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Indicators of ADHD: Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Hyperactivity_ Fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat

_ Leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which

remaining seated is expected

_ Runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it is

inappropriate (in adolescents may be limited to subjective

feelings of restlessness)

_ Has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly

_ Talks excessively

_ Acts as if"driven by a motor" and cannot remain still

Do any of your students show these signs? They could be indications of ADHD.

Problems with Inattention Problems with Impulse Control

_ Fails to give close attention to details or makes careless - Blurts out answers before questions have been completed

mistakes _ Has difficulty awaiting his/her turn

- Has difficulty sustainingattention in tasks or play activities _ Interrupts or intrudes on others in conversations or games

_ Does not seem to listen when spoken to directly

_ Does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish

schoolwork (not due to oppositional behavior or failure to

understand instructions)

_ Has difficulty organizing tasks or activities

_ Avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require

sustained mental effort (such as schoolwork or homework)

_ Loses things necessary for tasks or activities

_ Is easily distracted by extraneous stimuli

_ Is forgetful in daily activities

SOURCE: From Diagnostic and StatisticalManual ofMental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) (pp. 83-84),1994,Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

Adapted with permission from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual ofMental Disorders, Fourth Edition. Copyright © 1994 American Psychiatric Association.

than girls are identified as hyperactive. Just a few years ago, most psychologists thought

that ADHD diminished as children entered adolescence, but now there are some re-

searchers who believe that the problems can persist into adulthood (Hallowell&Ratey,

1994). Adolescence-with the increased stresses of puberty, transition to middle or

high school, more demanding academic work, and more engrossing social relation-

ships-can be an especially difficult time for students withAD HD (Taylor, 1998).

Treating and Teaching Students with ADHD

Today there is an increasing reliance on drug therapy for ADHD. In fact, from 1990to 1998, there was a 7000/0 increase in the production of Ritalin in the United States

(Diller, 1998). Ritalin and other prescribed drugs such as Dexedrine and Cylert are

stimulants, but in particular dosages they tend to have paradoxical effects on many

children with ADHD: Short-term effects in-

clude possible improvements in social be-

haviors such as cooperation, attention, and

compliance. Research suggests that about

800/0 of children with ADHD are more man-

ageable when on medication. But for many

there are negative side effects such as in-

creased heart rate and blood pressure, inter-

ference with growth rate, insomnia, weight

loss, and nausea (Friend & Bursuck, 2002;

Panksepp, 1998; Weiss & Hechtman, 1993).

In addition, little is known about the long-

term effects of drug therapy. There also is no

evidence that the drugs lead to improvement

in academic learning or peer relationships,

two areas where children with ADHD have

great problems. Because students appear to

improve dramatically in their behavior, par-

ents and teachers, relieved to see change,may



Improving Concentration

Te,acher

Date

TO PRAXIS™

I ADHD (I, 82), Anew student's parent calls you to tell

you that a neurologist has diagnosedher child with ADHD. What typical

behaviors can you expect from the

student?What can yo u do to support

that student's development?

Chris

%is certificate is awarded

to Chris in recognition ofhis

recent conquering ofboretfom!

:J{e now is takjng contro[of

the boretfom andis tfiscipBni11tJ

his mind to pay attention

in cfass!

Source: From Treating Huckleberry Finn: A New

Narrative Approach to Workingwith

Kids DiagnosedADD/ADHD, by D. Nylund. Copyright © 2000 by Jossey-

Bass. This material is adapted by permission of John

Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Figure 4.2 Conquering Boredom: Putting

Students in Charge

assume the problem has been cured. It hasn' t. The students still need

special help in learning.

One approach to helping students with attention deficits is based

on the behavioral principles described in Chapter 6. Long assignments

may overwhelm students with attention deficits, so give them a few

problems or paragraphs at a time with clear consequences for comple-

tion.Another promisingapproach combines instruction in learning and

memory strategies with motivational training. The goal is to help

students develop the «skill and will" to improve their achievement

(Paris, 1988).Theyare also encouraged to be persistent and to see them-

selves as «in control" (Reid & Borkowski, 1987).

