higher order thinking skills: tools for bridging the gap

Higher Order Thinking Skills: Tools for Bridging the Gap

Mary Williams Madeleine Lively

Jane Harper Tarrant County Junior College

ABSTRACT As educators target the articulation between university lowerdivision language- acquisition courses and upperdivision literature courses, higher order thinking and awareness of cognitive processes become increasingly important tools in bridging that gap. We will discuss the theoretical underpinnings ofthis issue and demonstrate the design of conversation activities and materials. Emphasis will be on the development and sequencing of the linguistic and critical thinking skills necessary to organize ideas, express and support opinions, synthesize, draw inferences, and evaluate.

~

Introduction There is a growing dissatisfaction in univer-

sity foreign language departments with the lack of articulation between lower-division language-acquisition courses and upper-division literature courses. This gap has become increasingly problematic because of the higher expectations of both students and teachers.

Over the past decade, instructors of both lower- and upper-division courses have adopted a more engaging and pragmatic a p proach. Elementary and intermediate foreign language texts have shifted their focus from grammar and vocabulary to basic survival functions and cultural information that help students to develop awareness of the cultural context of language. Thus, when students complete their lower-division courses, they have usually acquired the communication

Mary Williams (Ph.D., University of Texas at Arlington) is Adjunct Professor of French. Madeleine Lioely (Ph.D. candidate, University of North Texas) is Associate Professor of French and Spanish and Chair of the Department of Foreign Languages. Jane Harper (Ph.D., East Texas State University) is Chair of the Division of Humanities. All three authors are at Tarrant County Junior College, Northeast Campus, Fort Worth, TX.

skills they need to deal with concrete situations, using fairly concrete vocabulary in con- textually related sentences.' Teachers and students alike expect that, with these en- hanced communication skills in hand, students will enjoy continued progress in the L2 in their advanced course work. Unfortunately, these students have neither the critical thinking skills nor the advanced discourse skills to d o so.

A missing step is the development of linguistic and intellectual skills that enable students to move from concrete vocabulary and particular situations to abstract vocabulary and universal topics. Making this progression requires that they express and support opinions and judgments, draw analogies and express the relations between the analogous entities, develop coherent discourse and organize it so that it reflects the underlying rationale of their position.

Such linguistic and critical thinking skills become tools for the reading, writing, and discourse tasks that are required in upper-division courses. But the development of these skills has until recently been overlooked, with the result that students frequently arrive in upperdivision courses unprepared to discuss or write about literature and culture at an advanced level. Chaffee (1992) notes the intrin-

Foreign Language Annals, 27, No. 3, 1994

FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS-FALL 1994

sic link between linguistic and cognitive skills, observing that

a review of typical college courses and textbooks reveals an absence of critical literacy. Many examinations are objective, giving students little opportunity to express their thinking in a systematic and developed fashion. Much of the required reading is assigned mainly for the transfer of information, not the critical ideas of the information presented

Lacking these skills, advanced students are often left with the unhappy alternative of reading their assignments in L2 while discussing and writing about them in L1-with the consequence that their production skills deterie rate rather than progress during this period. Kern and Schultz write:

Consequently, foreign language departments across the county are attempting to bridge the gap between basic language skill acquisition and the develop ment of higher order analytical skills needed for the study of literature and culture at the upperdivision level (1992, l).

Here we propose an approach to, and rec- ommend guidelines for designing activities that develop the higher order thinking and discourse skills required for bridging the gap between lower- and upper-division second language courses.

(32).

Higher Order Thinking Skills*

A Revision of the Traditional Schema Higher order thinking skills have been ar-

rayed in a number of taxonomies. For our pur- pose here, we propose a variation on Bloom’s Taxonomy (of Educational Objectives), which has been displayed in a pyramidal organization to schematize the hierarchy of levels-knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation-from base to peak. At the same time, this pyramid- shaped schema with knowledge occupying the broad base and evaluation “relegated to

the attic” indicates the relative amount of time traditionally spent on each in the classroom.

FIGURE I

SYNTHESIS

APPLICATION

COMPREHENSION

KNOWLEDGE

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

Chaffee agrees with the observation and comments on the inappropriateness of this focus:

... critical thinking is rarely taught explicitly and systematically. For example, numerous empirical studies have re- vealed that teaching behavior in most high school and college classrooms tends to focus on the lowest cognitive level of knowledge, the dispensing of facts, at the expense of higher intellectual operations such as application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation

We suggest restructuring Bloom’s taxonomy, shifting our focus to the upward half of the hierarchy. This shift in emphasis provides more classroom time for the higher-level skills. In this approach we are no longer required to dedicate explicit attention to the less engaging skills of application, comprehension, and knowledge since these are inherently dealt with in treating the higher-level skills of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. In the course of learning to analyze, students necessarily acquire knowledge. Comprehension is likewise concomitant with synthesis, as application is with evaluation.

