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Higher Education in China: Tradition and contemporary Transformation

Mei Li

Institute of Higher Education

East China Normal University

10th International Workshop on HE Reform

4 Oct 2013

University of Ljubljana

Modern university (Yang 2013)

Modern universities are uniquely European in origin and characteristics

Spreading worldwide under the conditions of imperialism and colonialism

The idea of the university is arguably the most

successful Western export to the rest of the world.

Evolution in a non-western society

The evolution of the university in a non-western society with long and strong traditions

In China, the integration of the Chinese and Western ideas of a university remains unfinished, despite many efforts to indigenize the Western concept since the nineteenth century.

Tradition of higher learning in China

Traditional higher education institutions can be traced back to the 4th century B.C.E. when Confucius established a private academy

The Tang Dynasty (618-907 C.E.) there was a whole range of higher education institutions, headed by the Guo Zi Jian (school for the sons of the Emperors) and the Tai Xue, which took major classical texts of the Confucian school as their curricular content.

Imperial Civil Service Exam

Lasted for 1300 years, from Sui Dynasty to Late Qing Dynasty(605-1905)

Far-reaching impacts politically, socially and psychologically in Pre-modern China and modern China

Influence other countries as well, British civil service system, Vietnam had adopted Imperial Civil Service Exam (1807-1919), Yi Dynasty in Korea (1310-1910)

History （ 1898-2008 ） (Hayhoe and Zha)

Period External Influences

Characteristics

The Late Qing Period

(1860-1911)

Japan Absorbing Western techniques while keeping intact the basic character of the Confucian empire

The Republic Period

(1911-1927)

European Countries, America

Higher education legislation reflect a European model and open the way for

American influences on its system The Nationalist Period

(1927-1949)

Considerable maturity and independence of educational thought with eclectic foreign influences

The Socialist Period

(1949-1978)

Soviet Union

Adopting the Soviet model; Self-reliance; Isolation; Intend to build an egalitarian system of education

The Reform Period

(1978-Present)

International community

Ascertain the goal; change the management system; re-connect with an

international milieu

Changing environments

Transformation in the past decades

• From political-ideological-driven society to socio-economic-driven society

• From agriculture sector-dominated economy to industry and service sectors-dominated economy

• From planned-economy to socialist market economy

• From a closed to opening country

• Urbanization

• ICT

• Welfare state to development state

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Changes in Higher Education

Elite HE to Mass HE Single function (ivory tower) to multiple and

complex (Dys)functions Differentiation of institution type (vertical and

horizontal): from (state) public institution to public, joint-venture, private

From state control model to state supervision model

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From Elite to Mass HE

GER increased from 3.4% in 1990 to 26% in 2011Diversifying student population: SES, Gender, AgeDiversification of financial sources: tuition feesFrom small size (hundred, thousand) to huge multi-

campus institution (ten thousand)

Gross Enrolment Ratio and Enrolment, 1978-2008

1. 43. 4 3. 5 3. 9

5 67. 2

8. 3 9. 1 9. 8 10. 512. 513. 3

1517

1921 22 23 23. 3

2. 162. 132. 282. 042. 933. 053. 183. 353. 614. 325. 86

7. 589. 54

11. 7414. 16

15. 6217. 39

18. 8520. 21

0

5

10

15

20

25

1978

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

Gross enrol ment rat i o(%) Enrol ment (mi l l i on students)

Major Achievements

A Large and Comprehensive system established, Largest system worldwide

Enter the stage of Mass higher educationGradual improvement on governance and

regulationsEmerging market-oriented mechanism for

management Multiple-channel of financial sources:

governments, clients, enterprises etc

Challenges and Tensions

Tensions between elite and mass HE

Expansion and quality

Relationship between State, Institution and Market

Academic centralization, nationalization and corporatization (Zha, 2011)

Tensions between Internationalization and nationalization/localization: glonacal?

Integration of Chinese and Western Ideas of the University

Is there a Chinese model of University?

Traditional form of higher learning: Imperial Civil Service Exam System (605-1905), Taixue and academy (shuyuan): indigenous traditions

Influences from European countries, America, Soviet Union and Japan

“Whether American branches could

be effectively grafted onto a Soviet tree planted in a Chinese garden” (Pepper 1990)

Traditional legacy and Contemporary borrowing

Traditional legacyConfucian and Confucianism: respect authority, value of education and scholarship

Humanities hegemony and inward-looking

Strong state, centralization, hierarchy

Master and students, traditional way of production of knowledge and HR

Self-mastery rather than autonomy and independence, responsibility and commitment to national/state development

Contemporary borrowing-Western format and paradigmRespect of individual right and development

Scientific hegemony and outward-looking

Strong collegiate and market, stakeholder

Industrial production of knowledge and training of human resource

University independence of state and external agencies and actors

Autonomy, freedom

Unity with diversity

Only when a university model grows out of its own national spirit, can it avoid external manipulation, whether political or economic, and create a spiritual base for the nation’s pursuit of knowledge and for the formation

of national character. (Zha, 2011)

Concluding Remark

Common roots flourished in different soils (Altbach)

From the medieval universities to the contemporary universities, universities underwent great changes——from convergence to divergence

Development of higher education cannot escape history, no matter what kind of change, the universities in the world still share a common culture, reality and face similar challenges.

There are significant national differences that will continue to affect the development of academic systems and institutions