The notion of being in control is part of a new therapy strategy for

dealing with ADHD, one that stresses personal agency. David Nylund

(2000) describes this type of therapy that has important implications

for teachers. Rather than treating the problem child, Nylunds' idea is to

enlist the child's strengths to conquer the child's problems-put the

child in control. Newmetaphors for the situation are developed. Rather

than seeing the problems as inside the child,Nylund helps everyone see

ADHD, Trouble, Boredom, and other enemies of learning as outside

the child-demons to be conquered or unruly spirits to be enlisted in

the service ofwhat the childwants to accomplish. The focus is on solu-

tions. The steps of the SMART approach are:

Separating the problem of ADHD from the child

Mapping the influence ofADHD on the child and family

Attending to the exceptions to the ADHD story

Reclaiming special abilities of children diagnosed with ADHD

Telling and celebrating the new story. (Nylund, 2000, p. xix)

As a teacher, you can look for t imes when the student is engaged-even short

times.What is different about these times? Discover the student's strengths and allow

yourself to be amazed by them. Make changes in your teaching that support the

changes the student is trying to make. Nylund gives the following example: Chris (age

9) and his teacher, Ms. Baker, became partners in putting Chris in control of his con-centration in school. Ms. Baker moved Chris's seat to the front of the room. The two

designed a subtle signal to get Chris back on track and Chris organized his messy

desk. These sound like some of the Section 504 accommodations in Table 4.9.When

Chris's concentration improved, Chris received the award shown in Figure 4.2 at a

party in his honor. Chris described how he was learning to listen in class: "You just

have to have a strongmind and tell ADHD and Boredom no t to bother you" (Nylund,

2000, p. 166). Here are suggestions that came from students working with Nylund,

telling how their teachers can help them gain control:

Offer us choices.

Don't just lecture-it's boring!

Realize that I am intelligent.

Let me walk around the classroom.

Don't give tons of homework.

More recess!

Use lots of pictures (visual clues)

to help me learn.

Recognize cultural and racial identity.

Know when to bend the rules.

Notice when I am doing well.

Don't tell the other kids that I am

taking Ritalin.Be patient.

The above methods should be thoroughly tested with the student before drugs are

used. Even if students in your class are on medication, it is critical that they also learn

the academic and social skills theywill need to survive. Again, this will no t happen by

itself, even ifbehavior improves with medication (Friend & Bursuck, 2002).

www.ablongman.com/woolfolk Section 504 Protections for Students



USING PRAISE ApPROPRIATELYm ' i ;........---.

Be clear and systematic in giving praise.

Examples

1. Make sure praise is tied directly to appropriate behavior.

2. Make sure the student understands the specific action or

accomplishment that is being praised. Say, "You returned

this poster on time and in good condition:' not, "You werevery responsible."

Recognize genuine accomplishments.

Examples

1. Reward the attainment of specified goals, not just

participation.

2. Do not reward uninvolved students just for being quiet

and not disrupting the class.

3. Tie praise to students' improving competence or to the

value of their accomplishment. Say, "I noticed that you

double-checked all your problems. Your score reflects

your careful work:'

Set standards for praise based on individual abilities

and limitations.

Examples

1. Praise progress or accomplishment in relation to the

individual student's past efforts.

2. Focus the student's attention on his or her own progress, not

on comparisons with others.

Attribute the student's success to effort and ability so

the student will gain confidence that success is possible

again.

Examples

1. Don't imply that the success may be based on luck, extra

help, or easy material.

2. Ask students to describe the problems they encountered

and how they solved them.

Make praise really reinforcing.

Examples

1. Don't attempt to influence the rest of the class by singling

out some students for praise. This tactic frequently backfires,

because students know what's really going on. In addition,

you risk embarrassing the student you have chosen to

praise.2. Don't give undeserved praise to students simply to balance

failures. It is seldom consoling and calls attention to the

student's inability to earn genuine recognition.

will not improve behavior. To be effective, praise must (1) be contingent on the be-

havior to be reinforced, (2) specify clearly the behavior being reinforced, and (3) be

believable (O'Leary & O'Leary, 1977). In other words, the praise should be sincererecognition of a well-defined behavior so students understand what they did to war-

rant the recognition. Teachers who have not received special training often violate

these conditions (Brophy, 1981). Ideas for using praise effectively, based on Brophy's

extensive review of the subject, are presented in the Guidelines above.