(1992, 25-26).

406


Our diamond-shaped schema does three things. It retains the overall levels of Bloom’s hierarchy while shifting the instructional focus to the higher level skills. At the same time, it redistributes the allocation of classroom time spent on the skills relative to their pedagogical importance.

Again, Chaffee lends support to this view:

FIGURE 2

APPLICATION

A Taxonomy for Explicitly Taught Thinking Skills

Many faculty are concerned that, if they use a critical thinking approach to teaching, their students will not acquire enough knowledge. However, faculty are not really forced to make a choice between knowledge and critical thinking. In fact, both educational aims are more effectively achieved when they are pursued together. When we are stim- ulated to actively think about a subject, we learn more effectively and our learning is more lasting because we have organized and constructed it ourselves. In contrast, when we are merely trying to passively absorb information structured by others, our retention often does not extend beyond the end of a course’s final examination. (1992, 27).

These three focal skills were identified as fundamental as early as 1982, when the Edu- cation Commission of the States enumerated the following as “The ‘Basics’ of Tomorrow”:

- Evaluation and analysis * Critical thinking * Problemsolving strategies Organization and reference skills [as in supporting opinions]

- Synthesis - Application * Creativity * Decision making given incomplete infor-

mation - Communication skills through a variety of

modes

Definition of Terms Analysis, according to Bloom, is “the break-

down of a communication into its constituent elements such that the hierarchy of ideas is made clear and/or the relations between the ideas are made explicit” (Bloom 1956, 191). To illustrate these terms,’ let us take the notion of “city” (Harper and Lively 1989,4142). In an analytical approach we begin with a city and then break it down into its constituent elements, such as schools, hospitals, churches, theaters, homes, factories, restaurants, super- markets. We might then categorize them according to the various relations that exist among them, e.g., dichotomies: public versus private places; lists: places for work, entertain- ment, shopping, and so forth. Typical activities for analysis involve classifying, making associations, comparing and contrasting, d e termining sequence and consequence, identifying cause and effect relations, and verifying.

Synthesis, on the other hand, is “the putting together of elements and parts so as to form a whole,” involving the “production of a unique communication.” Taking our notion of city, in synthesizing we begin with the constituent elements, putting them together to create a new and different city each time. Synthesizing is the skill we use to develop a plan or propose a set of operations. It is also the skill invoked to develop “a set of abstract relations either to

407

FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNA=-FALL 1994

classify or explain particular data or phenom- ena” (Bloom 1956, 192). Typical activities for synthesis involve generalizing, decision making, making inferences and drawing conclu- sions, hypothesizing, creating, imagining, and predicting.

Evaluation involves “quantitative and quali- tative judgments“ about value (Bloom 1956, 193). Using our city once more, evaluating requires us to make judgments about the appropriate juxtaposition of the various elements based on their relative qualities. For example, one would question the wisdom of locating an airport next to a hospital, a liquor store next to a school, or nursing home next to a cemetery. Typical activities for evaluation involve making judgments and formulating reactions based on personal experience or available facts, assessing value, problem solv- ing, persuading, and prioritizing.

Metacognition It is useful to consider thinking skills as in-

tellectual tools; clearly, any of them can be brought to bear on a variety of communica- tive tasks. As with tools of any sort, an awareness of their function not only makes using them more efficient but also facilitates per- ception of their application in novel contexts. Therefore, we need to assure that students actively identify the thinking and discourse skills employed in an activity, even if this entails presenting them explicitly in L1. According to The National Teaching & Learning Forum, “Only when instruction couples abstract concepts to concrete examples d o students learn the principles well enough to apply them to new and different problems” (1992, 6). This ability, in itself, broadens students’ access to information, offers them additional insights since they are more able to grasp the multiple facets of a situation, and thus enhances their ability to deal creatively with any task. In fact, Beyer (1987) argues that metacognitive train- ing is indispensable: “Unless students are helped to become conscious of their own thinking, keep track of what they are doing when they engage in thinking, and assess the effectiveness of what they do, they cannot

take control of their own thinking and become self-directed thinkers” (cited in Sheri- dan 1992, 59). The metacognitive focus of an activity can be addressed either as part of the premapping warm-up or as part of the summary discussion following out of the activity.

