantages;

a) not required specialized

b) accurate results

Disadvantages;a) wear & tear

b) disrupts traffic during installation


69/77

Types of Volume Counts

Cordon Counts* conduct at central business district (CBD).

* imaginary closed loop as cordon area.

* intersection crossing the cordon linecount station.

* Volume counts of vehicles enter & leavingcordon area are taken.

* data used: planning parking facilities,updating & evaluating traffic operationaltechnique.


70/77

Screen Line Counts* study area are divided into large sections

by running imaginary lines (screen lines)across it.

* traffic counts are taken at each pointwhere a road crosses the screen line.

Intersection Counts* determine vehicle classifications through

movements & turning movements atintersections.

* determine phase lengths & cycle time forsignalized intersection, design ofchannelization.


71/77

Analysis of Traffic Volume Data

Hourly Volume Characteristics

Flow(

pc

u/h/l)

Time (a.m-p.m)

7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00

WeekdayWeekend


72/77

Daily Volume Characteristics

Vehicleperday

Day per week

Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

Zone A

Zone B


73/77

Flow

(pcu/h/l)

Year

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Annually Volume Characteristics

-Increment of traffic

volume


74/77

Definition

Design VolumeThe volume of traffic estimated to use the road during the designlife.

Design VehicleA selected motor vehicle which the weight, dimensions & operatingcharacteristics are used to establish highway design controls toaccommodate vehicles of a designated type.

Service volume

Max volume of traffic that a designed roadway would be able toserve without undue congestion falling below prescribed level ofservice (LOS) at the time the traffic is at design hourly volume.


75/77

Highway capacity

Ability to accommodate traffic & usually expressed asno of vehicles that can pass a given point in a certainperiod of time at a given speed.

Level of service (LOS)Term used to classify the varying conditions of trafficflow that take place on highway. The various level ofservice range from the highest level (flow where drivers

are able to travel at their desired speed with freedom tomanoeuvre) to the lowest level (obtained duringcongested stop-start conditions).


76/77

Level of service (LOS)

The LOS of existing highway may beevaluated by comparing measured trafficvolume to the capacity of that facilities.

Each road has its own capacity depending

on

a) speed

b) travel time

c) safetyd) traffic interruption

LOS = volume/capacity

F Fl


77/77

Relationship of LOS to operating speed and Flow

A

B

C

D

E

F

Speed

Flow

Free Flow

Stable Flow

Approaching Unstable Flow

Unstable Flow

Forced Flow

highway engineering lecturer notes chapter 1 2

Documents