Some psychologists have suggested that teachers' use of praise tends to focus stu-

dents on learning to win approval rather than on learning for its own sake. Perhaps

the best advice is to be aware of the potential dangers of the overuse or misuse of

praise and to navigate accordingly.

Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle. In most classrooms, there are

many readily available reinforcers other than teacher attention, such as the chance to

talk to other students or feed the class animals. However, teachers tend to offer these

opportunities in a rather haphazard way. Just as with praise, bymaking privileges and

rewards directly contingent on learning and positive behavior, the teacher may greatly

increase both learning and desired behavior.

A helpful guide for choosing the most effective reinforcers is the Premack prin-

ciple) named for David Premack (1965).According to the Premack principle, a high-

frequency behavior (a preferred activity) can be an effective reinforcer for a

low-frequency behavior (a less-preferred activity). This is sometimes referred to as

"Grandma's rule": First do what I want you to do, then you may do what you want to

do. Elizabeth used this principle in her class when she told them they could work

together on their Civil War news program after they quietly completed the first sec-

tion of the worksheet on their own.

Premack principle Principle stating

that a more-preferred activity can

serve as a reinforcer for a less-preferred

activity.

. . ._--,,-_._-_ _ __ •._---_.•. --_._._.__ ..__ .."_._._._-,_ .._-_ .._-_."_."._._--_ ._--" _._"._-_ _-,,--_.__ _- .. .._----- _. "

Chapter 6 Behaviora l Views of Learning



Susan lived in what seemed to be a normal upper middle-class home, but her abusive father

caused problems for the entire family. It was difficult for her to devote attention to school

work. Susan thought she was just dumb, but she enjoyed art and dance and had the strong

support of many family members. When her mother divorced and moved the family to

another state, Susan encountered some wonderful teachers who captured her imaginationand capitalized on her talents. Susan went on to earn a Ph.D in early childhood education

and counseling-using her experiences as a resilient child to help others. She describes her

her senior English teacher.

The most exciting thing about my move was starting over academically. Iwas placed in

a superiorEnglish class that year and Iwas also in pretty good classes across the board.

I'll never forget the first time I heard my English teacher,Mr. Borders, teach. I

was sitting in class, and, for the first time in my life, I was able to really listen, pay

attention, and focus on what the teacher was saying. It was an overwhelming experi-

ence and awonderful feeling. I felt like the top ofmy head was off and everything that

had previously clouded my brain and life was being lifted. I could use my brain like it

was supposed to be used. There was a sense of quiet where Iwas free to think and

process information without worrying about what was happening at home or how mymom was doing.

I began getting excited about learning. In fact, I liked learning because Mr. Bor-

ders, my "Superior English" teacher, made it exciting. He also introduced me to project

work. I was able to make aShakespearean character for one of my projects. I loved

doing this project. I remember the great detail I took to make this character look au-

thentic. I also saw myself excelling academically even though I thought Iwasn't sup-

posed to be smart. I was also drawing my cousin's lab pictures for her college biology

class. Of course, artwas one of my gifts and it didn't take brains to do this, I thought,

but, nevertheless, I felt proud. So, I began to surprise my mom as well as myself.

SOURCE: From "Hidden Lives: Examining the Lives of Resilient European American Children:'by S. G.Hendley. In Gloria

Swindler Boutte (Ed.), Resounding Voices: School Experiences ofPeople from Diverse Ethnic Backgrounds. Published by

Allyn&

Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright©

2002 by Pearson Education. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.

Acronym Technique for remembering

names, phrases, or steps by using the

first letter of each word to form a new,

memorable word.

Chain mnemonics Memory strate-

gies that associate one element in a series

with the next element.