The Pivotal Role of Conversation Activities“

Conversation, because it inherently involves the exchange of ideas, plays a critical role in developing higher order thinking and discourse skills and at the same time serves as a pivot between reading and writing. Kern and Schultz provide a clear description of its contribution:

... Classroom discussion is viewed not only as a vehicle for verbal practice but also as a critical phase in reading comprehension and prewriting processes. As students talk about works, either in general class discussions or in small groups, they lay the foundation for their writing by developing and testing their ideas in oral discourse (1992,2).

Kumaravadivelu, writing about “meaningful learner-learner and learner-teacher interaction,’’ identifies more specifically some of the elements of such discussion that promote the rehearsal of ideas and expression: “. . . the learner’s active involvement in clarification, confirmation, comprehension checks, re- quests, repairing, reacting and turn-taking and in using communication strategies such as cir- cumlocution and paraphrasing” (1992, 43). She calls such interactions “negotiated.” We hold that they involve active listening as well as responsive speaking, and that the skills enumerated engage the higher order thinking and discourse skills used to think and write about literature and culture. We also believe that conversation offers the ideal context for developing and perfecting these skills. We again cite Kumaravadivelu, who emphasizes the importance of discussion-as opposed to lecture-in which students themselves are responsible for negotiating communication: “Above all, the modifier negotiated means the

408


learner should be given the freedom and en- couragement to initiate meaningful interaction, not just react and respond to teacher ta lk (43).

Organizing Cooperative Learning Activities5

Cooperative learning activities provide an ideal forum for the kind of negotiated interaction Kumaravadivelu advocates. The relation between cooperative learning and critical thinking has been recognized. Chaffee writes that

Many.. .classes are cast primarily in a lecture format, reinforcing the notion that students are passive receptacles into which information is transmitted, not thinkers who can question, reflect, and exchange ideas with others. If students are to develop these linguistic and cognitive abilities, they must have con- sistent opportunities to . . . discuss ideas thoughtfully and systematically with other members of the class (1992, 32).

Richard includes the use of cooperative learning activities among his “general tactical strategies.” Arguing that “most people learn more easily when they have to articulate what they are learning to others,” he encourages teachers to provide their students “unlimited activities.. .structured.. .so that students articulate, explain, use, organize, justify, and extend basic concepts, assumptions, data and evi- dence, problems and issues, theories and principles, and all other fundamental elements within the logic of what they are learning” (1992, 18). Chaffee identifies “collabora- tive group work based on peer analysis and evaluation” as a means of stimulating active learning and lists it among his “guidelines for integrating critical thinking” (1992,3@31). Ad- ditional benefits for students working in small groups are cited by Litecky, who writes, “The discussion establishes a context in which students can learn from each other. Respect for each other’s thinking aids the development of skills in listening as well as in speaking” (1992, 86-87).

For all its benefits, however, cooperative learning is not without some commonly recognized disadvantages. Milleret cites four:

* students often do not stay on task * they d o a minimum amount of work to fin- ish quickly and talk about other subjects

- they allow one student to do all the work - they sit sidebyside doing their work indi-

In fact, the last two of these problems are s p e cific to cooperative learning activities; the first two may apply to any inclass activity. And all four can be effectively dealt with through carefully structured activities.

The most rewarding way to assure that students stay on task and participate fully is to provide engaging activities that appeal to their personal interests, activities that help them to draw associations between their own knowledge and experiences and the information and ideas targeted in the lesson.

Another factor that affects how conscien- tiously students apply themselves to the task has to do with how well we define what it is we want them to do. Activity 1 in the Appen- dix6 illustrates a task in which students are called upon to engage in such abstract and critical thinking as rationalizing their experience according to an analytical understand- ing of art, associating form and meaning in artistic works, and identifying their personal tendencies.

Stated thus, the goal looks a bit like asking them to achieve Nirvana. But a down-twarth direction line helps to link everyday, concrete knowledge and experiences to new or abstract concepts and values. In these terms, we are asking students in Activity 1 to consider art’ from a cause-and-effect point of view. Working with concepts developed in previous activities, they explore their perceptions of how diverse aspects of artistic expression affect an audience as they make choices among these means to express their own personal vi- sions.

In addition to being direct, the instructions need to be explicit and as detailed as we in- tend students to be in doing the activity. The

vidually (1992,435).

409


direction line for Activity 1 explicitly identifies each aspect students are to treat and gives examples for several.

While a detailed, organized direction line helps students to bring detail and organization to their thinking, it can also be distracting for them to pick through the verbiage as they discuss their ideas. A particularly useful way to deal with the problem is to provide “out- lines” or “grids” for students to jot onx as they work through the activity. We find that these provide a schematic view of the instructions, a picture of what we are doing. By requiring that students make notes on the grids, we require some measure of accountability for the problems Milleret (1992) has identified. In order to complete the grids they must stay on task, they must work as thoroughly as the grid specifies, and-to the extent that we require interaction-they must all participate to record each other’s ideas.”