Keyword method System of associ-

ating new words or concepts with simi-

1ar-sounding cue words and images.

Rote memorization Remembering

information by repetition without neces-

sarily understanding the meaning of the

information.

Serial-position effect The tendencyto remember the beginning and the endbut not the middle of a list.

Part learning Breaking a list of rote

learning items into shorter lists.

Distributed practice Practice in

briefperiods with rest intervals.

Massed practice Practice for a single

extended period.

Ifyou need to remember information for long periods of time, an acronym may be

the answer. An acronym is a form of abbreviation-aword formed from the first letter

of each word in a phrase, for example, HOMES to remember the Great Lakes (Huron,

Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). Another method forms phrases or sentences out of

the first letter of each word or item in a list, for example, Every Good Boy Does Fine to

remember the lines on the G clef-E, G, B, D, F. Because the words must make sense as

a sentence, this approach also has some characteristics of chain mnemonics, methods

that connect the first item to be memorized with the second, the second item with the

third, and so on. In one type of chain method, each item on a list is linked to the next

through some visual association or story. Another chain-method approach is to incor-porate all the items to be memorized into a jingle such as "i before e except after c: '

The mnemonic system that has been most extensively researched in teaching is

the keyword method. Joel Levin and his colleagues use a mnemonic (the 3 Rs) to

teach the keyword mnemonic method:

• recode the to-be-Iearned vocabulary item as a more familiar, concrete keyword-

this is the keyword;

• relate the keyword clue to the vocabulary item's definition through a sentenc.e;

• retrieve the desired definition.

Chapter 7 Cognitive Views of Learning



This illustration tells a story that providesa frame fo r remembedng: hanging the concept namesirf the

biological subdivision of angiosperms.

To remember that the subdivision angiospermsincludes the class dicotyledons, which in turn

includes the three orders rubales, sapindales,and rosales, study the picture of the angel with

the pet dinosaur that is walking up the Rubik'scubes so that he can lick the sweet sap that

drips down from the rose tree.

Source: From /I Pictorial Illustrations Still Improve Students'

Learning From Text, /I by R. N. Carney and J. R. Levin,

Educational Psychology Review, 74. Copyright © 2002 by

Kluwer Academic Publishers. Reprinted with permission

of the publisher and authors.

• Figure 7.8 Using Mnemonics to Promote

learning Complex Concepts

For example, t o remember that the English word carlin means old

woman, you might recode carlin as the more familiar keyword car. Then

make up a sentence such as The old woman was driving a car. When you are

asked for the meaning of t he word carlin, you think of the keyword car,

which triggers the sentence about the car and the old woman, the meaning.

(Jones, Levin, Levin, & Beitzel, 2000).

The keyword method has been used extensively in foreign language

learning. For example, the Spanishword carta (meaning "letter") sounds like

the Englishword "cart." Cart becomes the keyword:You imagine a shopping

cart filled with letters on its way t o the pos t office, or youmake up a sentence

such as "The cart full of letters tipped over" (Pressley, Levin, & Delaney,

1982). A similar approach has been used to help students connect artists

with particular aspects of their paintings. For example, students are told to

imagine that the heavy dark lines of paintings by Rouault are made with a

ruler (Rouault) dipped in black paint (Carney & Levin, 2000). Figure 7.8 is

an example of using mnemonic pictures as aids in learning complicated sci-

ence concepts (Carney & Levin, 2002). .

One problem, however, is that the keyword method does no t work well

if it is difficult to identify a keyword for a particular item.Many words and ideas that

s tudents need to remember are quite a challenge to associate with keywords (Hall ,

1991; Pressley, 1991). Also, vocabulary learned with keywords may be easily forgot-

ten if students are given keywords and images instead of being asked to supply thewords and images.When the teacher provides the memory links, these associations

may no t fit the students' existing knowledge and may be forgotten or confused later,

so remembering suffers (Wang & Thomas, 1995; Wang, Thomas, & Ouelette, 1992).

Younger students have some difficulty forming their own images. For them, memory

aids that rely on auditory cues-rhymes such as "Thirty days hath September . . ."seem to work better (Willoughby, Porter, Belsito, & Yearsley, 1999).

Many teachers use a mnemonic system to quickly learn their stu-

dents' names. Until we have some knowledge to guide learning, it may

help to use somemnemonic approaches to build vocabulary and facts.

Not all educatorsagree, as is noted inthe PointlCounterpointonpage 264.

Rote Memorization. Very few things need to be learned by rate. The

greatest challenge teachers face is to help students think and under-

stand, no t just memorize. Unfortunately, many students, including

those in the scenario opening this chapter, see rote memorizing and

learning as the same thing (Iran-Nejad, 1990).

However, on rare occasions we have to memorize something word-

for-word, such as lines in a song, poem, or play. Howwouldyou do it? If

you have tried to memorize a list of items that are all similar to one an-

other,you may have found that you tended to remember items at the be-

ginning and at the end of the list bu t forgot those in the middle. This is

called the serial-position effect. Part learning, breaking the list into

smaller segments, can help preventthis effect, becausebreakinga list into

several shorter lists means there will be fewer middle items to forget.

Another strategy formemorizing a long selection or list is the useof distributedpractice.A studentwho studies Hamlet's soliloquy in-

termittently throughout the weekend will probably do much better

than a student who tries to memorize the entire speech on Sunday

night. Studying for an extended period is called massed practice.

Massed practice leads to fatigue and lagging motivation. Distributed

practice gives time for deeper processing and the chance to move in-

formation into long-termmemory (Mumford, Costanza, Baughman,

Threlfall, & Fleishman, 1994).What is forgotten after one session can

be relearned in the next with distributed practice.

www.ablongman.com/woolfolk Becoming Knowledgeable: Some Basic Principles



TO THE RESEARCH

Howard Gardner (1993b) definesunderstanding as:

the capacity to take knowledge,

skills, and concepts and apply them

appropriately in new situations. If

someone only parrots back what

he or she has been taught, we do not

know whether the individual under-

stands. If that person applies the

knowledge promiscuously, regardless

of whether it is appropriate, then I

would not say he or she understands

either. . . . But if that person knows

where to apply and where not to

apply, and can do it to new situations,

he or she understands. (p. 2)

TO YOUR TEACHING/PORTFOLIO

According to Piaget, a person cannot

think in abstract terms until the stage

of formal operations is reached. How

then can a child learn abstract conceptssuch as «yesterday" and «happy"?

Can abstract concepts be taught

through the use of prototypes?

Concept Ageneral category of ideas,

objects, people, or experiences whose

members share certain properties.

Defining attributes Distinctive fea-

tures shared by members of a category.

Prototype Best representative of acategory.

Exemplar Aspecific example of agiven

category that is used to classify an item.

Learning and Teaching about Concepts

I I What makes a cup a cup? List the characteristics of cupness. What is a fruit? Is a

banana a fruit? Is a tomato a fruit? How about a squash? Awatermelon? A sweet

• potato? An olive? How did you learn what makes a fruit a fruit?

Most ofwhat we know about cups and fruits and the world involves concepts and re-

lations among concepts (Ashcraft, 2002). But what exactly is a concept? A concept is

a category used to group similar events, ideas, objects, or people.When we talk about

a particular concept such as student, we refer to a category of people who are similarto one another-they all study a subject. The people may be old or young, in school

or not; they may be studying baseball or Bach, bu t they can all be categorized as stu-

dents. Concepts are abstractions. They do not exist in the real world. Only individual

examples of concepts exist. Concepts help us organize vast amounts of information

into manageable units. For instance, there are about 7.5 million distinguishable dif-

ferences in colors. By categorizing these colors into some dozen or so groups, we man-

age to deal with this diversity quite well (Bruner, 1973).

Views of Concept Learning

In earlyresearch, psychologists assumed that concepts share a set of definingattributes,

or distinctive features. For example, books all contain pages that are bound together in

some way (but what about electronic "books"?). The defining attributes theory of con-

cepts suggests that we recognize specific examples by noting key required features.