Finally, we can encourage students to work consistently, thoroughly, and collaboratively by providing tasks that culminate in some out- come. In Activity 1, participants are asked to decide how they might change their plans based on the suggestions of their partners. In Activity 2, they are required to achieve a consensus within their group. This activity could be pursued further with the entire class culling a “Top 10” from the small group lists. Given their now broader view of their tastes, they can discuss observable trends, such as preferences for certain authors or genres. Summa- tive tasks provide a means of encouraging active listening, of getting students to process the ideas and information that develop in their discussions in order to proceed to the goal.

In summary, cooperative learning activities stimulate critical thinking, and they are more effective if they draw upon students’ interests and experience, if the directions are explicitly detailed and their organization is transparent, and if they culminate in a summative task r e quiring the participation of all group members.

Sequencing Activities to Bridge the Gap In order to bridge the gap between lower-

and upper-level courses, we must guide students to more sophisticated levels of concep- tualizing and reasoning. Chaffee describes it thus: “Effective learning requires students to relate what they are learning to their own experience, building systematically from their concrete, familiar contexts to more abstract, conceptual understandings” (1992, 32). In fact, we can discriminate three lines along which the levels of sophistication range:

concrete 0 0 0 abstract subjective 0 0 0 objective particular 0 0 0 universal.

While the critical thinking skills of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation are hierarchically related to one another, any one of them may be invoked at any level, along any of the three lines of intellectual development.

Activities 3 through 6 in the Appendix illustrate a structure and sequence of activities that address the traditional goals of conveying knowledge and promoting comprehension and application, and that, at the same time, guide students up the levels of sophistication, engaging the thinking skills of analysis, synthe sis, and evaluation at all levels. The theme for this set of activities is memories. We have found the subject of memories ideal for h e l p ing students to see the relation between their own experiences and the subject matter for literature. Once they recognize that “art reflects life,” they can begin examining how it does so.

Since we expect discourse to be fairly rudi- mentary initially, while students acquire the vocabulary and elemental notions we want to deal with, the first two of these activities basi- cally have a list format. While they invite nar- rative accounts, less proficient students can do these two activities using isolated phrases. They are also designed to be done in pairs. Working in pairs, rather than larger groups, offers each student more time to explore hidher thoughts, more opportunity to focus on and learn from hidher partner’s perceptions, and more freedom to make mistakes as he/she be- comes comfortable with the vocabulary.

Traditionally, the initial activities in a lesson introduce vocabulary and concepts and sug-

410


gest their relation to individual experience. Taken alone, these goals deal only with the shaded portion of the diagram presented on page . . .; they involve knowledge, comprehension, and application. We suggest that even in early activities, where we introduce vocabulary and basic concepts, students can begin to approach the presented information critically.

In Activities 3 and 4, the goal in terms of information is to present vocabulary. We use el- lipses in many lists to encourage students to add items they find relevant to their discussion. This practice allows them to recycle vocabulary and ideas in meaningful contexts. It has the additional benefit of overtly assigning to students some creative control over the direction of their discussion.’” To promote comprehension of the vocabulary in Activity 3, we ask students to associate the events with their personal experiences; in Activity 4, they associate types of places with the physical attributes of those places.

With regard to the lines of sophistication, the fact that there are generic lists of types of experiences and places and that a number of students may have personal knowledge of several of them implicitly attaches the notion of universality to them. The fact that different people may have a type of experience in com- mon and yet have different impressions or memories of it suggests the variability of human experience. The comparisons, con- trasts, and evaluations done at this level are quite subjective. It is the analysis and catego- rization of attributes done in Activity 4 that lead students to a slightly more objective and universal view of the types listed.

We have said that these two activities implicitly suggest the universality and variety of experience. These notions can b e explicitly addressed in teacher-led follow-out discussions.

Activity 5 builds on the vocabulary and notions developed in the two previous activities. In terms of discourse skills, it requires summarizing and sequencing. The very notion of chapter entails opening, closure, and some continuity between the two. Students are

more pressed to organize their ideas and expression in paragraphs. For those whose discourse and thinking skills are stronger, the dual levels of organization-chapter and book-provide a welcome challenge.

Moving from paired to group discussions, this activity uses the critical thinking skill of synthesis to bridge the gap between subjective and objective reasoning. Selecting a subject and developing a chapter title that reflects one’s attitude toward it calls for a subjective approach to the task on the part of the individual student. This is simpler than the objective synthesis required of the group, which must arrive at a global perspective of the various subjects and chapter titles to create a title for the book. It is the need to achieve consensus, a goal that requires argumentation (pre senting and defending opinions) that imposes objectivity on the group.

The culminating activity calls upon students to weave the many, varied threads culled from the establishing activities into a ta- pestry of creative expression. Here, students begin to shift from a parochial world view based mostly on personal experience to a more comprehensive, universal one. As they begin to see the relation of personal experiences and ideas to the structure and devices of artistic creation, they are more able to recognize the universality of human experience.

In Activity 6, students relate aspects of their lives to such artistic devices as genre, charac- terization, context, theme. In so doing, they begin to recognize the functions of these d e vices in literary works and how the diverse elements of a work mutually enhance one another to uphold its overall integrity. Having made this ‘‘leap’’ from a particular perspective to a universal one, students are more prepared to critically evaluate the literature they study in their advanced courses.

NOTES I Unfortunately, few postintermediate texts have

addressed the need for realignment. Greenia (8) notes that textbooks that link composition to conversation or advanced grammar for third year and beyond are “the least changed of any foreign lan-

41 1


guage textbooks in the past 25 years” (citing Dvo- rak, who acknowledged the problem in 1986). [FLA Feb 1992, Note 1, p. 431

T h e development of critical thinking skills has been targeted across the curriculum as an educational goal for the 1990s. For example, Iris Carl (1992), President of the National Council of Teach- ers of Math, asserts that students “must be prepared to ask difficult questions and be able to solve open- ended problems, and not be faced with algorithms that give them just one way of looking at the world.”

’These terms are illustrated with activities for the elementary level in French, English, German, and Spanish in the HOTStuff series (Harper and Lively 1987, 1989, 1992).

‘Harper and Lively offer some basic guidelines for organizing successful conversation classes

‘Foundational work in cooperative learning has been done by David W. Johnson, Professor of Edu- cational Psychology, and Roger T. Johnson, Profes- sor of Curriculum and Instruction, both at the University of Minnesota. For further reading, see Johnson et al. (1987, 1989, 1988).

“All activities in the Appendix are drawn from Liens: en paroles (Lively, Williams, and Harper, 1994), a postintermediate French conversation book. They have been translated into English for this article with permission of Heinle & Heinle Pub- lishers.

‘In addition to its use with art, this activity can be adapted to deal with music, poetry, drama, dance, literature, etc.

“The spaces on the grids are quite short to avoid distracting students from the discussion by writing detailed reports. By the same token, the information registered on them should not be considered “right” or “wrong.”

“An additional benefit of having students record notes on the grids is that it provides a nonthreaten- ing means for receiving grades on the basis of sim- ple participation. Dubert (1986) suggests a n instrument for grading the quality of participation.

“‘Harper and Lively (1987) suggest some fundamental reasons for promoting personal engage- ment on the part of the students in conversation classes, such as providing students a sense of secu- rity by laying the groundwork for vocabulaly and

(1987, 337-338).

ideas to be discussed, shifting the focus from grammar to expression, encouraging the expression of a diversity of opinions, conceding control to students over the direction and flow of the conversation (337-338).

REFERENCES Barnes, Cynthia A. (ed.). 1992. Critical Thinking:

Educational Imperative. New Directions for Community Colleges, no. 77. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Beyer, B.K. 1987. Practical Strategies for the Teach- ing of Thinking. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Bloom, Benjamin Samuel. 1956. Taxonomy o f Edu- cational Objectives The Classification of Educa- tional Goals: Cognitive and Affective. New York: David McKay Company, Inc.

Carl, Iris. 1992. (Houston ISD), President of the Na- tional Council of Teachers of Math, speaking at a press meeting o n the National Council on Standards and Testing [of which she is a member], January 24, 1992. Broadcast on C-SPAN.

Chaffee, John. 1992,“Teaching Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum.” In Cynthia A. Barnes, ed., Critical Thinking: Educational Imperative. New Directions for Community Colleges, no. 77, 25-35. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Dubert, Lee Ann. 1986. The Clearing House for the Contemporary Educator. 60266269.

Dvorak, Trisha. 1986. “Writing in the Foreign Lan- guage.” In Barbara H. Wing, ed., Listening, Read- ing, and Writing: Analysis and Application, 145-167. Middlebury, VT: Northeast Conference.

Greenia, George D. 1992. “Computers and Teach- ing Composition in a Foreign Language.” For- eign Language Annals 25:3345.

Harper, Jane, and Madeleine Lively. 1987. “Con- versation Classes: Activities and Materials that Encourage Participation.” Foreign Lunguage An- nals 20:337-344.