Since about 1970, however, these views about the nature of concepts have been

challenged (Ashcraft, 2002). Although some concepts, such as equilateral triangle,

have clear-cut defining attributes, most concepts do not. Take the concept of party.

What are the defining attributes?You might have difficulty listing these attributes, but

you probably recognize a party when you see or hear one (unless, of course we are

talking about political parties, or the other party in a lawsuit, where the sound might

not help you recognize the "party"). What about the concept of bird? Your first

thought might be that birds are animals that fly. But is an ostrich a bird?What about

a penguin? A bat?

Prototypes and Exemplars. Current conceptions of concept learning suggest that

we have in ou r minds a prototype of a party and a bird-an image that captures the

essence of each concept. A prototype is the best representative of its category. For

instance, the best representative of the "birds" category for many North Americans

might be a robin (Rosch, 1973). Other members of the category may be very similar

to the prototype (sparrow) or similar in some ways but different in others (chicken,

ostrich). At the boundaries of a category, it may be difficult to determine if a partic-

ular instance really belongs. For example, is a telephone "furniture"? Is an elevator a

"vehicle"? Is an olive a "fruit"?Whether something fits into a category is a matter of

degree. Thus, categories have fuzzy boundaries. Some events, objects, or ideas are

simply better examples of a concept than others (Ashcraft, 2002).

Another explanation of concept learning suggests that we identify members of a

category by referring to exemplars. Exemplars are our actual memories of specific

birds, parties, furniture, and so on that we use t o compare with an item in question

to see if that i tem belongs in the same category as our exemplar. For example, if you

see a strange steel-and-stone bench in a public park, you may compare it to the sofa

in your living room to decide if the uncomfortable-looking creation is still for sitting

or if i t has crossed a fuzzy boundary into "sculpture."

Prototypes probably are built from experiences with many exemplars. This hap-

pens naturally because episodic memories of particular events tend to blm ex

over time, creating an average or typical sofa prototype from all the sofa exemplars

you have experienced (Schwartz & Reisberg, 1991).

Chapter 8 Complex Cognitive Processes



Concepts and Schemas. In addition to prototypes and exemplars, there is a third

element involved when we recognize a concept-our schematic knowledge related to

the concept. How dowe know that counterfeit money is not «real"money, even though

it perfectly fits our «money"prototype and exemplars?We know because of its history.

It was printed by the «wrong" people. So our understanding of the concept of money

is connected with concepts of crime, forgery, the federal treasury, and many others.

Strategies for Teaching Concepts

Sfl}f! You are interviewing for a job in a school that serves many

immigrant families. The principal asks, .. How would you teach abstract concepts to

a student who just arrived from Somalia and can't even read in her native language,

much less English?"

Both prototypes and defining attributes are important in learning. Children first

learn many concepts in the real world from the best examples or prototypes, pointed

out by adults (Tennyson, 1981). But when examples are ambiguous (is an olive a

fruit?), we may consult the defining attributes to make a decision. Olives are foods

with seeds in the edible parts, which matches the defining attributes for fruits, so they

must be fruits, even though are no t typical or prototypic fruits (Schunk, 2000).

Like the learning of the teaching of concepts can combine both defin-

ing attributes and prototypes.One approach to teaching about concepts is called con-cept attainment-a way of helping students construct an understanding of specific

concepts and practice thinking skills such as hypothesis testing (Joyce, Weil, & Cal-

houn, 2000; Klausmeier, 1992).

An Example Concept-Attainment Lesson. Here is how a 5th-grade

teacher helped his students learn about a familiar concept and practice

thinking skills at the same time (Eggen &Kauchak, 2001, pp. 148-151). The

teacher began a lessonby saying thathe had an idea inmind andwanted stu-

dents to «figure out what it is." He placed two signs on a table-"Examples"

and"Nonexamples:'Then he placed an apple in front of the "Examples" sign

and a rock in front of the "Nonexamples" sign. He asked his students, «What

doyou think the ideamight be?""Thingswe eat"was the first suggestion. The

teacher wrote "HYPOTHESES" on the board and, after a brief discussion of

the meaning of "hypotheses;' listed "things we eat" under this heading. Next

he asked for other hypotheses-"living things" and "things that grow on

plants" came next. After some discussion about plants and living things, the

teacher brought out a tomato for the «Examples" side and a carrot for the

«Nonexamples." Animated reconsideration of all the hypotheses followed

these additions and a new hypothesis-«red things"-was suggested.