. 1989. HOTStuff for Teachers o f French, a Manual o f Units o f Instruction Incorporating Higher Order Thinking Skills. Arlington, TX.

. 1989. HOTStuff for Teachers of German, a Manual o f Units o f Instruction Incorporating Higher Order Thinking Skills. Arlington, TX.

. 1989. HOTStuff for Teachers ofsecond Lun- guages, a Manual o f Units o f Instruction Incope

412


rating Higher Order Thinking Skills. Arlington, Tx.

. 1992. HOTStuff for Teachers of Spanish, a Manual of Units of Instruction Incorporating Higher Order Thinking Skills, 2e. Arlington, TX.

Johnson, D.W., and F. Johnson. 1987. Joining T e gether: Group Theory and Group Skills. Engle- wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Johnson, D.W., and R. Johnson. 1989. Cooperation and Competition: Theory and Research. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.

Johnson, D.W., R. Johnson, and E. Holubec. 1988. Cooperation in the Classroom. Edina, MN: Inter- action Book Company.

Kern, Richard G., and Jean Marie Schultz. 1992. “The Effects of Composition Instruction o n In- termediate Level French Students’ Writing Per- formance: Some Preliminary Findings.” Modern Language Journal 76: 1-13.

Kumaravadivelu, B. 1992. “Macrostrategies for the SecondIForeign Language Teacher.” Modern Language Journal 76(1992):4149.

“The Learning Cycle: Has Its Time Come Again?” 1992. National Teaching & Learning Forum 6:5-7.

Litecky, Lawrence P. 1992. “Great Teaching, Great Thinking: Classroom Climate, Innovative Meth- ods, a n d Critical Thinking.” In Cynthia A. Barnes, ed. , Critical Thinking: Educational Im- perative. New Directions for Community Col- leges, no. 77, 83-90. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Lively, Madeleine, Mary Williams, and Jane Harper. 1994. Liens: en paroles. Bridging the Gap Series. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Milleret, Margo. 1992. “Cooperative Learning in the Portuguese-for-Spanish-Speakers Classroom.” Foreign Language Annals 25:435440.

Richard, Paul. 1992. “Critical Thinking: What, Why, and How.“ In Cynthia A. Barnes, ed. , Critical Thinking: Educational Imperative. New Direc- tions for Community Colleges, no. 77, 3-24. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Sheridan, James J. 1992. “Skipping on the Brink of the Abyss: Teaching Critical Thinking Through Writing.” In Cynthia A. Barnes, ed. , Critical Thinking: Educational Imperative. New Direc- tions for Community Colleges, no. 77,5161. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

413

FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNAS-FALL 1994

APPENDIX [Except for the footnotes, which are in L1 for metacognitive accessibility,

activities are presented to the student entirely in L2.)

Activity 1

ART AND CAUSES CELEBRES"

Occasionally artists take a stand on some social issue and use their talent to inspire the public.

Before class, identify some issue in your community, be it local, regional, or national, that you as an artist would attempt to make people aware of. Note your responses to the following questions on the grid below. What image(s) would you employ to represent your ideas? What genre of art would you choose as a vehicle (a painting, a statue, a mobile, etc.)? What style would you use to communicate your view point? Why? If color enters into the question, what kinds of colors would you apply (bright, pastel, vivid, lurid, restful, etc.)? Why? What sort of reaction would you want to inspire in your public? Would you prefer they respond to your work with reason or passion? Why?

My Conception

Name: Title of my work:

l T h e issue: I I 1 Genre of art: Style:

Reason:

I I Colors:

Reason:

Public reaction: Reason:

I I

*In this activity, you will b e identifying a socially significant cause, envisioning an artistic representation of your attitude toward it and hypothesizing public reaction to the expression you have chosen for your ideas. You will also have an opportunity to brainstorm to refine your conceptions and to accept or reject resulting suggestions.

414


In class, working in groups of three to four, explain your choices and then ask your fellow group members for their suggestions in order to refine your ideas; then offer your suggestions with regard to their conceptions. [However, bear in mind that the artist is ultimately responsible for hidher work and may accept or reject recommendations of others according to hidher own inspiration.] Record your partners’ conceptions on the following grids.

Partner’s name: Title of hidher work:

The issue:

Image(s):

~

Genre of art: Style:

Reason:

Colors: Reason:


Partner’s name: Title of hidher work:

The issue:

Image(s):

Genre of art: Style:

Reason:

Colors: Reason:


415

FOREIGN LANGUAGE A"ALS--FALL 1994

Partner's name: Title of hidher work:

The issue:

I Genre of art: Style:

Reason:

Colors: Reason:


Indicate the changes you would undertake based on the suggestions offered by the other group members on the grid.