Through discussion of more examples (peach, squash, orange) and nonex-

amples (lettuce, artichoke, potato), the students narrowed their hypothesis

to «things with seeds in the parts you eat." The students had «constructed"

the concept of «fruit"-foods with seeds in the edible parts (or, a more ad-

vanced definition, any engorged ovary, such as a pea pod, nut, tomato,

pineapple, or the edible part of the plant developed from a flower).

Lesson Components. Whatever strategy you use for teaching concepts, you will

need four components in any lesson: examples and nonexamples, relevant and irrel-

evant attributes, the name of the concept, and a definition (Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun,

2000). In addition, visual aids such as pictures, diagrams, or maps can improve learn-

ing of many concepts (Anderson & Smith, 1987;Mayer, 2001).

Examples: More examples are needed in teaching complicated concepts and inwork-

ingwith younger or less knowledgeable students. Both examples and nonexamples

(sometimes calledpositive and negative instances) are necessary to make the boundaries

,/

TO PRAXIS™

TEACHING CONCEPTS (II, A2)

Teachers devote much effDrt to the

development of concepts that are vital

in learning subjectmatter and skills.

Understand the major approaches to

teaching concepts and be able to de-

scribe their strengths and limitations.

www.ablongman.com/woolfolk Learning and Teaching about _V I I I " " " " , , " , " " ; '



ITO YOUR TEACHING/PORTFOLIO

i Visit elementary school classes and

I note the rules posted by different

I.

. teachers at the same grade level.

Identify rules that are common to

I all or most classes, as well as those

I that are unusual.I

Rules Statements specifying expected

and forbidden behaviors; dos and don'ts.

Rules. Rules specify expected and forbidden actions in the class. Theyare the dos and

don'ts of classroom life. Unlike procedures, rules are often written down and posted. In

establishing rules, you should consider what kind of atmosphere you want to create.

What student behaviors will help you teach effectively? What limits do the students

need to guide their behavior? The rules you set should be consistent with school rules,

and also in keeping with principles of learning. For example, we know from the re-

search on small group learning that students benefit when they explain work to peers.

They learn as they teach. A rule that forbids students to help each other may be incon-sistent with good learning principles. Or a rule that says, "No erasures when writing"

maymake students focus more on preventing mistakes than on communicating clearly

in their writing (Burden, 1995; Emmer & Stough, 2001;Weinstein & Mignano, 2003).

Having a few general rules that cover many specifics is better than listing all the

dos and don'ts. But, if specific actions are forbidden, such as leaving the campus or

smoking in the bathrooms, then a rule should make this clear.

Rules for Elementary School. Evertson and her colleagues (2003) give five exam-

ples of general rules for elementary school classes:

1. Be polite and helpful. This applies to behavior toward adults (including substitute

teachers) and children. Examples of polite behavior include waiting your turn,

saying "please" and "thank you," and not fighting or calling names.2. Respect other people's property. This might include picking up litter; returning

library books; not marking on walls, desks, or buses; and getting permission

before using other people's things.

3. Listen quietly while others are speaking. This applies to the teacher and other stu-

dents, in large-class lessons or small-group discussions.

4. Respect and be polite to all people. Give clear explanations of what you mean by

"polite;' including not hitting, fighting, or teasing. All people includes the teacher.

5. Obey all school rules. This reminds students that all school rules apply in your

classroom. Then students cannot claim, for example, that they thought it was

okayto chewgum or listen to a radio in your class, even though these are against

school rules, "because you never made a rule against it for us."Whatever the rule, students need to be taught thebehaviors that the rule includes and

excludes. Examples, practice, and discussion will be neededbefore learning is complete.

As you've seen, different activities often require different rules. This can be con-

fusing for elementary students until they have thoroughly learned all the rules. To

prevent confusion, you might consider making signs that list the rules for each activ-

ity. Then, before the activity, you can post the appropriate sign as a reminder. This

provides clear and consistent cues about participation structures so all students, not

just the "well-behaved," know what is expected. Of course, these rules must be ex-

plained and discussed before the signs can have their full effect.

[4iiiJ Chapter Learning Environments



Rules for Secondary School. Emmer and colleagues (2003) suggest six examples

of rules for secondary students:

1. Bring all needed materials to class. The teacher must specify the type of pen, pen-

cil, paper, notebook, texts, and so on.

2. Be in your seatand ready to work when the bell rings. Many teachers combine this

rule with a standard beginning procedure for the class, such as a warm-up exer-

cise on the board or a requirement that students have paper with a proper head-

ing ready when the bell rings.

3. Respect and be polite to all people. This covers fighting, verbal abuse, and generaltroublemaking. All people includes the teacher.

4. Respect otherpeople's property. This means property belonging to the school, the

teacher, or other students.

5. Listen and stay seated while someone else is speaking. This applieswhen the teacher

or other students are talking.

6. Obey all school rules.As with the elementary class rules, this coversmany behaviors

and situations, so you do not have to repeat every school rule for your class. It also

reminds the students that you will be monitoring them inside and outside your

class. Make sure you know all the school rules. Some secondary students are very

adept at convincing teachers that their misbehavior «really isn't against the rules."

Consequences. As soon as you decide on your rules and procedures, you mustconsider what you will do when a student breaks a rule or does not follow a proce-

dure. It is too late to make this decis ion after the rule has been broken. Formany in-

fractions, the logical consequence is having to go back and «do it right." Studentswho

run in the hall may have to return to where they started and walk properly. Incom-

plete papers can be redone. Materials left ou t should be put back (Charles, 2002b).

Sometimes consequences are more complicated. In their case studies of four expert

elementary school teachers, Weinstein and Mignano (2003) found that the teachers'

negative consequences fell into seven categories, as shown in Table 11.1. The main

Seven Categories of Penalties for Students

1. Expressions ofdisappointment. If students like and respect their

teacher, then a serious, sorrowful expression ofdisappointment

may cause students to stop and think about their behavior.

2. Loss ofprivileges. Students can lose free time. If they have not

completed homework, for example, they can be required to do

it during a free period or recess.

3. Exclusion from the group. Students who distract their peers or

fail to cooperate can be separated from the group until they are

ready to cooperate. Some teachers give a student a pass for 10

to 15 minutes. The student must go to another class or study

hall, where the other students and teachers ignore the offending

student for that time.

4. Written reflections on the problem. Students can write in

journals,write essays aboutwhat they did and how it affected

others, or write letters of apology-if this is appropriate.

Another possibility is to ask students to describe objectively

what they did; then the teacher and the student can sign and

date this statement.These records are available ifparents or

administrators need evidence of the students' behavior.

5. Detentions. Detentions can be very briefmeetings after school,

during a free period, or at lunch. The main purpose is to talk

about what has happened. (In high school, detentions are often

used as punishments; suspensions and expulsions are available

as more extrememeasures.)

6. Visits to the principal's office. Expert teachers tend to use this

penalty rarely, but they do use it when the situationwarrants.

Some schools require students to be sent to the office for certain

offenses, such as fighting. Ifyou tell a student to go to the office

and the student refuses, you might call the office saying the

student has been sent. Then the student has the choice ofeither

going to the office or facing the principal's penalty for "disap-

pearing" on the way.

7. Contact with parents. If problems become a repeated pattern,most teachers contact the student's family. This is done to seek

support for helping the student, not to blame the parents orpunish the student.

SOURCE: From Elementary Classroom Management (3rd ed.), by C. S.Weinstein andA. J. Mignano, Jr., New York: McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill

Companies. Adapted with permission.

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