Changes 1 might make based on recommeJldations offered by the

1 group: Image(s):

Reason:

Genre of art: Reason:

Style:

Reason:

Colors:

Reason:

Public reaction:

Reason:

FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS--FALL 1994

Activity 2

THE HIT PARADE OF BOOKS”

As they say in the weekly furiscope, “There isn’t a politician who doesn’t write.. . Not an actor, not a sports figure who doesn’t have a hand at i t . . . We are stupefied and overwhelmed by the universality of the world which is offered us in print for 50 francs.”** So it is that we often must turn to the critics to find out which books are apt to appeal to our tastes.

Before class, choose at least six books that you think ought to be on the list of the Top 10. Include at least three works of fiction and three of nonfiction. For each book that you choose, tell (1) the name of the book, (2) the author‘s name, (3) the genre of the book, and (4) explain what you think is outstanding about it. Record this information on the grids below.

Fiction

My Choices

Nonfiction

~ -~ Title: -

Author: ~

~ Genre: ~

What gives this book merit:

Author: ~

What gives this book merit:

I ~ I- ~-

~~~

Title: ~

Author: Genre: ~

~

What gives this book merit:- ~~

Title: ~ ~~

Author: ~ -

Genre: ~-

What gives this book merit: ~~

Title: Author: ~ --

What gives this book merit: ~ Genre: ~~

~ -~ ~-

~-

Author: ~

Genre: What gives this book merit:

*In this activity, you will be expressing and supporting preferences, categorizing, negotiating, and prioritizing **Barrot, Olivier. Pariscope 1244, iii(mas 1992):25-31. Translated from the French.

417


In class, working in groups of three or four, discuss your lists, comparing the relative merits and shortcomings of your choices to achieve consensus on the top three works of fiction and the top three of nonfiction for your group Hit Parade listing. Defend the merits of the books you have selected and, when you are persuaded that another book may be a better choice, explain why you concede. Each member of the group should be able to explain why your team chooses these six books over the others considered. On the Hit Parade grid, record the names of the books your group has selected and indicate how each member rates each selection.

The Hit Parade Critic's Critic's Critic's Critic's

Name of book name name ~ name name

Model: Madame Boualy V vvv vv V

418

FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNAS-FALL 1994

Activity 3

THE MEMORABLE EVENTS OF MY LIFE"

It is our memories, collected, embellished, enriched, and woven together over our lifetime that make up the fabric of our present knowledge. For the most part, these memories derive from the events we have experienced.

Before class, examine the list of events below. For each one that corresponds to a memorable event in your life, note a few details and give a one- or two-word description of your emotional response to i t . Add to the list any other events that you want to consider. Comment on at least five events.

Events:

a marriage

a birth

my first job

a vacation

a special party

a moving day

a birthday

an anniversary

(Details) (Sentiments)





(Details) ~~

(Sentiments)



the time when I met my best friend (Details) ~

(Sentiments)

a family reunion

a big exam

(Details) ~~

(Sentiments)

(Details) ~~

(Sentiments) ~~

~

~

... (Details) (Sentiments)

*This activity deals with associating personal experiences with affective responses to them. I t involves narrating and describing.

419


In class, working with a partner, discuss events you have experienced that evoked the reactions on the list below. Share some details of these events (such as how old you were at the time, the people involved, where you were) with your partner.

Sentiments

the proudest moment of my life

the most difficult moment of my life

my biggest disappointment

the happiest moment of my life

my most touching experience

the saddest moment of my life

my most embarrassing experience

the best gift I ever gave someone

...

...

(Details) -

(Details)

(Details)

(Details)

(Details)

(Details)

(Details)

(Details)

(Details)

(Details)

Check the experience recounted by your partner that you find most intriguing.

Activity 4

PLACES I REMEMBER*

The places we have known, like people and events, sometimes evoke powerful sentiments. For example, cathedrals are usually solemn, inspiring, our grandparents’ home cozy, inviting. But while our memories are often more influenced by these sentiments than by more objective aspects of a place, we recognize that the sentiments themselves are inspired by physical details.

Before class, examine the descriptive list of places and indicate whether you have m e m o ries of such a place. Add to the list any items you care to. For those that do figure in your memories, note some physical detail of the place that contributes to the characteristic men- tioned in the list; for example, one might say that it was the Gothic architecture, the hymns sung by the choir, the light filtered through stained glass, the candles representing the prayers of the faithful, or perhaps the images of the saints that contributed an air of solemnity to a cathedral that you have visited.

attributes that evoke them. Then you will categorize the various features that you have noted. *In this activity you analyze your subjective responses to different types of places in order to identify the physical

420

Places

a romantic place

a historical place

an impressive place

a restful place

an exciting place

an oppressive place

a depressing place

an imposing place

an exotic place

a menacing place

a disagreeable place

an elegant place

a chaotic place

a bizarre place

a welcoming place

FOREIGN LANGUAGE A N N U - F A L L 1994

Name of Place A physical aspect that contributes to its character

...

...

...

42 1


In class, working with your partner, compare your responses. Then categorize the attributes you have discussed. Examples of categories include sounds, colors, smells, textures, objects, people, etc. Record your categories and the features they comprise on the category grid.

Sounds: Objects: Category Grid

Smells: Colors: (Other):

422


Activity 5

WRlTlNG OUR MEMOIRS*

Suppose you are organizing your memoirs for publication. Which people, places, and events will you write about? (You may want to consult earlier activities for ideas.) Choose from six to eight topics that will constitute chapters in your memoirs.

Before class, record (1) the subject that you have selected for each of the six to eight chapters and (2)the title that you have in mind for each chapter. Bear in mind that the title should reflect your tone and your attitude toward the subject. For example, the table of contents for Pavarotti's autobiography shows both the subject and title for each chapter: Luciano Pavarotti I An Assault on New York; Mirella Freni I Two Kids horn Modena.** Record your subjects and chapter titles on your table of contents, reserving the shaded area for the title suggested for your book by your group members.

My Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Subject Title



Chapter 4 Subject

Chapter 5 Subject

Title

Title




0000000000000000000000000000000000000~~0~000000

Title sugg up for

*In this activity you will evaluate your experiences based on notions discussed in previous activities, select ones to summarize, analyze attitudes to determine an appropriate style, and synthesize experiences and attitudes to create insightful titles. **Pavarotti, Luciano with William Wright. 1981. My Own Story. Doubleday & Company, Inc. Garden City, NY.


In class, working in groups of three or four, discuss your tables of contents, summarizing the chapters. As you listen to your partners, decide which chapter of their books you would most like to read. Then, as a group, reach a consensus on a title for each member’s book. Again, bear in mind that the title should reflect-but not necessarily describe-some overall characteristic of the book, such as its tone, subject matter, etc. Record your decisions about your partners’ books on the grids below.

Reactions to My Partners’ Memoirs

Author: The chapter I would most like to read:

Our group recommends the title for this book because:

Author: The chapter I would most like to read:

Our group recommends the title for this book because: I Author: ~~

The chapter I would rnostlike to read:

Our group recommends the title ~~

for this book because:

Author: The chapter 1 would most like to read:

Our group recommends the title for this book because:

424


Activity 6

INTERPRETING OUR MEMOIRS THROUGH FILM”

Artists, in general, draw upon life and not uncommonly upon specific characters or events in their own lives as inspiration for their work.

Suppose you are going to direct a film based on one of the chapters of your autobiography. Which chapter will you choose? What title will you use for the movie version of it? How d o you want your movie to affect the audience? What genre will you use (e.g., musical, horror, sus- pense, drama, science fiction)? Who are the principal characters? Which of their physical features or traits of personality will you emphasize in the film? What actors would you want to play those roles in the film? (Don’t forget to include the actodactress who you want to play your part.) What will the sets, music, etc., be like? Be able to justify each of these choices in terms of the artistic integrity of your movie; that is, explain how each one enhances the others. For example, “I’ve selected Debussy’s Clair de lune for the theme music because it will underscore the sense of reverie in the scenes where Tony is dreaming about future plans.”

Before class, outline your scenario and fill out the grid provided.

My Film

~~ .~ Title: Genre: Stars for the principal roles:

~ ~ ~ _ ~ _ ~ _ _ _

~~~

Sets: Music:

... ~~

...

Outline of the scenario:

*In this activity you will relate personal experiences to subjects of artistic creation, evaluate them to select one that you judge appropriate for a film scenario, analyze aspects of the experience you have selected in order to associate them with elements of cinematic expression, and synthesize them to envision a cohesive work. Then, working coop eratively, you will evaluate each person’s work in terms of the creativity of hidher choices and rationales.

425


In class, working in groups of three or four, discuss your choices and elaborate on your rationale for each one. For each partner’s film, seek a consensus on which choice of element (genre, setting, actors, etc.) and rationale is the most creative. Record your decisions on the grids below.

Critical Reactions

Filmmaker: Title of film: Bravos for:


Filmmaker: Title of film: - Bravos for:


426

higher order thinking skills: tools for bridging the gap

Documents